Formulary (Number Theory)

Introduction
This is the pdf-version of the Number Theory Formulary on MathLinks/ArtOfProblemSolving (http://www.mathlinks.ro/Forum/viewtopic.php?t=76610). All contributors are welcome to post new theorems at http://www.mathlinks.ro/Forum/viewtopic.php?t=76609. Contributers till now: {x}, Myth, pbornzstein, Schoppenhauer, mathmanman, Xixas, campos, t0rajir0u, bodan, dule 00.

Daniel (ZetaX), June 10, 2006

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

Contents
1 Symbols and conventions 1.1 1.2 Sets of numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Denitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 General stu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Counting function and densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4 4 4 5 6 7 8 9 9 13 14 15 17 18

2 Elementary congruences and divisors 3 Identities 4 Floor function 5 Number theoretic sums 6 Arithmetic functions 7 Sums of squares 8 p-adic numbers, Hasse-Minkowski 9 Legendres and Jacobis symbols, quadratic reciprocity law 10 Representations

CONTENTS

CONTENTS

11 p-adic valuations 12 Primes 13 Additive properties 14 Multiplicative functions 15 Irreducibility of polynomials 16 Finite dierences

19 19 20 21 22 22

1 SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS

1
1.1

Symbols and conventions

Sets of numbers

Z: the integers (a unique factorisation domain). N: the positive integers, meaning those > 0. P: the positive primes. Q: the rationals (a eld). R: the reals (a eld). C: the complex numbers (a algebraically closed and complete eld). Qp : the p-adic numbers (a complete eld); also Q0 := Q and Q := R is used sometimes. Zn = Z/nZ: the residues mod n (a ring; a eld for n prime). When M is one of the sets from above, then M + denotes the numbers > 0 (when dened), analogous for M . The meaning of M will depend on M : for most cases it denotes the invertible elements, but for Z it means the nonzero integers (note that this denitions coincide in most cases). + A zero in the index, like in M0 , tells us that 0 is also included.

1.2
1.2.1

Denitions
General stu

For a set M , |M | = #M denotes the number of elements of M . . a divides b (both integers) is written as a|b or sometimes as b. . a. Then for m, n Z, gcd(m, n) or (m, n) is their greatest common divisor, the greatest d Z with d|m and d|n (gcd(0, 0) is dened as 0) and lcm(m, n) or [m, n] denotes their least common multiple, the smallest non-negative integer d such that m|d and n|d. When gcd(m, n) = 1, one often says that m, n are called coprime. For n Z to be squarefree means that there is no integer k > 1 with k 2 |n. Equivalently, this means that no prime factor occurs more than once in the decomposition. 4

1.2 Denitions

1 SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS

Factorial of n: n! := n (n 1) (n 2) ... 3 2 1. n! k Binomial coecients: n = k!(n = Cn . k k)! For two functions f, g : N C the Dirichlet convolution f g is dened as . f g (n) := d|n f (d)g n d A (weak) multiplicative function f : N C is one such that f (a b) = f (a) f (b) for all a, b N with gcd(a, b) = 1. Some special types of such functions: Eulers totient function: (n) = (n) := |{k N : k n, gcd(k, n)}| = |Z n |. Moebius function: 0 i n is not squarefree (n) := . (1)s where s is the number of prime factors of n otherwise Sum of powers of divisors: k (n) := d|n dk ; often is used for 0 , the number of divisors, and simply for 1 . For any k, n N it denotes rk (n) := {(a1 , a2 , ..., ak ) Zk | representations of n as sum of k squares. a2 i = n} the number of

Let a, n be coprime integers. Then ordn (a), the order of a mod n is the smallest k N with ak 1 mod n. For n Z and p P, the p-adic valuation vp (n) can be dened as the multiplicity Q , m, n Z by of p in the factorisation of n, and can be extended for m n m vp n = vp (m) vp (n). Additionally often vp (0) = is used. For any function f we dene (f )(x) := f (x + 1) f (x) as the (upper) nite dierence of f . Then we set 0 (f )(x) := f (x) and then iteratively n (f )(x) := (n1 (f ))(x) for all integers n 1.

1.2.2

Symbols

Legendre symbol: for a Z and odd p P we dene when x2 a mod p has a solution x Z p 1 a := 0 i p | a p 1 when x2 a mod p has no solution x Zp i Then the Jacobi symbol for a Z and odd n = pv i (prime factorisation of n) is dened as:
a n

a pi

vi

. 5

1.2 Denitions

1 SYMBOLS AND CONVENTIONS

Hilbert symbol: let v P {0, } and a, b Q v . Then (a, b)v := 1 1 i x2 = ay 2 + bz 2 has a nontrivial solution (x, y, z ) Q3 v otherwise

is the Hilbert symbol of a, b in respect to v (nontrivial means here that not all numbers are 0).

1.2.3

Counting function and densities

When A N, then we can dene a counting function a(n) := |{a A|a n}. One special case of a counting function is the one that belongs to the primes P, which is often called . With counting functions, some types of densities can be dened:
n) Lower asymptotic density: L d(A) := lim inf n a(n n) Upper asymptotic density: U d(A) := lim supn a(n n) Asymptotic density (does not always exist): d(A) := limn a(n n) Shnirelmans density: (A) := inf n a(n P

Dirichlets density(does not always exist): (A) := lims1+0 PaA as aN L d(A) and U d(A) are equal i the asymptotic density d(A) exists and all three are equal then and equal to Dirichlets density.
as

Often, density is meant in relation to some other set B (often the primes). Then we need A B N with counting functions a, b and simply change n into b(n) and N into B : Lower asymptotic density: L dB (A) := lim inf n Upper asymptotic density:
U dB (A) a(n) b(n) (n) lim supn a b(n) a(n) b(n) as s aB a
aA

:=

Asymptotic density (does not always exist): dB (A) := limn Shnirelmans density: B (A) := inf n
a(n) b(n)

Dirichlets density(does not always exist): B (A) := lims1+0 Again the same relations as above hold.

P P

2 ELEMENTARY CONGRUENCES AND DIVISORS

Elementary congruences and divisors

Gauss theorem : If a|bc and gcd(a, b) = 1, then a|c. The Gauss theorem comes from : Bezouts identity : The set {ax + by |x, y Z} is the set of all the multiples of gcd(a, b), that is to say : aZ + bZ = gcd(a, b)Z Fermats little theorem: For any positive integer a and every prime p it is ap a mod p. Generalization: Theorem of Euler-Fermat: If gcd(a, m) = 1 then a(m) 1 mod m. Wilsons theorem: For prime p it is (p 1)! 1 mod p. Polynomial congruences: For any polynom f with integral coecients and any integers a, b with a b mod m for some integer m it is f (a) f (b) mod m. Lucas theorem: a ai k mod p where ai s and bi s are the digits of a and b expressed in base p i=0 bi b (p is a prime) with leading zeros allowed. Wolstenholmes Theorem (number 1): 2p 2 mod p3 for p P 5 p Wolstenholmes Theorem (number 2): 1 = 1+ 1 +1 + ... + p with (m, n) = 1 and p is a prime greater than or equal to Let m n 2 3 1 2 5. Then p divides m.

3 IDENTITIES

Identities

Identity of Sophie Germain: For all integers a, b it is a4 + 4b4 = (a2 + 2b2 + 2ab)(a2 + 2b2 2ab). Sum-of-n-squares-identities: - Two squares: (a2 + b2 )(c2 + b2 ) = (ac bd)2 + (ad + bc)2 - Four squares: (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 )(e2 + f 2 + g 2 + h2 ) = (ae bf cg dh)2 + (af + be + ch dg )2 + (ag + ce + df bh)2 + (ah + de + bg cf )2 - Eight squares: (a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + e2 + f 2 + g 2 + h2 )(m2 + n2 + o2 + p2 + q 2 + r2 + s2 + t2 ) = 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 u2 1 + u2 + u3 + u 4 + u 5 + u6 + u7 + u 8 where u1 = am bn co dp eq f r gs ht u2 = bm + an + do cp + f q er hs + gt u3 = cm dn + ao + bp + gq + hr es f t u4 = dm + cn bo + ap + hq gr + f s et u5 = em f n go hp + aq + br + cs + dt u6 = f m + en ho + gp bq + ar ds + ct u7 = gm + hn + eo f p cq + dr + as bt u8 = hm gn + f o + ep dq cr + bs + at (see also http://www.geocities.com/titus piezas/DegenGraves1.htm ) Similar to the previous ones: (a2 + nb2 )(c2 + nd2 ) = (ac nbd)2 + n(ad + bc)2 Theorem: (Leibnitz): (x1 + x2 + + xm )n =
k1 ,...,km >0 k1 ++km =n

n m x k1 x k2 x k m . k1 , k2 , . . . , km 1 2

The BinetCaushy identity: For reals ak , bk , ck , dk we have

n n n n

ak c k
k=1 k=1

bk dk

k=1

ak dk
k=1

bk c k

=
1i<j n

(ai bj aj bi ) (ci dj cj di ) .

Vandermondes identity: 8

5 NUMBER THEORETIC SUMS

m+n k Theorem (Vandermonde): For the determinant

max{k,n}

=
l=0

m kl

n l

Vn (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) =

1 1 a1 an 1 1 1 a2 an 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . n1 1 an an

we have Vn (a1 , a2 , . . . , an ) = (aj ai ).

1ij n

Floor function

On dealing with the oor function: 1. Let n, m N, then m m mod n = m n n Remark: Perhaps this could work with n, m R but who would use it ? 2. Let m N, n Z, x R, then
m1

k=0

m1 (m, n) m nk + x x + n+ = (m, n) m d 2 2
m1

3. Let m N, x R, then mx =

x+
k=0

k m

Number theoretic sums

Some number theorethic sum: 9

5 NUMBER THEORETIC SUMS

1. Let n N

(j ) =
j =1 n

3 2 n + O (n log n) 2

(j ) =
j =1

3 2 n + O n (log n)2/3 (log log n)4/3 2

2. Let n N

d (j ) = n log n + (2 1)n + O
j =1

3. Let n, k N

k (j ) =
j =1

1 k+1

1 j 1+k

n1+k + Rk (n)

j =1

where

O(n), when 0 < k < 1 O(n log n), when k = 1 Rk (n) = O(nk ), when k > 1 2. Let Q(n) denote the number of squarefree integers less than n. Then
n

4. Let n

Q(n) =
j =1

2 (j ) =

6 2 n + O n 2

5. Let f be a multiplicative function, if

S=
n=1

f (n)

converges absolutely, then

f pk
p k=0

=
n=1

f (n)

where p runs through primes. 6. If f is completely multiplicative then

f (n) =
n=1 p

1 1 f (p)

where p runs through primes. 10

5 NUMBER THEORETIC SUMS

7. Let f be a multiplicative function, then (d)f (d) =

d|n p|n

(1 f (p))

2 (d)f (d) =
d|n p|n

(1 + f (p))

where p is prime. 8. Let n N, then (d) =

d|n

1, if n = 1 0, if n > 1

9. Let n N, then

j =1

1 = C1 log n + C2 + O (j )

log n n

where C1 > 0 and C2 are real constants. 10. Let n N, then

n

(j ) = n log log n + Bn + O
j =1 n

n log n n log n

(j ) = n log log n + (B + C )n + O
j =1 n

2 (j ) = n (log log n)2 + O (n log log n)

j =1

where B, C are constants. 11. Let n N, then (log log x) 1

px

1 = log log x + B + O p

1 log x

where p runs through primes and B is a constant. 1 =C +O pk 11 1 log x

k2,pk x

5 NUMBER THEORETIC SUMS

where p runs through primes and C is a constant. 12. Let n N, then r2 (n) = x + O x1/3 log x
nx

Let n

2 be a positive integer, then log p = log n + O(1) p

pn

where p runs through primes. 13. Let z C, and n N, then 1+

pn

z p

= A(z ) (log n)z 1 + O

1 log n

for A(z ) a constant depending on z . 14. Let n N, then

d|n

1 d

n 2(n)

15. Let k, l be two positive integers with (k, l) = 1, then 1 1 = log log x + O(1) p (k )

px p l( mod k ) where p runs through primes.

16. Let f be an additive function and n a positive integer, then |f (m)

mn pn

f (p) | p

Cn
pk n

|f pk |2 pk

where p runs through primes, and C is a constant (C

32).

17. Let f be a strongly additive function, and n a positive integer. Then |f (m)
mn pn

f (p) | p 12

2Cn
pn

|f (p)|2 p

6 ARITHMETIC FUNCTIONS

where p runs through primes and C is a constant (C Some other sums 1. Abelian summation

32).

n Let (aj )n j =1 , (bj )j =1 be a nite sequence of complex numbers. Then n n n1 m

ai b i =
i=1 i=1

ai b n
m=1 i=1

ai (bm+1 bm )

n 2. Let (am )n m=1 , (bm )m=1 be two nite sequence of real numbers. Then n n n n k 1

ak
k=1

k=1

bk

=n
k=1

ak b k
k=2 j =1

(ak aj ) (bk bj )

Or equivalently
n n n

ak
k=1

k=1

bk

=n
k=1

ak b k

(ak aj ) (bk bj )
1j<kn

3. Let n N 1 ln n + + 2n Where = lim

n n 1 j =1 j

j =1

1 1 = ln n + + +O j 2n

1 n2

ln n is the gamma constant.

Arithmetic functions
1 p n d

1. Let n N, then (n) = n

p|n

=
d|n

(d)

2. Let n N, then 1 1 = (n) n 3. Let n N, then 0, 92129

d|n

2 (d) (d)

n n < (n) < 1, 1055 log n log n

13

7 SUMS OF SQUARES

4. Let n N, then

5. Let n

6 2 n (n)(n) n2 2 2 be a positive integer, then (n) cn log log n

for some positive constant c > 0. 6. For all composite numbers n it holds (n) n n

7. Let pn be the n-th prime number, then an log n for two constants 0 < a < b. 8. Let n be a positive integer, then (n) 9. Let n be a positive integer, then d(n) 2 n lg2 n pn bn log n

Sums of squares

2) Sum of two squares: A positive integer n can be represented as sum of two perfect squares i all prime factors p 3 mod 4 of n occur an even number of times in the factorisation of n. n can be written as sum of squares = 0 i the previous condition holds and it has at least one prime factor 1 mod 4 or v2 (n) is odd. There are exactly r2 (n) = 4
dN d|n d1 mod 2

(1)

d 1 2

=4
pP p1 mod 4

(vp (n) + 1)

14

8 P-ADIC NUMBERS, HASSE-MINKOWSKI dierent solutions (a, b) Z2 to n = a2 + b2 . 3) Sum of three squares: Write n as n = 4k u, k, u N0 with 4 u (but u can be even). Then n can be written as sum of three squares i u 7 mod 8. 4) Sum of four squares: Every positive interger can be written as sum of four squares, and there are r4 (n) = 8
dN 4 d|n

d=

8 (n) i n is odd 24 (n) i n is even

dierent solutions (a, b, c, d) Z4 to n = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 . 5) Sum of ve squares: As corollary to 4) every integer can be written as sum of ve squares, but there is one more thing to say: except of some small numbers (all < 100), every positive integer can be written as sum of ve nonzero perfect squares. 8) Sum of eight squares: There are r8 (n) = 16
dN d|n

(1)nd d3

dierent solutions (a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h) Z8 to n = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 + e2 + f 2 + g 2 + h2 .

p-adic numbers, Hasse-Minkowski

p-adic numbers The p-adic integers (for that and only that post written by Zp ) are isomorphic (or by denition identical) to: k a) the (formal) series k=0 ak p with ak {0, 1, 2, ..., p 1}. b) the cauchy-sequences (bk )kN0 of integers in respect to the p-adic valuation ||p = pvp () . c) the projective limit limn Z/pn Z. The last one gives that a polynomial equation p(x) = p(x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) has a solution in Zp i it has one mod any power of p. 15

8 P-ADIC NUMBERS, HASSE-MINKOWSKI

The p-adic numbers Qp are isomorphic (or by denition identical) to: k a) the (formal) series k=s ak p with ak {0, 1, 2, ..., p 1}. b) the rational cauchy-sequences (bk )kN0 in respect to the p-adic valuation ||p = pvp () . c) the eld of quotients of Zp . Some properties of the Hilbert symbol (holding for any v P {0, } and a, b, c Q v ): - (a, b)v = (b, a)v - (a, 1)v = 1 = (1, b)v - (a, bc2 )v = (a, b)v = (ac2 , b)v - (a, bc)v = (a, b)v (a, c)v Product formula for the Hilbert symbols: Let a, b be rational. Then (a, b)v = 1 for all but netely many v P {} and: (a, b)v = 1
v P{}

Approximation of the Hilbert Symbols: Let a nite set {a1 , a2 , ..., ak } of rational numbers and then for all j K := {1, 2, ..., k } and v P {} an ej,v {1} be given such that: - all but netely many ej,v are equal to 1 - for any j K it holds vP{} ej,v = 1 - there is an xv Q v such that (aj,v , xv )v for all j K Then there exists a rational number x with (aj,v , x)v = ej,v for all (j, v ). The theorem of Hasse-Minkowski: Let f (x) = f (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ) = 0 be any homogenous polynomial equation of degree 2 (so f is a polynomial where every single monomial has degree 2). Then there exists a nontrivial (not all numbers = 0) rational solution x Qn to f (x) = 0 i this equation has a nontrivial solution x Qn v for all v P {}. Corollary: when f has also integer coecients, the equation f (x) = has a nontrivial integral solution i it has a solution mod any integer (where by the Chinese Remainder Theorem we can restrict to perfect powers of primes).

16

9 LEGENDRES AND JACOBIS SYMBOLS, QUADRATIC RECIPROCITY LAW

Legendres and Jacobis symbols, quadratic reciprocity law

Basic facts on the Legendres and Jacobis symbols. The quadratic reciprocity law. Theorem 1. If a b (mod p), then

a p

b p

Theorem 2. For all a 0 (mod p) we have

a2 p

= +1.

Theorem 3 (Eulers criteria). p1 (mod p). a 2 a p Theorem 4. 1 p +1, p = 1 (mod 4), 1, p = 3 (mod 4).

= (1)

p1 2

Theorem 5.

a1 a2 ...an p

a1 p

...

an p

Theorem 6 (Gauss criteria). For all a = 0 (mod p), p > 2, the following equality holds a p where l = |{ak | 1 k Theorem 7.
p1 , 2

= (1)l ,
p+1 }|. 2

ak (mod p)
p2 1 8

2 p

= (1)

+1, p = 8k 1, 1, p = 8k 3.

Theorem 8 (The quadratic reciprocity law). For all odd primes p = q the following equality holds: p q q p = (1) 17
p1 q 1 2 2

10 REPRESENTATIONS

Denition. Let odd m = p1 p2 ...ps , where pi are prime number, not necessary distinct, (a, m) = 1. a a = pa1 ... pas , where p are Legendres symbols. Then Jacobis symbols m i Theorem 1. The same as Theorem 1 for Legendres symbol. Theorem 2. The same as Theorem 2 for Legendres symbol. Theorem 4. 1 m +1, m = 1 (mod 4), 1, m = 3 (mod 4).

= (1)

m1 2

Theorem 5.

a1 ...as m 2 m

a1 as ... . m m +1, m = 8k 1, 1, m = 8k 3.

Theorem 7.

= (1)

m2 1 8

Theorem 8 (The reciprocity law for Jacobis symbols). Let m, n be odd numbers, m, n > 1, then n m
n1 m1 m = (1) 2 2 . n

10

Representations
k=0

In base b: Every n N0 can be uniquely written in base b, meaning n = ak {0, 1, 2, ..., b 1} and all but netely many ak = 0.

ak bk with all

Zeckendorf s (base Fibonacci) representation: Every n N can be uniquely expressed as a sum of Fibonacci numbers no two of which are consecutive. Warings Theorem: 18

12 PRIMES

Let f : N0 N0 by a polynomial and let d = gcd(f (0), f (1), f (2), ...). Then every sucient large multiple of d can be expressed as sum of a bounded number of values of f , or in other words: there is a k only depending on f such that for any n > N (N some constant) there are a1 , a2 , ..., ak N0 with dn = f (a1 ) + f (a2 ) + ... + f (ak ). Especially when 0 and 1 are in the range of f , then every n N0 can be written as a bounded number of values of f . Addionally, for any m there is a k such that any n N0 is the sum of k non-negative m-th powers of integers. Related to Warings Theorem: - every positive integer is the sum of 4 perfect squares (see also the Sum of Squares section). - every positive integer is the sum of 3 triangular numbers (those of type n(n2+1) ). - every integer is the sum of 9 non-negative perfect cubes. - every integer is the sum of 5 perfect cubes (they are allowed to be negative). Its an openen problem if 4 cubes suce.

11

p-adic valuations

Let p be any xed prime for this section. Properties of vp : For all rational a, b: vp (ab) = vp (a) + vp (b) Non-archimead triangle inequality: vp (a + b) min(vp (a), vp (b)) Hensels lemma: ps ||a 1, pk ||b, s 1 ps+k ||ab 1, or in other words vp (ab 1) = vp (a 1) + vp (b) for vp (a 1) 1, with exception of the case p = 2, s = 1. Kummers theorem: n If ps | n then s does not exceed the number of carries needed when the numbers k n k and k are added when expressed in base p.

12

Primes

Bertrands postulate 19

13 ADDITIVE PROPERTIES

There is always a prime between n and 2n (n N). Chebychevs Theorem: There are constants a, b, 0 < a < b such that for all big n (e.g. a = log(2), b = log(4) for n 2) we have a n (n) log(n) b n Prime number theorem x primes x. There are asymptotically log( x) Dirichlets theorem on primes in arithmetic progression: In every arithmetic progression an + b with gcd(a, b) = 1 there are innitely many primes. More exactly, the asymptotic and Dirichlets densities of these primes in the set of all primes are (1n) . Zsigmondys Theorem: Let a > b 1 and be coprime integers. Then for any n N there is a prime p dividing an bn but not dividing ak bk for all k < n with two exceptions: a) a = 2, b = 1, n = 6 b) a + b a power of 2 and n = 2

13

Additive properties

The Theorem of Chevalley-Warning: Let be p prime and f1 , f2 , ..., fm be m polynomials with integer coecients in the n variables x = (x1 , x2 , ..., xn ). If m i=1 deg(fi ) < n, then the number of solutions of f1 (x) 0 f2 (x) 0 ... fm (x) 0 mod p mod p mod p

is divisible by p (this generalizes to any nite eld). The Cauchy-Davenport Theorem: Let p be prime and A, B Z/pZ. Then the following inequality holds for the sumset A + B: |A + B | min(p, |A| + |B | 1) 20

14 MULTIPLICATIVE FUNCTIONS

Vospers Theorem (the case of equality in the Cauchy-Davenport Theorem): With the conditions above and A + B = Z/pZ, we have |A + B | = |A| + |B | 1 if and only if one of the following is true: a) |A| = 1 or |B | = 1 b) |A + B | = p 1 and B = (Z/pZ)\(c A), where c is the only one residue class A+B c) A and B are (seen mod p) arithmetic progressions with the same common dierence Some results that follow from the above: The Erd os-Ginzburg-Ziv Theorem: Let n N and 2n 1 integers be given. Then we can choose exactly n of them such that their sum is divisible by n. Sums of k -th powers mod p: Let p be prime and k N. Then mod p any number is the sum of k k -th powers, or in other words: for any n Z, there are integers a1 , a2 , a3 , ..., ak with k k k n ak 1 + a2 + a3 + ... + ak mod p. Sharper version of the previous one: 1 and k |p 1 (its With the same conditions as before, extended by p 5, 1 < k < p 2 clear that the condition k |p 1 is no restriction), and any n N we have that there 1 + 1 residues that are the sum of n k -th powers. are at least min p, (2n 1) p k

14

Multiplicative functions

Theorem(Ramanujan): For (m, n) N2 :

d|gcd(m,n)

( gcd(n )(n) n m,n) d( ) = n d ( gcd(m,n) )

21

16 FINITE DIFFERENCES

15

Irreducibility of polynomials

Theorem (Eisenstein) Suppose we have the following polynomial with integer coecients: f (x) = an xn + + a1 x + a0 . If there exists a prime p such that p|aj , j {0, 1, 2, . . . , n 1}, p an and p2 a0 , then f (x) is irreducible.

16

Finite dierences

Formula for n (f ):
n

f (x) =
r=0

(1)nr

n f (x + r) r

Eect on degrees of polynomials: When P is a polynomial of degree n, then k (P ) is a polynomial of degree n k , where negative degrees mean the constant polynomial 0 everytime.

22