9.

9.1 9.1.1

Open pit mining

Introduction Basicdescriptionofopenpitmining

Openpitminingisappliedtotheextractionofnearsurfacedeposits.Overburdenremoval (stripping)andminingarecarriedoutsystematicallyfromaseriesofbenches(steps)asthepitis progressivelydeepened.Thebenchlayoutisdesignedtoproduceanoverallslopeanglethatis compatiblewithslopestabilitysothatanopenpitresemblesaninvertedcone.Asthebaseofthe pitisdeepened,theupperbenchesarepushedoutsoastomaintaintherequiredslopeangle. Overburdenisstrippedfrombenchestouncoverthedepositandtransportedtoadumpatsome pointremotefromtheoperationitself.Asthedepthincreasestheratioofoverburdentovolumeof oreextractedsteadilyincreasesand,atacertainpoint,thecostofoverburdenremovalmakesthe operationuneconomic.Theremainderofthedepositmightthenbeworkedbyunderground mining. Advantagesofsurfaceminingcomparedwithundergroundmining. HigherProductivitydueto:greaterdegreeofmechanisation,largerequipmentcanbeused economiesofscale,fewerpersonnelrequired Loweroperatingcostspertonnedueto:higherproductivity,concentrationofproduction, lessconstraintonproductionlevel(easiermaterialshandling) Lowergradedepositscanbemined Reduceddevelopmenttime(generally).Thereforemorefavourablecashflowandquicker repaymentofcapitalinvestment. Greatergeologicalcertainty. Saferoperations Disadvantagesofsurfacemines: Largeproportionofwastetoore. Highlevelofenvironmentalimpact. Affectedbyclimaticconditions. Depthlimit

Fig.9.1:Palaboraopenpitcoppermine,SouthAfrica
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9.1.2

PitLimits

Thepitlimitsaretheverticalandlateralextenttowhichtheopenpitminingmaybeeconomically conducted.Establishmentofthepitlimitsisthefirststageinmineplanning(Laurich1990).They determinethe: amountofeconomicallyrecoverableore, metalcontent, volumeofwastetobeexcavatedandmoved, locationofwastedumps,tailingslagoons,processingplant,accessroadsandallothersurface facilities. 9.2 9.2.1 Stripping ratio Definitions

Thepitlimitsandsequenceofminingaredeterminedultimatelybyeconomics.Theconceptof strippingratio(SR)isthemethodofanalysisused.Itisameasureoftheamountofwastethat mustberemovedinordertomineoneunitofore. Grade Cutoffgrade Ore Waste Thecontentofvaluablemetal(%,g/torkg/t)inamineral. Thegradeatwhichthevalueofthemetalequalsthecostofminingand processingthemineral. Mineralthatisabovethecutoffgrade Mineralthatisbelowthecutoffgrade

TheSRatanylevelofthepitisdefinedas:
SR = volume of waste removed tonnes of ore recovered m3 t

SR is also sometimes expressed as tonnes/tonne (tonnage of ore removed per tonne of ore). However,thefirstdefinitionismoreconvenientasthecostsofwasteremovalaredirectlyrelated toitsvolumeandtherevenuefromtheoreisdirectlyrelatedtoitsmass. ThePitLimitisdefinedbytheeconomicstrippingratioSRecon.Thisvalueisthestrippingratioat whichthecostsofminingandprocessingtheoreandstrippingthewasteareequaltotherevenue fromtheore. SR econ (Bm 3 /t) = revenue from ore ($/t) - ore mining cost ($/t) - ore processing cost ($/t) waste stripping cost ($/Bm 3 )

9.2.2

Simplestrippingratiocalculation

Todeterminethepitlimitforasimpleorebody(Figure9.2) CalculatetheeconomicSR: Multiplybyoredensitytoconverttom3/m3(multiplyingtoplineofSRequationtoobtainnet valueoforein$/Bm3

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EstimateontheorebodysectionwherethepitlimitmaylieanddrawinlineABCatthe requiredslopeangle TheSRatthispoint=AB/BCm3/m3 ComparewitheconomicSR;iflower,movelinedownto,sayA1B1C1;ifhigher,movebackup toA2B2C2 ContinueuntilSRrepresentedbylineonsectionequalseconomicSR

Inpractice,theprocedureismuchmorecomplicated;forexample,theoregradewillusually varythroughouttheorebody.AsimplesolutionistoexpresstheeconomicSRasafunctionof grade thendraw astraight line graph of economic SRvs grade. For anygrade value in the orebody,thecorrespondingeconomicSRcanbereadoffthegraph.

Fig.9.2:Simplepitlimitestimation 9.3 Overburden stripping strategies

Describedbelowarethefourbasictypesofstrippingschedule.Thefirsttwoareextremecasesand wouldnotbeappliedinpractice.(BucyrusErie1979,Fourie&Dohm,1992) 9.3.1 DecliningStrippingRatioMethod(Figure9.3)

Aseachbenchoforeismined,allthewasteonthatbenchisremovedtothepitlimit. Advantages: goodoperatingspace goodaccessibilitytooreonnextbench, allequipmentworkingonsamelevel, nocontaminationfromwasteblastingabovetheore, equipmentrequirementsaminimumtowardsthedepletionoftheorebody. operatingcoststendtobeconstantinlateryearsastheincreasedminingcostwithdepthis offsetbythedecreasedstrippingratio. Disadvantage:overalloperatingcostsaremaximumduringtheinitialyearswhenmaximum profitsarerequiredtohandleinterestchargesandrepaytheprojectcapitalinvestment.
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Fig.9.3:Reducingstrippingratiomethod 9.3.2 IncreasingStrippingRatioMethod(Figure9.4)

Onlysufficientstrippingrequiredtouncovertheoreiscarriedout.Thismethodallowsfor maximumprofitintheinitialyearsofoperationandgreatlyreducestheinvestmentriskinwaste removalfororetobeminedatalaterdate.Itmaybeappliedwheretheeconomicsofthe operationandcutoffstrippingratioisliabletochangeonveryshortnotice.Themain disadvantageistheimpracticabilityofoperatingalargenumberofstackednarrowbenches simultaneouslytomeetregularproductionrequirements.

Fig.9.4:Increasingstrippingratiomethod 9.3.3 ConstantStrippingRatioMethod(Figure9.5)

Wasteisremovedatarateapproximatelyequaltotheoverallstrippingratio.Themethodisa compromisethatremovestheextremeconditionsoftheformertwomethodsdescribed. Equipmentfleetsizeandlabourrequirementsarerelativelyconstant.

Fig.9.5:Constantstrippingratiomethod
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9.3.4

PhasedMiningSequence(Figure9.6)

Inpractice,theoptimumstrippingsequenceforalargedepositwouldfeaturealowstrippingratio intheinitialandfinalyearsofoperation.Thisplanhasthefollowingadvantages. Ahighlevelofprofitcanbegeneratedattheoutsettoimprovethecashflow. Thelabourandequipmentfleetcanbebuiltuptomaximumsizeoveraperiodoftime.This approachisalsoadvantageousfromacashflowpointofview. Labourandequipmentrequirementsdecreasegraduallytowardstheendoftheminelife. Distinctminingandstrippingareascanbeoperatedsimultaneously,allowingforflexibilityin planning. Thenumberofminingandstrippingfacesrequiredisnottoohigh. Inalargeorebody,theminingandstrippingareasaresufficientlywidetocreategood operationalconditions.

Fig.9.6:Phasedminingsequence 9.4 9.4.1 Bench design Benchheight

Benchheightisthemostimportantparameterasitlargelydeterminestheotherdimensions. Valuesrangefromabout2.5mforsmallgoldminesto20mforlargeopenpits.Thefinalbench heightmaybesubdividedforextractionpurposesintoanumberofsubbenchesorflitches. Benchheightisinfluencedby: 1. excavatingequipmentdimensions(reach,operatingheight) 2. sizeandgeometryoforebodysmallbenchesusedfornarrowlodesorlensesinorderto minimisedilutionandfacilitategoodgradecontrol. Benchheightisnolongerlimitedbydrillingdepth.Theprimedeterminingparameteristhe maximumdiggingheightdimensionofashovel.Table9.1givessomeadvantagesand disadvantagesofmaximizingthebenchheight.
Table9.1:Featuresofhighwidebenches Advantages Highproductivityandefficiency Canuselargescaleequipment Largerblasts Fewerequipmentmovesandsetups Facilitatesmoreeffectivesupervision Disadvantages Lessselectivity Moredilution Fewerworkingplaces,thereforelessflexibility Flatterworkingslopes(largershovels)

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Generally,itismoreadvantageous,intermsofdrillingandshovelefficiency,todesignbenchesas highaspossible. a) DrillingEfficiency

Agreaterbenchheightreducessetuptimepermeterdrilled.Also,foragivenblastdesign,the subgradedrillingrequiredisindependentofthebenchheight.Thismeansthatthegreaterthe benchheight,thegreaterthetonnageyieldpermeterdrilledorperkgofexplosiveused. Considerbenchheightsof10mand12m,eachtobedrilledona5mx5mpatternwitha1m subgrade.Therespectivedrillingyieldsare:

Drilling Y ield = Burden x S pacing x B ench Heigh t x Densit y Hole Depth

Assumingrockdensity=2.5tonnes/m3,fora10mbench:

Drilling Y ield =
Fora12mbench:

5 x 5 x 10 x 2.5 = 56.8 tonnes / m 10 + 1 5 x 5 x 12 x 2.5 = 57.7 tonnes / m 12 + 1

Drilling Y ield =

Theyieldforthe12mbenchrepresentsanincreaseindrillingyieldofsome1.6%.Although seeminglysmall,for10,000mofdrilling,itwouldresultinanextra9000tonnesproduction. Similarly,drillingcostspertonnearereducedasbenchheightisincreased b) ShovelEfficiency

Increasedbenchheightalsoimprovesoverallproductivityofshovels,FELs,orexcavators.The numberofrowsinablastingpatternisgenerallygovernedbytheholediameterandexplosive type.Iftheseparametersarefixedforagivenoperation,thetotalvolumeofbenchthatcanbe blastedatoncedependsonthebenchheight.Thegreaterthevolumeofbrokenground,thelower thenumberoftimesashovelhastobemovedinorderforblastingoperationstobecarriedout. 9.4.2 Benchwidth

Figure9.7ashowsthecommonterminologyforopenpitslopes.Abenchisahorizontalledgefrom whichdrilling,blasting,excavationandloadingoforeorwasteiscarriedout.AWorkingbenchis onethatisintheprocessofbeingmined.Thewidthextractedfromtheworkingbenchiscalledthe cut.Theworkingbenchwidthisdeterminedbythedimensionsoftrucksandtherequiredreachof excavatingequipment.Figure9.7billustratesaslopeprofilecuttingacrossanoperatingbench.It showsanarrowbenchwidthofonlysome3m,notsufficientlywidetoaccommodateequipment. However,eachbenchissystematicallyminedfromoneend,givingadequateroomfordrilling rigs,shovelsandtrucks. Afterthecuthasbeenremovedabenchofwidthtypically2.53.0mislefttocatchandcollect material,whichslidesdownfromupperbenches.Normally,thebenchslopeangleis7580oanda bermeverysecondorthirdbenchissufficient.
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9.4.3

Benchangle

Benchfacesarenormallyminedassteeplyaspossible.Thesteeperthebenchangle,thesmallerthe strippingratio.Safeanglesaredeterminedby: geotechnicalconsiderations,takingintoaccountthecohesiveandfrictionalpropertiesofthe rockandthecharacter,spacingandorientationofjointsandbeddingplanes. thedipoftheorebody. Therearetwoangleswhichdefineabenchdesign: Overallslopeangle Theangleconsistentwithslopestabilityoverthefullheight/depthofthe mine.Usuallyliesbetween45oand60o.Theoverallangleisafunctionof thebenchfaceangleandthebenchwidth.Notethatahaulroadonapit slopewillflattentheoverallslopeangle. Themaximumangleconsistentwithstabilityofasinglebench(say,5to 10minheight).Typicalvaluesliebetween60oand80o.

Benchfaceangle

Theoverallslopeangleislessthanthebenchfaceanglebecausethelargertheslope,themore planesofweaknessithas.

Fig.9.7a:Pitslopecrosssection,withtypicaldimensions

Fig.9.7bGeometryofworkingbench (Atkinson1992)

9.5

Method of working benches

Operationsoneachbenchareconductedincycles;typically: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Gradecontrolmarkoutorezoneswithtapeorsurveystaffs Drillblastholes Chargeholes Fireholes Excavateblastedmaterialandloadintotrucksforhaulageoutofpit Cleanbenchandpreparefordrilling

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9.5.1

Miningdirection

Orebodylensesmaybeexcavatedineitheratransverseorlongtudinaldirection.Atransverse miningdirection(digginginadirectionnormaltotheorevein)ismoresuitableforthinlenses.It allowsbettergradecontrolandlessdilution.Withathickerlens,itmaybepossiblewith longitudinalextractiontoblastandloadtheore,leavingthewastetemporarilyinsitu.The numberofworkingfacesisdeterminedbytherequiredproductionrateandequipmentcapacities. Figure9.8illustrateshowexcavationcantakeplacesimultaneouslyandonmultiplelevels.

Fig.9.8:Miningonmultiplebenches(Hustrulid&Kuchta1995) 9.5.2 Selectionofexcavatingequipment

Inamine,certainproductionrequirementshavetobesatisfiedandinacivilconstructionproject theoperationwillhavetocomplywiththeprojectschedule.Asequipmentisveryexpensivein termsofcapitalorcontractandoperatingcosts,itsutilisationshouldbemaximisedinorderto minimisetheunitcostsofearthmoving. Table9.2:Guidelinesforselectionofexcavatingequipment

Typeofmachine Electricropeshovel Hydraulicexcavator(frontendloader) Backhoesitsontopofbench,diggingdown Ripper,Impactripper Mechanicalcutter(drumlacedwithpicks) Bulldozer,Scraper Application Largebenches Smallbenchesonly(<5.0m) Mediumhardmaterial,lowdepth Mediumhardmaterial Permitsveryselectivemining Softmaterial,lowdepth

Inrockandearthmovingprojects,plannersareusuallyconcernedwithinsituvolumesasthe quantitiescanreadilybedeterminedfromexcavationormineplans.Thebasicunitof measurementistermedthebankcubicmeter(BCMorBm3).However,manufacturersgive equipmentbucketcapacitiesintermsofthenominalbucketcapacity,thevolumeenclosedwithin theperimeterofthebucket.Thefirsttaskinaproductivitydeterminationexerciseistoconvert thismeasurementintoBCMunits.ThetablesgiveninthissectionarefromAtkinson(1992),unless

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otherwisestated.Figure9.9showsthetwoalternativemethodsofexcavatingabenchandof spottingtrucks.

a)Parallelcut

b)Frontcut

Fig.9.9:Methodsofexcavatingbenches(Hustrulid&Kuchta1995) 9.6 Haul road layout

Theformofhaulroadsmaybespiralorswitchback(zigzag).Theymayalsobeeithertemporary orpermanent,dependingontheconfigurationoftheorebody.Wherebenchesarebeing systematicallyworkedallroundthepitasitisdeepened,haulroadswillbeminedthroughand newonesformedasthepitdevelops.Often,however,itispossibletoconstructpermanenthaul roadsatonesideofthepit.Thiswouldbethecaseforadippingorebody,wherethepermanent haulroadcouldbelocatedatthefootwallandextendedasthepitdeepened(figure9.10).Note thattheinclusionofahaulroadinapitwallwilllowertheoverallslopeangleandhenceincrease thestrippingratio.Wheretheorebodydipsatashalloweranglethanthestablepitslope, constructingthehaulroadasaswitchbackonthefootwallwilltaketheoverallpitslopecloseto theorebodydip.Thehangingwallslope,formedwithoutahaulroad,canbemadeassteepas possible,consistentwithslopestability.

Fig.9.10:Illustrationofhowpermanenthaulroadscanbeestablishedinafootwall Factorsdeterminingselectionoflayoutincludethefollowing.(Atkinson1992) 1. Theswitchbacklayoutallowsapermanenthaulroadtobelocatedatonesideofthepit. 2. Inlargepits,aspirallayoutcanresultinahaulagedistancethatistoogreat. 3. Areaswherepotentialslopestabilityhazardsexistshouldbeavoided,possiblyeliminatingthe spiraloption.

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4. Thepitwallsmaybetoosteeptoallowsuitablebendstobeformedforaswitchbacklayout withoutgreatlyincreasingthestrippingratio. 5. Tightbendsassociatedwithaswitchbackmaybedetrimentaltotruckandtyrelife. 9.7 Haul road Construction 9.7.1 Roadbase

Goodhaulroaddesignandconstructionpromoteslowerhaulagecostsandimprovedsafety. Roadsareconstructedwiththreeorfourlayers(figure9.10): 1. 2. 3. 4. Subgrade Subbase(optional) Base Wearingsurface

Thesubgradeisthefoundationlayer,usuallycomprisingcompactedrockorsoil.Itmustbe strongenoughtobeartheloadsassociatedwithvehicles,whicharetransmittedfromtheroad surface. Asubbasemayormaynotbepresent,dependingonlocalconditions.Itisusedwherethereis veryweaksubgradematerialorinareassubjecttoseverefrost.Itisgenerallyconstructedfroma clean,granularmaterial.

Fig.9.11:Haulroadconstruction(Hustrulid&Kuchta1995) Thebaseisalayerofveryhighstabilityanddensity.Itsmainpurposeistodistributetheload fromvehicletyres.Italsoservestoinsulatethesubgradefromfrostpenetrationandprotectthe upperwearingsurfacefromanyswellingorsofteningofthesubgrade. Thetoproadlayeristhewearingsurface,whichshouldprovidetraction,reducerolling resistance,andresistabrasion,ravelingandshear.Itisformedusuallyofcrushedrock. 9.7.2 Straightsections

Thecrosssectionofanopenpithaulroadfeaturesaoneortwowaytravellane,asafetybermand adrainageditch(figure9.11).Fordeterminationoflanewidth,anumberofrulesofthumbcanbe applied,inwhichthewidestvehiclesdeterminetheroadwidth.Threeoftheserulesare: Theclearanceoneachsideofatruckshouldbeequaltoabouthalfthetruckwidth. For2waytraffic,thelanewidthshouldbegraterthanorequalto4xthetruckwidth.

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Forastraight,evengrade,onelanehaulroad,theminimumroadwidthis2timestruck width;fortwolanes,3.5timestruckwidth.Theroadcrosssectionshouldalsoberaisedor crownedslightly,tofacilitatewaterrunoff.Theheightofthecrownisexpressedinmmper meterofroadwidth.Afigureof45mm/mistypical.

Fig.9.12:Typical2wayroadsection(Hustrulid&Kuchta1995) RoadGradeisdeterminedfromthetruckperformancechartswithrespecttospeedandbraking. Gradientsof4.5to6o(8to10%)areusuallyadopted,withreardumptrucksbeingthepreferred haulageunit.A12%grademaybeusedfortrolleyassisttrucks.(Atkinson1992) 9.7.3 Curves

Forsharpcurves,additionalwidthmustbeincluded,bothonthecurveandthetangenttothe curve,tocoverthefrontandrearoverhangsofthevehicleandthedifficultyofnegotiatingthe curve.Arecommendedadditionalallowanceforareardumptruckona6mradiusis125%anda 45mradius118%.(Atkinson1992.)Table9.3givesminimumturningradiiforarangeoftrucks, classifiedaccordingtogrossweight.Theseradiicanthenbeusedintable9.4tofindthe recommendeddesignwidthforsingleanddoublelanecurvesofaparticularminimumradius. Table9.3:Minimumtruckturningradius(adaptedfromHustrulid&Kuchta1995) Vehicleweightclass Grossvehicleweight(tonnes) Minimumturningradius(m) 1 2 3 4 <45.5 45.591 91181 >181 5.8 7.3 9.4 11.9

Table9.4:Designwidthsforcurvesrigidbodytrucks(adaptedfromHustrulid&Kuchta1995) Radiusoninner Singlelaneroad Doublelaneroad edgeofroad(m) Truckcategory Truckcategory Minimum 7.6 15.2 30.5 45.7 61.0
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1 8.8 8.2 7.6 7.3 7.3 7.0

2 10.4 10.4 9.4 8.8 8.8 8.8

3 13.7 13.4 12.5 11.9 11.9 11.6

18

4 21.3 20.7 19.2 18.0 17.7 17.4

1 15.5 14.6 13.4 12.8 12.5 12.2

2 18.3 18.3 16.5 15.5 15.2 14.6

3 24.1 23.2 21.9 21.0 20.7 19.8

4 37.5 36.3 33.5 31.4 30.8 29.9

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Tangent

7.0

8.5

11.3

17.1

12.2

14.6

19.8

29.9

Dependingonvehiclespeedsandbendradius,acurvemayalsohavetobebanked(super elevation).Typicalsuperelevationsforminehaulroadsandtrucksarearound40mmpermeterof roadwidth(Hustrulid&Kuchta1995).Thedistancerequiredtomakethetransitionfromthe normalcrossslopesectiontothesuperelevatedsectionandbackagain(superelevationrunout) alsoneedstobeconsidered. 9.8 Equipment

ThefollowingdiagramsillustratesomemodernequipmentcurrentlyoperatinginAustralian mines. Fig.9.13:Hitachi20m3 hydraulicshovelloadinginto Komatsu240tonnetruck

Fig.9.14:TheKOMATSU DEMAGH655Sistheworlds largestprovenhydraulicshovel atover685tgrossweightand 35m3bucket.

Fig.9.15:TheKOMATSU HAULPAK930Eisthelargest truckinminingtodayandwas thefirsttouseACdrive.Over 100930Esareoperating worldwide,providing productionupto320tpercycle.

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9.9

References

AtkinsonT.Designandlayoutofhaulroads.SMEMiningEngineeringHandbook,Vol2,Chapt13.4, pp13341342.SME(1992). BucyrusErieCompany.MinePlanning.SurfaceMiningSupervisoryTrainingProgramme,Chapt 3.BucyrusErieCo.(1979). FourieGA,DohmGC.Openpitplanninganddesign.SMEMiningEngineeringHandbook,Vol2, Chapt13.1,pp12741297.SME(1992). HartmanHL.IntroductoryMiningEngineering.Wiley(1987). HustrulidW,KuchtaM,(1995),OpenPitMinePlanningandDesign,AABalkema,Rotterdam. LaurichR.Ultimatepitdefinition.SurfaceMining,2ndEdition,pp465469.SME(1990).

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