1.

(3 p) The measurand
Definition; the measurand as a signal; types of measurands (with respect to time); characteristic values (average, rms);
signal classification (analog and digital, sampled and/or quantized).
Measurand - quantity intended to be measured. The measurand can often be viewed as a signal.
A signal is a description of how a parameter varies with another parameter.
Types of measurands:

}

=
2
1
d ) (
1
1 2
t
t
av
t t x
t t
X

}

=
2
1
d ) (
1
1 2
t
t
av
t t x
t t
X

(t)d
1
2
1
2
1 2
}

=
t
t
rms
t x
t t
X

Signal classification
Analog (continuous) and digital

t t t t
x(t) x(t) x(t) x(t)
time time- - and and
amplitude amplitude- -
continuous continuous
time-
discrete,
amplitude-
continuous
time time- -
continuous, continuous,
amplitude amplitude- -
discrete discrete
time- and
amplitude-
discrete
sampled sampled quantized
sampled and sampled and
quantized quantized
t t t t
x(t) x(t) x(t) x(t)
t t t t
x(t) x(t) x(t) x(t)
time time- - and and
amplitude amplitude- -
continuous continuous
time-
discrete,
amplitude-
continuous
time time- -
continuous, continuous,
amplitude amplitude- -
discrete discrete
time- and
amplitude-
discrete
sampled sampled quantized
sampled and sampled and
quantized quantized

Sampling: In other words, sampling converts the independent variable from continuous to discrete.
Quantization means converting the dependent variable from continuous to discrete.
2. (3p) Sampling and quantization
Definition of proper sampling; examples of proper and improper sampling; frequency of the reconstructed signal;
aliasing; quantization; transfer characteristic of a quantizer.
The definition of proper sampling is quite simple. Suppose you sample a continuous signal in some manner. If you can
exactly reconstruct the analog signal from the samples, you must have done the sampling properly. Even if the sampled
data appears confusing or incomplete, the key information has been captured if you can reverse the process.
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1

improper sampling
Reconstructed frequency = |signal frequency closest multiple of the sampling frequency |
Rec frequency quantization

The phenomenon of sinusoids changing frequency during sampling is called aliasing.
Quantization means converting the dependent variable from continuous to discrete.
3. (2 p) Impulse response slide 52
Impulse response
Provides information about the frequency characteristics of the system (Fourier transform).
Serves to find the systems output signal to any given input signal (by convolution).
4. (2 p) Fourier decomposition for a periodic signal
More generally, a periodic signal can be decomposed in a DC component and a series of sine and cosine waves of
frequencies f, 2f, 3f, 4f, and so on. This is Fourier decomposition.
Fourier decomposition important for three reasons
A wide variety of signals are inherently created from superimposed sinusoids (for instance, audio signals).
Linear systems respond to sinusoids in a unique way: a sinusoidal input always results in a sinusoidal output. In
this approach, systems are characterized by how they change the amplitude and phase of sinusoids passing
through them.
The Fourier decomposition is the basis for a broad and powerful area of mathematics called Fourier analysis, and the
even more advanced Laplace and z-transforms
5. (2 p) Measurement methods
Definition; direct and indirect measurements; simultaneous and successive comparisons.

Measurement method - generic description of a logical sequence of operations used in a measurement.
There are two broad categories: direct and indirect methods.
Direct methods - the result is directly obtained on a display.
Example. Measurement of the power grid voltage with a voltmeter.
Indirect methods - the measurement result is obtained through calculations, following a formula.
Example. Measurement of the resistance of a resistor with a voltmeter and an ammeter.
Simultaneous comparison Successive comparison


6. (2 p) Measuring devices
Material measures and measuring instruments; simple and generalized model of a measuring instrument; calibration
curve (linearity, saturation, sensitivity).
Two broad categories:
material measures
measuring instruments.

A material measure is a device reproducing or supplying, in a permanent manner during its use, quantities of given
kinds, each with an assigned value.
Material measures are used for embodying a known value of a quantity.
Examples. A 1 kg standard mass, a 100 O standard resistor.
A measuring instrument is a device or combination of devices designed for measurement of quantities.
Measuring instruments provide a direct readout of the measurement result.
Examples. A 100 V voltmeter, a 5 A ammeter.
Simple instrument model A generalized model of a simple instrument

Calibration Curve

7. (3 p) Modifying and interfering inputs
Definition; effect of a modifying input; influence quantities (reference conditions, rated operating conditions, limiting
conditions, example, intrinsic error, additional errors)

Modifying inputs change the behaviour of the sensor or measurement system, thereby modifying the input/output
relationship and calibration of the device.

Influence quantities are modifying inputs.
Influence quantity quantity which, in a direct measurement, is neither the measurand nor the quantity being
measured, but whose change affects the relation between the indication of the measuring system and the measurement
result.
Reference conditions condition of use prescribed for evaluating the performance of a measuring system.
Example. The reference temperature for electrical indicating instruments is 18 to 22C.
Rated operating conditions conditions that must be fulfilled during measurement in order that a measurement
system perform as designed.
Example. The rated temperature for electrical indicating instruments is 10 to 35C.
Limiting conditions extreme conditions that a measuring system is required to withstand without damage, and
without degradation of specified metrological characteristics when it is subsequently operated under its rated operating
conditions.
Notes.
1. Limiting conditions for storage, transport or operation can differ.
2. Limiting conditions can include limiting values of the quantity being measured and of any influence quantity.
Example. The limiting temperature for electrical indicating instruments is -25 to 55C.

8. (2 p) Characteristics of measuring instruments
Measuring interval, resolution, discrimination, transfer characteristic, sensitivity.
Characteristics of measuring instruments
Static describe the behaviour of the measuring instrument when the input is constant (or DC or static).
Dynamic describe the behaviour of the measuring instrument when the input is time varying.
Measuring interval (working interval) set of values of the same kind that can be measured by a given measuring
system, with specified measurement uncertainty under defined conditions.
Resolution of a displaying device smallest difference between indications of a displaying device that can be
meaningfully distinguished.
Discrimination (threshold) largest change in the value of a quantity being measured by a measuring system that
causes no detectable change in the corresponding indication.
In other words, smallest change that causes a detectable change of the indication.
Transfer function the output/input ratio of a block that includes both the static and dynamic characteristics.
The static part is known as the transfer characteristic.

9. (2 p) Accuracy
Definition; precision and trueness; the target analogy; accuracy class of a measuring instrument.
Accuracy closeness of agreement between a quantity value obtained by measurement and the true value of the
measurand.
Accuracy two components:
Precision
Trueness
Precision closeness of agreement between quantity values obtained by replicate measurements of a
quantity, under specified conditions.
Trueness closeness of agreement between the average that would ensue from an infinite number of quantity
values obtained under specified measurement conditions and the true value of the measurand.

Accuracy class class of measuring instruments that
meet stated metrological requirements that are
intended to keep instrumental uncertainty within
specified limits under specified operating
conditions.
The accuracy class serves to determine the
maximum permissible error of a measuring
instrument.
Example. A 10 V voltmeter having an accuracy class
of 1 has a maximum permissible error of 0.1 V.


10. (2 p) Calibration of measuring instruments
Calibration schemes; traceability.

Metrological traceability property of a measurement result relating the result to a stated metrological reference
through an unbroken chain of calibrations of a measuring system or comparisons, each contributing to the stated
measurement uncertainty.
11. (2 p) Dynamic characteristics of measuring instruments


Frequency characteristics; rise time; response time.


Rise time Response time

12. (2 p) First order blocks
Characteristic equation; time constant; step response; sine wave response.
First order blocks
Characteristic equation
) (
0 1
t x y a
dt
dy
a = +

Time constant:
0
1
a
a
= t
static gain:
0
1
a x
y
=


Important forcing functions: step and sine-wave input.

Step response of the first order block
) 1 ( ) (
0
t
t
e
a
A
t y

=
unde A/a0 este : Amplitude of the step input multiplied by the static gain
Response of the first order block for a sine-wave input
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
Magnitude versus frequency
Normalized frequency
M
a
g
n
i
t
u
d
e
10
-2
10
-1
10
0
10
1
10
2
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0
Phase versus frequebcy
Normalized frequency
P
h
a
s
e

(
i
n

r
a
d
i
a
n
s
)


13. (2 p) Second order blocks
Characteristic equation; step response; sine wave response.
Characteristic equation
) (
0 1
2
2
2
t x y a
dt
dy
a
dt
y d
a = + +

Step response

Response to a sine-wave input



14. (2 p) Measurement errors and uncertainty
Sources of error; basic terms; definition of absolute, relative and fiducial error; presentation (%, ppm).
Sources of error
the measuring instrument Basic terms
the model
the loading exerted by the
measuring instrument
the influence quantities
the measurement method
the operator

Absolute error
X x = A

Relative error
x X
A
~
A
= o

Fiducial error

c
r
X
A
= o





15. (2 p) Measurement errors and uncertainty
Zero, gain, nonlinearity and hysteresis errors; elimination of the zero and gain error.
The zero error is constant over the entire measuring range. Hence, the real transfer characteristic is translated with respect to the
ideal one.
The zero error can be eliminated by adjusting the instrument so as to point to zero with a zero input.
The gain error is proportional to the measurand. Hence, the real transfer characteristic is rotated with respect to the ideal one.
The gain error can be eliminated by adjusting the instrument so as to point to full scale with a full scale input.
The real transfer characteristic of a measuring instrument generally differs from a straight line. The deviations from this are
nonlinearity errors.
The nonlinearity errors cannot be eliminated
The upward and downward characteristics of a measuring instrument may differ. This leads to the so called hysteresis error.
The hysteresis errors cannot be eliminated.
16. (2 p) Measurement errors and uncertainty
Random and systematic errors (definition, examples, improvement of measurement accuracy by replicating the
measurement).
Random error difference of quantity value obtained by measurement and average that would ensue from an infinite
number of replicate measurements of the same measurand carried out under repeatability conditions.
vary from one measurement to another when replicating the measurement under repeatability conditions
caused mainly by fluctuations of environmental conditions.

Systematic error - difference of average that would ensue from an infinite number of replicate measurements of the
same measurand carried out under repeatability conditions and true value of the measurand.
do not vary from one measurement to another under repeatability conditions
can not be reduced by replicating the measurement.

s estimation of the standard deviation
t coverage factor (Students table)
n number of replicates
17. (2 p) Measurement errors and uncertainty
Measurement uncertainty (definition, confidence interval, confidence level, presentation of the measurement result,
determination of the maximum permissible error for analog and digital instruments).
Measurement uncertainty parameter that characterizes the dispersion of the quantity values that are being
attributed to a measurand, based on the information used.
Presentation of the measurement
result
yy P u x x
m
. 0 , = =

where u is the uncertainty and P the
confidence level.



Determination of the maximum permissible error
analog measuring instruments: range measuring
100
class accuracy
= A
t

digital measuring instruments: digits range % reading % n b a
t
+ + = A
18. (3 p) Signal conditioning
Multiplexers; instrumentation amplifiers; antialiasing filters (low-pass RC filters: cutoff frequency, attenuation,
frequency characteristic).
Multiplexers are circuits that allow the selection of one among several input channels (differential or single-ended).

Multiplexers Intrumentation amplifiers
d d e
U A U =



Aliasing can be avoided by placing an antialiasing filter in front of the signal processing chain.
An antialiasing filter is essentially a low-pass filter that removes from the signals spectrum all frequencies above one-
half of the sampling frequency.

19. (3 p) Sample and holds
Description; functional diagram; implementation; parameters; applications.
Sample and hold (S/H) circuits sample an analog input signal and then hold the instantaneous input value upon the
command of a logic control signal.
Basically, the sample and hold is an analog memory where a capacitor serves as the storage element.
Applications in which a time varying signal cannot be tolerated require a sample and hold. A successive approximation
analog to digital converter is such an application.

Sample and hold parameters
Acquisition time
Aperture time and its jitter
Settling time
Droop rate
Feedthrough
Applications
Cutoff frequency:
f
RC
0
1
2
=
t

Attenuation:
0
0
3 for , f f
f
f
U
U
a
e
i
> ~ =

The most important application of a S/H is the use in front of a successive approximation analog to digital converter.
Another application of a S/H is the use in multiple channel data distribution systems, to hold the output of the digital
to analog converter between successive updates on each channel.

20. (3 p) DACs
Description; characteristics (output signal, full scale range, resolution, 1 LSB); transfer characteristic; linearity (INL,
DNL).

Digital to analog converters characteristics
Output signal: current or voltage
Full scale range (FSR): the range of the output signal
Resolution: n bits or xx mV (mA)
1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)

Integral nonlinearity (INL) is a term describing the maximum deviation between the ideal output of a DAC and the
actual output level.
Differential nonlinearity (DNL) is a term describing the deviation between two adjacent points.
21. (2 p) Binary weighted resistors DACs


22. (2 p) R-2R resistor ladder DACs

23. (2 p) ADCs
Description; characteristics (full scale range, resolution, 1 LSB); transfer characteristic; quantization error.
ADC characteristics
Full Scale Range (FSR) the range of the input voltage
Resolution: n bits or xx mV
Accuracy (Total Unadjusted Error)
1 LSB (Least Significant Bit)
Input-Output characteristic of an ideal 3 bit ADC Quantization Error (noise)


24. (2 p) Flash ADCs
Block diagram; operation; characteristics (speed, complexity, resolution).


Flash ADCs
Fast (conversion time of 1 to 10 ns).
Great complexity (1024 comparators for a 10-bit
ADC).
Resolution: 6 to 10 bits.
Applications: high speed data acquisition systems
(for instance, for video signals).


25. (3 p) Successive approximation ADCs
Block diagram; operation; characteristics (speed, complexity, resolution).

Successive approximation ADCs (Ux = 6.5 V, FSR = 16 V)
Step 1: b
3
(MSB) is set; U
DAC
=FSR/2=8 V; Since U
x
<U
DAC
, b
3
is reset.
Step 2: b
2
is set; U
DAC
= b
3
FSR/2 + FSR/4=4 V; Since U
x
>U
DAC
, b
2
=1.
Step 3: b
1
is set; U
DAC
= b
3
FSR/2 + b
2
FSR/4 + FSR/8=6 V; Since U
x
>U
DAC
, b
1
=1.
Step 4: b
0
is set; U
DAC
= b
3
FSR/2 + b
2
FSR/4 + b
1
FSR/8 + FSR/16= =7 V; Since U
x
<U
DAC
, b
0
=0.

Successive approximation ADCs
Conversion time: 1 to 10 s.
Resolution: 8 to 14 bits.
Complexity: medium.
Best compromise between speed and complexity.
Applications: common data acquisition systems.

26. (3 p) Dual slope ADCs
Block diagram; operation; characteristics (speed, complexity, resolution).
Dual slope ADCs
Conversion time: 50 ms to 2 s.
Resolution: 10 to 24 bits.
Complexity: medium.
Applications: digital voltmeters (including
very high resolution, like the 8 - digit HP
3458).
27. (3 p) Electromechanical measuring instruments
Differential equation; moving coil devices; other types of devices; characteristics; sine wave response; step response.

Electromechanical devices
operation interaction of magnetic fields
pointer and graduated scale
second order systems (second order differential eq.)
J rotational inertia
A damping factor
D specific restraining torque
M driving (active) torque
o rotation angle
For the moving coil devices the active torque is proportional to the current that flows through the coil.
The most frequent use of moving coil devices is for DC.
For AC, when >>
n
, the rotation angle o is zero, irrespective of the amplitude of the current (very dangerous since
the AC current that flows through the coil might damage it).
To measure AC current, a rectifier is needed
OTHER Electromechanical devices
moving coil (fixed magnet, moving coil)
ferromagnetic (fixed coil, moving magnet)
electrodynamic (two coils, fixed and moving)
ferrodynamic (similar to an electrodynamic device)
electrostatic (capacitor, two plates, one fixed, one moving)
The ferromagnetic device
The active torque is proportional to the square of the current that flows through the device.
The electrodynamic and ferrodynamic devices
The active torque is proportional to the product of the currents that flow through the two coils of the device
These devices can directly measure electrical active power.
28. (3 p) Current measurement
Ammeters (in-circuit insertion, insertion error); ammeter types; shunts; AC current measurements; current
transformers.

insertion of the ammeter
systematic error




Shunts (shunt = resistor in parallel to an ammeter, to expand its measuring
range

The terminals of current transformers are marked to
know the sense of the current in the secondary winding.
This has no meaning for current measurements, but is
very important for power measurements.
Thus, if in the primary winding the current flows from K
to L, then outside the secondary winding the current
will flow from k to l. The ideal operation mode of
current transformers is with the secondary winding
short circuited.
29. (2 p) Two and four terminal shunts. Influence of contact resistances

30. (3 p) Voltage measurement
Voltmeters (in-circuit insertion, loading error); voltmeter types; additional resistors; AC to DC converters.
voltage measurement voltmeters
connecting a voltmeter IN PARALLEL
insertion of a voltmeter systematic error
Without the voltmeter

With the voltmeter

E
R R
R
U
2 1
2
+
=
E
R R
R
U
e
e
+
=
1
where



2 1
2 1
R R
R R
r
i
+
=








Additional resistor

31. (2 p) Normal mode and common mode errors in DC voltage measurements
v
v
e
R R
R R
R
+
=
2
2
Normal mode and common mode voltages in DC voltage measurements; measurement errors; NMRR; CMRR.

32. (3 p) Power measurement
Definitions of instantaneous and active power; DC power measurement methods; AC single phase power
measurement methods).
for DC circuits
for AC circuits
instantaneous power: electric power, defined as voltage drop across the load times the current
flowing through it

active power


Power measurement DC
voltmeter + ammeter (L stands for load)

Power measurement AC
wattmeter
Other power measurement methods for AC
thermal wattmeter
Hall effect wattmeter
wattmeters based on multipliers (analog or digital)
three voltmeter method


33. (2 p)Power measurement
Definitions of instantaneous and active power; AC three phase power measurement methods

total active power
3 2 1
P P P P + + =
.