BIO 201

Skeletal System
Functions of the skeletal system Tissues and organs of the skeletal system Histology of osseous tissue Physiology of bone tissue Ossification Osteopathology

Functions of the Skeletal System

Support
Structure of ears, nose Scaffold for muscles

Protection
Major organs enclosed by bony cages

Movement
Leverage for muscular movement

Blood formation Mineral reservoir

Calcium (Ca2+) and phosphorus (phosphate PO43-)

pH balance
Storage of bicarbonate from blood

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Shapes of Bones

Features of Long Bones

Enlarged ends ( (epiphyses epiphyses) )
spongy bone (cancellous) covered with a layer of compact bone

Shaft (diaphysis (diaphysis) )

contains marrow cavity (medullary cavity) that is lined with endosteum (layer of osteogenic cells)

Joint surface covered with articular cartilage Remainder of bone covered with periosteum
inner osteogenic layer important for growth and healing

Epiphyseal plate or line depends on age

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Features of a Flat Bone

External and internal surfaces of flat bone are composed of compact bone
Increased protection

Middle layer is spongy bone

No marrow cavity

Bone as a Tissue
Dynamic tissue that continually remodels itself Bones and bone tissue
bone or osseous tissue is a connective tissue with a matrix hardened by minerals
(calcium phosphate -- hydroxyapatite hydroxyapatite) )

bones make up the skeletal system

individual bones are made up of bone tissue, marrow, cartilage and periosteum

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Cells of Osseous Tissue

Osteogenic cells reside in endosteum, periosteum or central canals

multiply continuously and differentiate into non non-dividing osteoblasts in response to stress or fractures

Osteoblasts form and help mineralize organic matter of matrix Osteocytes are osteoblasts that have become trapped in the matrix they formed
cells in lacunae connected by gap junctions inside canaliculi signal osteoclasts and osteoblasts about mechanical stresses

Osteoblast vs. Osteocyte

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Bone Making Cells in a Nutshell

More Cells of Osseous Tissue

Osteoclasts develop in bone marrow by the fusion of 33-50 of stem cells Reside in pits called resorption bays that they have eaten into the surface of the bone

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A Bone Eating Cell in a Nutshell

Compact Bone
Osteon (haversian system) = basic structural unit
cylinders of tissue formed from layers (lamellae (lamellae) ) of matrix arranged around central canal holding a blood vessel osteocytes connected to each other and their blood supply by tiny cell processes in canaliculi

Perforating canals or Volkmann canals

vascular canals perpendicularly joining central canals

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Histology of Compact Bone

Osteons

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Compact Bone in a Nutshell

Spongy Bone
Spongelike appearance formed by rods and plates of bone called trabeculae
spaces filled with red bone marrow

Trabeculae have few osteons or central canals

no osteocyte is far from blood of bone marrow

Provides strength with little weight

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Bone Marrow
Soft tissue that occupies the medullary cavity of a long bone or the spaces amid the trabeculae of spongy bone Red marrow looks like thick blood
mesh of reticular fibers and immature cells hemopoietic produces blood cells found in vertebrae, ribs, sternum, pelvic girdle and proximal heads of femur and humerus in adults

Y ll Yellow marrow
fatty marrow of long bones in adults

Gelatinous marrow of old age

yellow marrow replaced with reddish jelly

Extracellular Matrix of Osseous Tissue

Composite material composed of approximately 1/3 organic & 2/3 inorganic matter Organic matter g
collagen, glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans and glycoproteins

Inorganic matter
85% hydroxyapatite (crystallized calcium phosphate salt) 10% calcium carbonate other minerals (fluoride, sulfate, potassium, magnesium)

g and resilience Combination p provides for strength

minerals resist compression; collagen resists tension bone adapts to tension and compression by varying proportions of minerals and collagen fibers

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Bony Matrix

Mineral Deposition
Mineralization is crystallization process in which ions (calcium, phosphate, bicarbonate and others) are removed from blood plasma and deposited in bone tissue Steps of the mineralization process
collagen fibers spiral along the length of the osteon fibers become encrusted with minerals by work of osteoblasts

Ectopic ossification is abnormal calcification

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Mineral Resorption
Process of dissolving bone and releasing minerals into the blood
performed by osteoclast at ruffled border
hydrogen pumps in the cell membrane secrete hydrogen ions into the space between the osteoclast & the bone id with i h a pH H of f 4 di l b i l which hi h are released l db ki acid dissolves bone minerals back into the blood

Functions of Calcium and Phosphate

Phosphate is a component of DNA, RNA, ATP, phospholipids Calcium is needed for communication between neurons, muscle contraction, blood clotting and exocytosis Ion imbalances
hypocalcemia is deficiency of blood calcium
excitability of nervous system muscle spasms or seizures

hypercalcemia is too much calcium in blood

depression of nervous system coma or death

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Hormonal Control of Calcium Balance

Calcitriol, PTH and calcitonin maintain normal blood calcium concentration

Calcitriol (Activated Vitamin D)

Precursor produced by the UV radiation penetrating the epidermal keratinocytes or ingestion; processed by liver and kidney Calcitriol behaves as a hormone (blood(blood -borne messenger)
stimulates intestine to absorb calcium, phosphate and magnesium weakly promotes urinary reabsorption of calcium ions promotes osteoclast activity to raise blood calcium level calci m concentration to the le el needed for bone deposition

calcidiol

Abnormal softness of the bones is called rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults

calcitriol

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Calcitonin and Parathyroid

Calcitonin
S t d by b C cells ll of f th id Secreted the th thyroid gland Released when calcium concentration too high Functions
reduces osteoclast activity by as much as 70% in 15 minutes increases the number and activity of f osteo t blasts bl t

Parathyroid
Secreted by the parathyroid glands Released when calcium blood level is too low Functions
stimulates osteoclasts multiplication and activity promotes calcium resorption by the kidneys promotes calcitriol synthesis in the kidneys inhibits collagen synthesis and bone deposition by osteoblasts

Intramembranous Ossification
Produces flat bones of skull and clavicle Steps
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. embryonic mesenchyme condenses into a sheet of soft tissue
transforms into a network of soft trabeculae

osteoblasts gather on the trabeculae to form osteoid tissue (uncalcified bone) calcium phosphate is deposited in the matrix transforming the osteoblasts into osteocytes osteoclasts remodel the center to contain marrow spaces & osteoblasts remodel the surface to form compact bone y mesenchyme left at the surface g gives rise to p periosteum

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Endochondral Ossification
Primary ossification center forms in cartilage model
chondrocytes near the center swell to form p primary y ossification center matrix is reduced and model becomes weak at that point cells of the perichondrium produce a bony collar cuts off diffusion of nutrients and hastens chondrocyte death

Primary marrow space formed

osteogenic cells invade and transform into osteoblasts osteoid tissue deposited and calcified into trabeculae; at same time osteoclasts work to enlarge the primary marrow cavity

Endochondral Ossification in a Nutshell

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Cartilage Bone

Metaphysis

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Growth and Repair

Bones grow, remodel and repair themselves throughout life use em or lose em Stress fracture is a break caused by abnormal trauma to a bone Pathological fracture is a break in a bone weakened by some other disease Normal healing takes 8 - 12 weeks Stages of healing
1. 2. 3. 4. fracture hematoma
broken vessels form a blood clot

g granulation tissue
fibrous tissue formed by fibroblasts & infiltrated by capillaries

callus formation
soft callus of fibrocartilage replaced by hard callus of bone in ~6 weeks

remodeling
occurs over next 6 months as spongy bone is replaced with compact bone

Fracture Repair Initial Steps

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Finishing Up

In a Nutshell

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Osteoporosis
Most common bone disease Bones lose mass and become brittle due to loss of both organic and minerals components Postmenopausal white women at greatest risk ERT slows bone resorption, but best treatment is prevention - exercise and calcium intake Therapies to stimulate bone deposition still under investigation

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