CHAPTER 2.

Foundation of Group Behavior

GROUP
Meaning and Definition of Group
A group consists of two or more persons who interact with each other, consciously for the achievement of certain common objectives. The members of the group are inter-dependent and are aware that they are part of a group. According to David H. Smith: A group is a set of two or more individuals who are jointly characterized by a network of relevant communications, a shared sense of collective identity and one or more shared dispositions with associated normative strength. According to Edgar H. Schien: A group may be defined as a social phenomenon in which two or more persons decide to interact with one another, share common ideology and perceive themselves as a group. In order to be called a group, an aggregation of persons must satisfy the following conditions: i) People must interact with one another. ii) People must be psychologically aware of one another. iii) People should perceive themselves to be a group.

Characteristics of a Group
1) Social Interaction: One of the most obvious characteristics of group is that they are composed of two or more people in social interaction. In other words, the members of group must have influence on each other. The interaction between parties may either verbal on non-verbal, but the parties must have some impact on each other to be considered as a group. 2) Stable Structure: Group also must posses a stable structure. Although groups can change, and often do, there must be some stable relationships that keep group members together and functioning as an unit. 3) Common Interest: Another characteristic of groups is that their members share common interests or goals. 4) Perceive themselves as Part of Group: Finally, to be a group, the individuals involved must perceive themselves as a group. Group is composed of people who recognize each other as a member of their group and can distinguish these individuals from non-members.

Types of Groups
Groups may be classified into different types. The basis of differentiation may be purpose, extent of structuring, process of formation, and size of the group membership. i) Primary and Secondary Groups: Primary groups are those characterized by intimate, face-to-face association and co-operation. For example, family, and peer group. Secondary groups are characterized by large size and individuals identification with values and belief prevailing in them rather than actual interaction. For example, Occupational association and ethnic groups ii) Membership Groups and Reference Groups: Membership groups are ones to which the individual actually belongs. For example - Clubs, Co-operative societies, Workers union, etc. Reference groups are the ones with which an individual identifies or to which he would like to belong. iii) In-groups and Out-groups: In-groups represents a clustering of individuals holding prevailing values in a society or at least having a dominant place in social functioning. For example: Members of a team, family members, etc. Out-groups are the masses or conglomerate viewed as subordinate or marginal in the culture. For example: Street performers for an office worker, a hawker for a surgeon.

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iv) Interest vs. Friendship Groups: Interest group involves people who may come together to accomplish a particular goal with which they are concerned. Friendship groups are formed by people who have one or more common features. People coming from a particular region or holding a particular viewpoint or speaking a particular language tend to form friendship groups. v) Formal and Informal Groups: Formal groups are established by the organization to accomplish specific tasks. It is a designated work-group defined by the organizational structure. It includes: a) Command Groups: Command groups are composed of the subordinates who report directly to a common superior. For example: A college principal and teachers, a production manager and his subordinates in his department and so on. b) Committees and Taskforces/Groups: Committees and Taskforces are created to carry out specific organizational assignment or activities. Informal groups are those groups, which appears in response to the need for social contact. These groups are formed within the structure of the organization but by the members themselves. They are formed to satisfy the social needs on the job. vi) Temporary and Permanent Groups: Groups are formed for achieving certain objectives. They have a very short life. After attaining the objectives, they are dissolved. Solving problems and discussing ideas are the main functions of temporary groups. Meetings, committees, and small groups are examples of temporary groups. There are certain natural and permanent groups. They have group activities, group performances, job assignments and so on. A team is a permanent group. Trade union and business associations are examples of permanent groups. vii) Nominal and Non-performing Groups: Nominal groups are presented with problems to be solved. Members of the groups share their ideas in a structured format. Their alternative suggestions are discussed for arriving at more effective suggestions. This is a nominal group because the employees are members of the group for name sake only. Non-performing groups are only on paper. They are formed and developed without any performances. They have certain goals but there is no attempt to achieve those goals.

Groups at the Work Place

Work place is more prominent for the formation and development of groups. Groups are formed both officially and unofficially at the work place. Officially formed groups are called formal groups and unofficially formed groups are called informal groups.

1) Formal Group
A formal group is one that is deliberately created to perform a specific task. Members are usually appointed by the organization, but it may not always be the case. A number of people assigned to a specific task form a formal group. One example of such a group is a committee and other examples are work units, such as a small department, a research and development laboratory, a management team or a small assembly line. A distinctive feature of formal groups is that a hierarchy of authority exists, with specified member rules and regulations. Rules, regulations, incentives and sanctions guide the behavior of small groups, brings out the contributions of formal groups. Standing task group and task group are two variations of formal groups. i) A standing task group, also known as command group, is permanently specified in the organizational structure and consists of a supervisor who exercises formal authority over subordinates. The foreman and his group of subordinates constitute a command group. ii) A task group is a temporary formal group that is created to solve specific problems. The group comprises employees who work together to complete a particular task or project, but who do not necessarily report to the same supervisor. The employees belong to different departments. They stay together till the task is completed and once the work is completed, the task group usually disbands and members return to their respective task groups.

Contributions of Formal Groups

1) Contributions to Organizations i) Accomplish complex, Independent tasks that are beyond the capabilities of individuals. ii) Create new ideas iii) Coordinate interdepartmental efforts. iv) Solve complex problems requiring varied information and perspectives. v) Implement action plans. vi) Socialize and train newcomers.

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2) Contributions to Individuals i) Satisfy needs for affiliation. ii) Confirm identity and enhance self-esteem. iii) Test and share perceptions of social reality. iv) Reduce feelings of insecurity and powerlessness. v) Provide a mechanism for solving personal and interpersonal problems

2) Informal Group
Informal groups are those groups, which appears in response to the need for social contact. These groups are formed within the structure of the organization but by the members themselves. They are formed to satisfy the social needs on the job.

Importance of Informal Groups to the Organization

Informal groups are important not only from the point of view of their members; they have a great utility from organizations point of view also. They help the organization in better administration by performing the following functions: 1) Filling in Gaps in Managers Abilities: Informal organization may act to fill in gaps in a managers abilities. For example, if a manager is weak in planning, one of his subordinates may help him informally in such a situation. 2) Solving Work Problems: Informal organization helps in solving the work problems of members. It allows them sharing job knowledge and taking decisions which affect a number of jobs. 3) Better Coordination: Informal groups evolve short-cuts and eliminate red tapism. They facilitate smooth flow of information and quick decision-making. All these ensure better coordination among various individuals and departments. 4) Channel of Communication: Informal groups act to fill up the communication gaps, which arise in the organization. Informal communication cuts across the hierarchical and departmental boundaries and transmits information with greater speed. 5) Restraint on Managers: Informal groups do not allow the managers to cross their limits. They restrict them from acquiring unlimited power and from using their power injudiciously. 6) Better Relations: A manager can build better relations with subordinates through informal contacts. He can consult the informal leaders and seek their cooperation in getting the things done from the workers. 7) Norms of Behavior: Informal groups develop certain norms of behavior, which differentiate between good and bad conduct and between legitimate and illegitimate activities. These bring discipline and order among the employees. 8) Satisfied Workforce: Cohesive informal groups provide satisfaction to the workers. As a result, labor turnover and absenteeism are reduced and organizations productivity is increased. 9) Developing Future Executives: Informal groups recognize talented workers as their leaders. Such leaders can be picked by the management to fill vacancies at the junior executive level in the future.

Problems Created by Informal Groups

Informal groups have dysfunctional aspect too. They may create the following problems for the organization: 1) Negative Attitude of Informal Leaders: The informal leader may turn out to be a troubleshooter for the organization. In order to increase his influence, he may work against the policies of management and manipulate the behavior of his followers. Thus, he can be a source of conflict between the management and the workers. 2) Conformity: The informal group exerts strong pressure on its members for conformity. The members may become so loyal to their group that following the group norms becomes a part of their life. This implies that members become subject to willful control of the group leader who may lead the group towards selfish ends. This will lead to dilution of the effect of organizational policies and practices on the group members 3) Resistance to Change: Informal groups generally have a tendency to resist change. Change requires group members to make new adjustments and acquire new skills. But groups want to maintain status quo. 4) Rumor: Informal communication may give rise to rumors. This is not desirable from organizations point of view. Rumor originates for a number of reasons. One cause is plain maliciousness, but it is probably not the most important. A more frequent cause is employees anxiety and insecurity because of poor communication in the organization. 5) Role Conflict: Every member of the informal group is also a member of the formal organization. Sometimes, there may be role conflict because what the informal group requires of a member is just the opposite of what is expected of him by the formal organization. In such a situation, group members may conform to their social norms.

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Formal group vs. Informal group

Basis 1) Formation 2) Purpose 3) Structure Formal Group Formal group is well planned and created deliberately. It is created to achieve predetermined objectives. It is an official hierarchy of relations. It refers to the structure of well defined authority and responsibility relationships. Formal authority is institutional, i.e., it attaches to a position and a person exercises it by virtue of his position. Formal authority flows sown-ward as it is delegated. Formal group follows the official chain of command which cant be changed. Communication has to follow formal channels. The managers who have formal authority provide leadership to the workers. Communication is formal and follows the channels and direction laid down by the management. It has a prescribed pattern of behavior for its members. There is an official system of rewards and punishments to regulate the behavior of members. Formal group reflects technological side of the organization. It does not take care of human sentiments. It follows a rigid structure of relationships. Formal group is usually stable. It has the capacity to survive despite changes in the external environment. Informal Group Informal group is unplanned and it originates automatically. It has no predetermined objectives. Its structure is based on human emotions and sentiments. It refers to the personal relationships which develop automatically when people work together. Informal authority is personal i.e., attaches to a person. It flows downward, upward and horizontally. Formal authority is replaced by informal influence. Informal group does not have a fixed chain of command. It is based on the sentiments of the members. There are no fixed patterns of communication. Informal leaders are not appointed, but are chosen by the group members. The flow of communication has no pre-decided pattern. It can flow in any direction irrespective of the status or position of the parties. It develops social norms of behavior through mutual consent of the members. Rewards include satisfaction, esteem, recognition, etc. and punishments include censure, isolation, boycott, etc. Informal group reflects human aspect. It is based on attitudes, likes and dislikes tastes, language, etc. of people. It is loosely structured. It is highly flexible in nature. Informal group may not last so long. It may have to be dissolved because of internal or external changes.

4) Authority

5) Chain of Command

6) Leadership 7) Communication

8) Pattern of Behavior

9) Human Relations 10) Flexibility 11) Stability

Group Formation
Group formation has certain objectives. The purpose behind group formation may be task achievement, problem-solving, proximity or other socio-psychological requirements. Group formation is based on activities, interactions and sentiments. 1) Task Accomplishment: The basic purpose of group formation is the achievement of certain objectives through task performance. Individuals come closer in order to understand the tasks and decide on the procedures of performance. In any organization, task accomplishment is the reason for which different groups such as an engineering group; marketing group, foreman's group and personnel group are formed for achievement of the organizations' goals. When an organization faces some procedural difficulties, concerned groups discuss them and evolve new techniques of production, marketing and other functions. 2) Problem Solving: When people foresee or face certain problems, they unite to solve the problems. Unity has strength. A group provides strength to members who are willing to challenge any problem. Group behavior gives more strength to come down heavily on problems. 3) Proximity: People form groups because of proximity and attraction towards each other. The group formation theory is based on proximity, which means that individuals affiliate because of spatial or geographical proximity. They interact frequently with each other on many topics, because this interactive communication is rewarding. 4) Socio-Psychological Factors: Sentiments and action-uniformities bring people closer. They also form groups for safety, security and social achievements. People cooperate with members of the group on social as well as economic grounds to reach satisfactory levels.

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People form groups basically for activities, interaction and due to sentiments. People living in proximity frequently discuss their problems. They try to reduce their tensions and achieve satisfaction. Individuals interest each other only when they have common attitudes and sentiments. People with diverse attitudes form groups under certain compulsions to meet unexpected problems. Employees form unions to ensure the safety and security of jobs. Outside the factory, they form groups for religious, social, cultural and political activities.

Theories of Group Formation

There are four theories, which explain why the groups are formed. These include: 1) Propinquity Theory: Quite often, individuals affiliate with one another because of spatial or geo-graphical proximity. In an organization, employees who work in the same area of the plant or office would more probably form into groups than those who are not physically located together. The propinquity theory explains a basic factor, i.e., proximity of people at the workplace, which leads to formation of groups. This phenomenon is observed in daily practice by all of us. 2) Homans Theory: According to George C. Homans, The more activities persons share, the more numerous will be their interactions and the stronger will be their shared activities and sentiments; and the more sentiments persons have for one another, the more will be their shared activities and interactions. The Homans theory has contributed a great deal to the Activities Interactions understanding of group formation. It is based on three concepts, namely, activities, interactions and sentiments, which are directly related to each other as shown in figure below. The members of a group share Sentiments activities and interact with one another not just because of physical proximity, but also to accomplish group Interaction Theory of Group Formation goals. The key element is interaction because of which they develop common sentiments for one another. 3) Balance Theory: The theory as proposed by Theodore Newcomb States that Persons are attracted to one another on the basis of similar attitudes towards commonly relevant objects and goals. Once a relationship is formed, it strives to maintain a symmetrical balance between the attraction and the common attitudes. If an imbalance occurs, attempts are made to restore the balance. If the balance cannot be restored, the relationship dissolves. Both propinquity and interaction play a role in the balance theory. Thus, the balance theory is additive in nature in the Mr. N Mr. T sense that it introduces the factor of balance to the propinquity and interaction factors. There must be a balance in the relationship between the group members for the group to be formed and for its survival. As shown C in figure aside, Mr. T will interact with Mr. N and form a Common Attitudes group because of some common attitudes and values [Authority, work, Life Style, such as authority, work, life style, religion, politics, etc. Religion, Policies, etc] They will strive to maintain a symmetrical balance Figure: Balance Theory of Group Formation between the attraction and the common attitudes. If they fail in their efforts, the group will get dissolved. 4) Exchange Theory: This theory is based on reward-cost outcomes of interaction between people. To be attracted towards a group, a person thinks in terms of what he will get in exchange of interaction with the group members. Thus, there is an exchange relationship in terms of rewards and costs of associating with the group. A minimum positive level (rewards greater than costs) of an outcome must exist in order for attraction or affiliation to take place. Rewards from interactions gratify needs while costs incur anxiety, frustrations, embarrassment, or fatigue. Propinquity, interaction and common attitudes all have roles in the exchange theory.

Why do People Join Groups?

There is no single reason why individuals join groups. Since most people belong to a number of groups, it is obvious that different groups offer different attractions and benefits to their members. The most popular reasons for joining a group is related to our needs for security, status, self-esteem, affiliation, power, identity, huddling and task functions.

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1) Security: The group provides the members a sense of social security and strength of collectivity. Individually a man feels weak, helpless and exposed to several hazards. As a member of the group, he feels stronger and finds himself in a position to face hazards and problems more vigorously. 2) Status: Inclusion in a group that is viewed as important by others provides recognition and status for its members. 3) Self-esteem: Groups can provide people with feelings of self-worth. That is, in addition to conveying status to those outside the group, membership can also give increased feelings of worth to the group members themselves. 4) Affiliation: Groups can fulfill social needs. People enjoy the regular interaction that comes with group membership. For many people, these on-the-job interactions are their primary source for fulfilling their needs for affiliation. 5) Power: The group also provides power to the members by common consensus. Group members stand behind their group leader. The unity of the group members becomes a strong force. This force of unity can be utilized by the group leader or its members to fight their common interests and problems. 6) Goal Achievement: There are times when it takes more than one person to accomplish a particular task there is a need to pool talents, knowledge, or power in order to complete a job. In such instances, management will rely on the use of a formal group. 7) Huddling: One more reason why individuals want to join groups is for huddling. Because of the way bureaucracies work, individuals, particularly executives, make use of informal get-togethers called huddles. These are intimate task-oriented encounters of executives trying to get something done.

Phases in Group Development

Groups generally pass through a standardized sequence in their evolution. We call this sequence as the fivestage model of group development.

The Five-stage Model

The five-stage group development model given by Tuckman and Jensen characterizes groups as proceeding through five distinct stages: forming, storming, norming, performing, and adjourning. 1) Forming: This first stage is characterized by a great deal of uncertainty about the groups purpose, structure and leadership. Members are testing the waters to determine what types of behavior are acceptable. This stage is complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part of a group. 2) Storming: The storming stage is one of the intra-group conflicts. Members have accepted the existence of the group, but there is resistance to the constraints that the group imposes on individuality. Furthermore, there is conflict over who will control the group. When this stage is complete, there will be a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership within the group.

Pre-stage I

Stage I Forming

Stage II Storming

Stage III Norming

Stage IV Performing

Stage V Adjourning

Stages of Group Development

3)

Norming: In this stage, the close relationships develop and the group demonstrates cohesiveness. There is now a strong sense of group identity and companionship. This norming stage is complete when the group structure solidifies and the group has assimilated a common set of expectations of what defines correct member behavior. Performing: The structure at this point is fully functional and accepted. Group energy has moved from getting to know and understand each other to performing the task at hand. For permanent work groups, performing is the last stage in their development. However, for temporary committees, teams, taskforces, and similar groups that have a limited task to perform, there is an adjourning stage.

4)

5)

Adjourning: In this stage, the group prepares for its disbandment. High task performance is no longer the groups top priority. Instead, attention is directed toward wrapping up activities. Responses of group members vary in this stage. Some are upbeat, basking in the groups accomplishments. Others may be depressed over the loss of companionship and friendships gained during the work groups life.

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Six Stage Model

Linda Jewel and Joseph Reitz had developed a six stage model of group development it includes: orientation, conflict and challenge, cohesion, delusion, disillusion and acceptance. 1) Orientation: In this stage, uncertainty exists about the groups structure, purpose, leadership, procedures, and norms of behavior, roles of members and so on. In the first meeting, members discuss why there is a need for them to come together for a particular purpose, which should constitute the group, who the leader should be, what the roles of other members should be, how group goals should be accomplished and the like. Emphasis is usually placed on making acquaintances, sharing information, testing each other, and so forth. Members attempt to discover which interpersonal behaviors are acceptable or unacceptable in the group and a new member is heavily dependent upon others for providing cues to acceptable behavior. If there are some strong personalities attempting to dominate other group members or dictate how the group should operate, the issues of power, influence and authority may come up. Once the group establishes a comfortable level of mutual trust and acceptance, it can focus its attention on the work of the group. Thus, broadly, individual members here might i) Keep feelings to themselves until they know the situation. ii) Act more secure than they actually feel. iii) Experience confusion and uncertainty about what is expected of them. iv) Be polite. v) Try to size up the personal benefits relative to the personal costs of being involved in the group. Tuckman and Jensen called this stage a forming stage. 2) Conflict and Challenge: Conflict over goals and competition over the leadership role are dominant themes at this stage. Some members may withdraw or try to isolate themselves from the emotional tension generated. The key is to manage conflict during this stage, not to suppress it or withdraw from it. Tuckman and Jensen call it storming. 3) Cohesion: Co-operation within the group is a dominant theme. A sense of shared responsibility for the group develops. Overtime, the group begins to develop a sense of oneness. As the group is cohesive, the work of the group really gets going. Thus this stage is marked by rapid increases in-group effectiveness. Tuckman and Jensen call it norming. Group norms emerge (norming) to guide individual behavior. 4) Delusion: This is a pleasant stage in development where members because of mutual acceptance and trust believe that everything within the group is okay. Interpersonal conflicts in this stage are ignored or glossed over. Some groups continue to learn and develop from their experience thereby improving their efficiency and effectiveness. Other groups may perform only at the level needed for their survival. A minimally adequate level of performance may be caused by excessive self-oriented behaviors by group members, the development of norms that inhibit task effectiveness and efficiency, poor group leadership, or other factors. Tuckman and Jensen call it performing stage. In this stage, the group focuses its attention on the advantage of task specialization in order to facilitate goal attainment.
Mature Efficient (Effective)

Group Maturity

Immature, Inefficient (ineffective) Orientation Conflict & Challenge Cohesion Delusion Disillusion Acceptance

Developing Power and Authority Structures

Developing Interpersonal Relationships

Stages of Group Development

5) Disillusion: When persistent doubts are glossed over member attitudes are hardened and the danger of disillusionment starts staring in the face. The bubble soon bursts and group effectiveness shows little improvement as interpersonal problems crop up. It is a situation of group puberty before full maturation of the group. Because of disillusionment, some members may leave the group. If the groups membership

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changes, either through the loss of an established member or the inclusion of a newcomer, it may well engage in some activities common in earlier stages of development as it accommodates the newcomer or adjusts to the loss. Through this stage is negative in nature, it is not to be discouraged. Deviants will either get converted to the groups views or depart from the group leaving it more cohesive. 6) Acceptance: In this final stage of development, the group has become a mature, effective, efficient and productive unit. The group has successfully worked through necessary interpersonal task and authority issues. It is now characterized by a clear purpose or mission; a well understood set of norms of behavior; a high level of cohesion; and a clear, but flexible, status structure of leader-follower relationships. This stage in Tuckman and Jensen is adjourning. This stage involves the termination of task behaviors and disengagement from relations-oriented behaviors. Some groups with a time bound program such as project teams with a specific objective have a well-defined point of adjournment. When the task is accomplished or the group fails to accomplish it, it may be disbanded or have a new composition, and the stages will start all over again. Other groups may go on indefinitely, till some key members leave the organization.

Four Stage Model

Here has given four stages of Group Development: 1) Latent: This stage stands for latent pattern, maintenance and tension reduction. It is marked by the groups natural need to reach agreement as to its purposes, work methods, and expectation and participation obligation. This agreement reduces the tension surrounding the groups direction, priorities and maintenance in the problem-solving process. 2) Adaptation: During this phase, the group generates critical information necessary to solve the problem at hand. It lays out facts and identifies the necessary skills and resources required for solution and also participants identify and take on essential roles that are key to the problem-solving efforts. 3) Integration: This phase requires flexibility reassessment and innovation on the part of members and leaders alike as they struggle to compromise and create the alternatives necessary to move the group into the final phase. 4) Goal Attainment: This is the last phase, in which the solution has been finally find out.

Punctuated-Equilibrium Model
Temporary groups with deadlines do not seem to follow the previous model. Studies indicate that they have their own unique sequencing of action (or inaction): i) Their first meeting sets the groups direction. ii) This first phase of group activity is one of inertia. iii) A transaction takes place at the end of this first phase, which occurs exactly when the group has used a half its allotted time. iv) A transaction initiates major changes. v) A second phase of inertia follows the transaction, and vi) The groups last meeting is characterized by marked accelerated activity. This pattern is called be punctuated equilibrium model and is shown in figure below:
(High) Performance

Phase 2
First Meeting

Completion

Transition Phase 1 A (A+B)/2 Time B

(Low)

Punctuated-Equilibrium Model 1) The first meeting sets the groups direction. A framework of behavioral patterns and assumptions through which the group will approach its project emerges in this first meeting. These lasting patterns can appear as early as the first few seconds of the groups life. 2) Once set, the groups direction becomes written in stone and is unlikely to be reexamined throughout the first half of the groups life. This is a period of inertiathat is, the group tends to stand still or become locked into a fixed course of action. Even if it gains new insights that challenge initial patterns and assumptions, the group is incapable of acting on these new insights in Phase 1.

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3) One of the more interesting discoveries made in these studies was that each group experienced its transition at the same point in its calendarprecisely halfway between its first meeting and its official deadlinedespite the fact that some groups spent as little as an hour on their project while others spent six months. It was as if the groups universally experienced a midlife crisis at this point. The midpoint appears to work like an alarm clock, heightening members awareness that their time is limited and that they need to get moving. 4) This transition ends Phase 1 and is characterized by a concentrated burst of changes in which old patterns are dropped and new perspectives are adopted. The transition sets a revised direction for Phase 2. 5) Phase 2 is a new equilibrium or period of inertia. In this phase, the group executes plans created during the transition period. 6) The groups last meeting is characterized by a final burst of activity to finish its work. In summary, the punctuated-equilibrium model characterizes groups as exhibiting long periods of inertia interspersed with brief revolutionary changes triggered primarily by their members awareness of time and deadlines. Keep in mind, however, that this model does not apply to all groups. Its essentially limited to temporary task groups that are working under a time-constrained completion deadline.

Determinants of Group Behavior

Group behavior in an organization is quite complex. As shown in figure below , group behavior is influenced by a number of factors, which can be classified as follows: 1) External Factors 2) Group Members Resources 3) Group Structure 4) Group Processes 5) Group Tasks 6) Performance and Satisfaction 1) Group and External Factors: There are generally several groups in an organization. Each group is a subsystem of the organization. It interacts with other sub-systems and the organization system. The organization system influences the groups through corporate strategy, organization structure, rules and regulations, organizational resources, staffing policies, appraisal and reward system, organizational culture, physical work environment such as layout, lighting, interior decoration, seating arrangement, temperature, etc.
Group Member Resources Group Task Group Processes Group Structure Performance and Satisfaction

External Factors

Determinants of Work-Group Behavior 2) Group Members Resources: Group performance depends, to considerable extent, on the number resources, which comprise: i) Abilities of Members: The performance of a group may be influenced by the task relevant intellectual abilities of each of its members. Research evidence indicates that individuals, who hold crucial abilities for attaining the groups task tend to be more involved in group activity, generally contribute more, and more likely to emerge as the group leaders, and are more satisfied if their talents are effectively utilized by the group. Further, intellectual ability and task relevant ability have both been found to be related to overall group performance. However, the correlation between abilities of members and group performance is subject to the impact of such variables as size of the group, the nature of the task, the action of its leader and the level of intra group conflict or cooperation. Personality Characteristics: The personality traits of group members can shape group attitudes and behavior. The attributes that have a positive connotation tend to be positively related to group productivity, morale and cohesiveness. These include traits such as sociability, self-reliance, and independence. In contrast, negatively evaluated traits such as authoritarianism, dominance, and manipulation tend to have adverse effect on group performance in the long run.

ii)

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3) Group Structure: Work groups are not unorganized mobs. They have a structure that shapes the behavior of members and makes it possible to explain and predict a large proportion of individual behavior within the group as well as the performance of the group itself. i) Formal Leadership: Almost every work group has a formal leader. He or she is typically identified by titles such as unit or department manager, etc. This leader can play an important part in the groups success. The leader is responsible for the direction and goal accomplishment of the group and can reward or punish individual members when they do not comply with directions, orders or rules of the group. The leader has the power to make the group members comply with directives because he has the organizations support. ii) Roles: A set of expected behavior patterns attributed to someone occupying a given position in a social unit. a) Role Identity: Certain attitudes and behavior consistent with a role. These attitudes and behaviors create role identity. b) Role Perception: An individuals view of how he or she is supposed to act in a given situation. c) Role Expectations: How others believe a person should act in a given situation. d) Role Conflict: A situation in which an individual is confronted by divergent role expectations. iii) Norms: Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group, which are shared by the groups members. Common Classes of Norms a) Performance Norms: It explains how hard members should work, how to get the job done, their level of output, appropriate levels of tardiness and the like. b) Appearance Norms: It explains how to appear yourself c) Social Arrangement Norms: These norms primarily regulate social interactions within the group. d) Allocation of Resources Norms: These norms cover things like pay assignment of difficult jobs, and allocation of new tools and equipment. iv) Status: Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. v) Size: The size of a group affect the groups overall behavior but the effect depends on what dependent variables you look at. One of the most important findings related to the size of a group has been labeled social loafing. Social loafing is the tendency for individuals to expend less effort when working collectively than when working individually. vi) Composition: Most group activities require a variety of skills and knowledge. Given this requirement it would be reasonable to conclude that heterogeneous groups-those composed of dissimilar individualswould be more likely to have diverse abilities and information and should be more effective. 4) Group Processes: Group processes refer to the communication patterns used by members, group decision processes, leader behavior, power dynamics, and conflict interactions. Group processes are significant as they can create outputs greater than the sum of their inputs because of the effect of synergy. The term synergy is drawn from biology that refers to an action of two or more substances that results in an effect that is much more than the summation of the individual substances. 5) Group Tasks: Groups are created to accomplish some tasks. Group tasks can range from simple to complex tasks. Simple tasks are routine and standardized in nature whereas complex tasks tend to be novel and non-routine. Generally, the more complex task, the more group will benefit from discussion among members on various alternatives. If the task is simple, the search for alternatives and thus discussion between group members would be limited. 6) Performance and Satisfaction: Group Performance and Satisfaction tend to be more on complex tasks than when tasks are simple. This is because of three reasons: i) The group task requires members to take initiative and use a variety of high-level skills. ii) Complex task is perceived as meaningful. iii) Task accomplishment would increase the prestige of the group.

Group Structure
A group is not an unorganized mob of few individuals but a conscious and purposive creation. Therefore, the group must have structure just like an organization has structure. In a simple term, structure is the pattern in which various parts or components of an object are interrelated or interconnected, in the case of a physical object, such a pattern is visible but in the case of a social object like work group, this is not visible. Therefore, the structure of a work group has to be deduced from its various components and how they work. These are group composition, group size, roles, leadership, group norms, group cohesiveness, and status. All these affect group performance.

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1) Group Composition Groups are formed with a number of people, may be with the diversified skills and characteristics or with unified skills and characteristics. The modern and global organization prefers diversified groups because diversified groups have members with varied skills, cultures and heterogeneous background which bring a variety of information to the company. Such information is useful to the company for making organizational strategies. Further, diversified composition of the group in terms of skills, knowledge, age, education, experience, gender, functional specialization, personality traits, culture etc. make creative decisions and perform creativity-demanding tasks. Group members belonging to the same demography can do the non-creative jobs more efficiently. Group demography is the degree to which group members share a common demographic attributes such as age, sex, race, educational level or length of service in an organization. The appropriate group structure should result in efficient group performance and sound group decision-making. 2) Group Size A group can have as few as two members or as many members as can interact meaningfully and influence one another. Group size can have an important effect on group performance. While a larger group has advantage over a smaller group in terms of idea generation and availability of resources, it may produce inhibition for interaction and communication among group members. Further, a larger group's behavioral pattern may result into social loading which affects group performance adversely. A smaller group may be effective in terms of interaction and communication among group members but lacks ability to handle complex tasks. Therefore, the group size should be determined by taking into consideration such factors as nature of tasks to be performed, maturity of group members, and the ability of group leader to manage communication, conflict, and group activities. Though experts view that group size of 5-7 members is the most effective; in certain cases, group size beyond these numbers may be effective if the above factors are highly positive. 3) Roles A role is the pattern of behaviors expected of a person occupying a particular position in a social unit. Since a person may be part of several social units like family, friendship group, organization, etc. he may occupy several positions at the same time. Even in an organization working as an employee, a person may hold a position; say chief accountant but the same person may be a superior, a subordinate, a peer, a member of finance committee, and so on. In every such form of position, behaviors expected from him may be different. Thus, there are certain actual behaviors and they create role identity. There are two elements that define this role identity: role perception and role expectations. i) Role Perception: An individual is expected to behave according to his own perception in the group or organization. The person forms this perception on the basis of certain stimuli like job description, clues provided in training programmes, role narration by peers, and so on. However, this perception may or may not be correct. In order to correct this perception, analysis of role expectations is required. ii) Role Expectations: Role expectations are defined as how others believe one should behave in a given situation. Combining both role perception and role expectations, actual role prescription for an individual, say an employee, proceeds in the following way: a) Initial perception of employee's own role. b) Manager's expectations from employee based on manager's perception of employee's role. c) Interaction of two sets of perception leading to develop employee's perception of the employee's role as seen by the manager. d) Prescription of actual role of the employee.

This process takes place in the case of group members too and each member becomes clear what role one is required to perform to achieve group objectives. Unless roles are clarified and agreed upon by group members, conflicts will inevitably arise. 4) Leadership A group leader plays an important role in the functioning of the group. He may take the group to a new height by channelizing the group members' resources through effective use of his leadership or may bring the group to low level through ineffective use of his leadership. Role of leadership in managing an organization has become so important that it has attracted the attention of both management academicians and practitioners. 5) Group Norms Technical Personnel do not speak much. Marketing people do not speak close to reality. 'Administrative personnel mostly confirm to the precedents. 'Bureaucrats strictly follow rules.' These are some of the common behaviors of groups. Groups of people behave in a similar pattern. This type of similar behavior of groups is called the normative function of groups. Normative function enables the managers why and how the group members behave as per the group norms. Now we shall study what is a norm? And group norms.

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According to Stephen R. Robbins, Norms are acceptable standards of behavior within a group that are shared by the group members." Norms specify the group members Dos and Donts. They also indicate the expectations of the group from its members. Thus, norms influence and shape the individual behavior in accordance with the group expectations. Norms vary from group to group, but certain norms are common for groups. All the work groups have the common norms of achieving high performance, improving productivity, doing the job in the right time, working smart, etc. Other common norms include appearance norms including dress, facial expressions, body language, social norms like treating the guests, friends, respecting the elders and superiors, salary levels, job family etc. Individuals values and behavior vary from that of the group's norms. But the groups influence the individuals to modify their behavior in accordance with the group's norms. Adjustment of employee's behavior to align with the norms of the group is called conformity. Employees sometimes modify their attitude and behavior willingly to confirm with the expectations of the group as the employee is aware of other members of the group. Such groups are called reference groups.' Thus employees modify their value, attitudes and behavior in accordance with the group norms. 6) Group Cohesiveness Group cohesiveness means the degree of attachment of the members to their group. If group cohesion is high, the interaction between members of the group is high and the degree of agreement in group opinion is high. Features of Cohesive Group A cohesive group usually has the following features: i) The members share the group goals and norms and have common interests and backgrounds. ii) The number of members is small. iii) The members interact among themselves quite frequently and interpersonal communication is very effective. iv) Group loyalty among the members is high because the group enjoys high status. v) The members stand united against any perceived external threats to the group. vi) The members keep themselves glued to the group as they feel that their needs would be satisfied by the group. vii) The group has a history of past success. Effects of Cohesiveness i) Cohesiveness influences productivity. Cohesiveness along with induction and performance norms influences productivity. ii) High cohesiveness along with positive induction of the employee to the work, company, colleagues etc. leads to high productivity iii) Low cohesiveness along negative induction leads to low productivity. iv) High cohesiveness along with high performance norms result in high productivity. v) High cohesiveness along with low performance norms leads to low productivity. vi) Low cohesiveness along with high performance norms results in moderate productivity. vii) High cohesiveness along with negative induction results in low productivity. Exhibit : Factors that Increase and Decrease Group Cohesiveness Factors that Increase Group Cohesiveness Factors that Decrease Group Cohesiveness Group members spend more time with each 1) Spend less time with each other other Small size of the group 2) Large size of the group Frequent interaction among members 3) Infrequent interaction among member Group members have common threats 4) No threats Agreement on Common Goals 5) Disagreement on Common Goals High competition with other groups 6) No competition with other groups Personal attractiveness 7) Unpleasant experiences Favorable evaluation 8) Domination by one or more members

1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8)

7) Group Status During the initial days of industrialization, production group in the industries was treated on a priority basis compared to that of the marketing group, finance group and human resources group. This priority has been shifted to other groups over the period. This is because of the social requirements. In other words, when a variety of products were not available, the society used to give top priority to the production group. This type of priority or position given by the society to groups and group members is referred to as status.

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Status is a socially defined position or rank given to groups or group members by others. Group members get high status or low status in the group based on their authority and performance. High-status members of the group have more freedom to deviate from the norms. This facility enables them to have the discriminatory powers in decision-making. Low-status members of the group should not have freedom to deviate from the norms as it leads to status inequality. Similarly, high-status groups should also have freedom to deviate from norms as it enables high organizational performance. In such cases, group members believe that there is status equality. Otherwise it results in status disequilibrium, which needs corrective behavior.

Group Processes
In every group, there are different processes that are used to getting things done. A process can be defined as a systematic method of handling activities. Within a work group, processes that have important implications for group performance are communication, leader behavior, power dynamics, conflicts and cooperation, and group decision making. Group processes have effect on group performance because of operation of social facilitation effect.

Social Facilitation Effect

Social facilitation effect refers to the tendency for performance to improve or decline in response to the presence of others. Though this tendency is applicable to individual performance also as some individuals do better in presence of some but poor in presence of some others, social facilitation effect is more applicable in the case of group performance. The research on social facilitation effect suggests that performance of simple, routine tasks tends to be speeded up and made more accurate by presence of others. When the work is more complex, requiring closer attention, the presence of others is likely to have a negative effect on performance, Because of operation of social facilitation effect and effect of group factors, two types of features may appear in groups: synergy in group and social loafing. 1) Synergy in Group: Groups are created basically to take advantages of synergistic effect. "Synergy is the process of putting two or more elements together to achieve a sum total greater than the sum total of individual elements separately. This effect can be described as 2 + 2 = 5 effect. Thus, synergistic effect is not automatic but depends on the complementarily of different elements that are put together and the way they interact among themselves, that is, how a particular element affects another and is affected by it. Putting the concept of synergy in group work means members of the group are complementary to each other and they contribute positively to one another. In fact, a group is created to undertake a task which requires a variety of skills and single individual cannot perform that task alone. To the extent, the complementarily among members is achieved, the group would be effective, other factors remaining the same. 2) Social Loafing: Social loafing is antithesis of synergy in group work which suggests that people working together on a common task may actually decrease their individual efforts; group work does not necessarily spurt group efforts. A simple phenomenon of social loafing may be observed in a group assignment to students during their study. In such an assignment, students find that one or two students do not put their weight for the completion of the project. These students may be called loafers (not attaching the same connotation which is attached with the term loafer in our social phenomenon) who frequently miss the project group's meetings, fail to perform their assigned tasks, and so on. They rely on the fact that the more reliable members will complete the project without their help, and still expect to share the credit and obtain the same marks from the professor since he will not be concerned with determining who worked and who did not, This phenomenon may happen in groups in work organizations too, For example, in one experiment, it was found that individual's total efforts were much higher than the group efforts. Individuals were asked to pull alone as hard as possible on a rope attached to a strain gauge. They averaged 138.6 pound of pressure while tugging on the rope. When the same individuals pulled on the rope of groups of three, they exerted only 352 pounds of pressure with an average of 117.3 pounds each. In a group of eight, the individual average dropped down still lower68.2 pounds. Dropping of average output in group efforts indicates that some members of the group were not contributing as much as they did individually. The possibility of occurring of social loafing in a group work increases because of the following reasons: i) ii) When the division of work cannot be accomplished properly and individual efforts are hard to determine, group efforts tend to slacken. When the group is not cohesive with high output norms, individual members do not contribute to the fullest extent. A group is not merely an assemblage of individuals but there should be a feeling that they are members of the group and share common interests, goals, and attitudes.

The phenomenon of social loafing can be minimized by constituting effective group.

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Guidelines for Effective Use of Group Dynamics

Group cohesiveness or solidarity may produce resistance to change or acceptance of it. It is the responsibility of a manager to use group dynamics in such a way that the solidarity of the group contributes to a favorable attitude towards high standards and acceptance of necessary changes. In order to achieve this, the following principles of group dynamics laid down by Dorwin Cartwright should be followed: 1) If the group is to be used effectively as a medium of change, those people who are to be changed and those who are to exert influence for change must have a strong sense of belongingness to the same group. 2) The more attractive the group is to its member, the greater is the influence that the group can exert on its members. 3) In attempts to change attitudes, values or behavior, the more relevant they are to the basis of attraction to the group, the greater will be the influence that the group can exert upon the members. 4) The greater the prestige of a group member in the eyes of the other members, the greater the influence he can exert. 5) Efforts to change individuals or subparts of a group, which if successful, would have the effect of making them deviate from the norms of the group will encounter strong resistance. 6) Strong pressure for change in the group can be established by creating a shared perception by the members of the need for change, thus making the source of pressure for change lie within the group. 7) Information relating to the need for change plans for change, and consequences of change must be shared by all relevant people in the group. 8) Changes, in one part of a group, produce strains in related parts which can be reduced only by eliminating the change or by bringing about readjustment in related parts.

Group Decision-Making
Decision-making is an act of choice wherein an individual or a group selects a particular course of action from the available alternatives in a given situation. The basic characteristics of the group decision-making process are as follows: i) It is a human process involving to a great extent the application of intellectual abilities. ii) It is a process of choosing a course of action from among the alternative courses of action. iii) Decision-making in business is always related to certain objectives. iv) It is the end process preceded by deliberation and reasoning. v) It is always related to a situation. A manager may take one decision in a particular set of circumstances and another in a different set of circumstances. vi) It involves some commitment, may be even for a short period. Decision-making is at the core of managerial planning. It involves establishing goals, defining tasks, searching for alternatives and choice of the best alternative. In an organization, decision-making may be carried out by both individuals and groups. In modern organizations facing the environmental uncertainties, group decisionmaking has become almost indispensable. In any organization, many decisions are made by individuals without taking the help of the group members while more decisions are made by group. Therefore, the question arises: what are the situations in which individual decisions should be preferred and what are the situations in which group decisions should be preferred? Following is the analysis of situations for individual and group decisions: 1) Nature of Problem: If the policy guidelines are given, individual decision-making will result in greater creativity as well as more efficiency. Where the problem requires a variety of expertise, group decisionmaking is suitable. 2) Acceptance of Decision: Where organizational prescription makes it mandatory to go for group decision, the decision would be accepted only when it has been made by the appropriate group, for example, committee decision. In other cases also, group decision is more accepted for implementation. 3) Quality of Decision: Group decision-making generally leads to higher quality solutions unless an individual has expertise in the decision area and this is identified in advance. 4) Climate of Decision-Making: Supportive climate encourages group problem solving whereas competitive climate stimulates individual problem solving. 5) Time Availability: Group decision-making is a time-consuming process and, therefore, when time at the disposal is sufficient, group decision-making can be preferred.

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Group Decision-Making Techniques

Group Decision Making Techniques

Interacting Groups

Brainstorming

Nominal Group Technique

Electronic Meeting

1) Interacting Groups: The most common form of group decision-making takes place in interacting groups. In these groups, members meet face-to-face and rely on both verbal and nonverbal interaction to communicate with each other. But interacting groups often censor themselves and pressure individual members toward conformity of opinion. Brainstorming, the nominal group technique, and electronic meetings have been proposed as ways to reduce many of the problems inherent in the traditional interactive group. 2) Brainstorming: Brainstorming is meant to overcome pressures for conformity in the interacting group that retard the development of creating alternatives. It does this by utilizing an idea-generation process that specifically encourages any and all alternatives, while withholding any criticism of those alternatives. In a typical brainstorming session, a half dozen to a dozen people sit around a table. The group leader states the problem in a clear manner so that it is understood by all participants. Members then freewheel as many alternatives as they can in a given length of time. No criticism is allowed, and all the alternatives are recorded for later discussion and analysis. That one idea stimulates other and that judgments of even the most bizarre suggestions are withheld until later encourage group members to think the unusual. The four basic rules of brainstorming are as under: i) No criticism is allowed. ii) Freewheeling is always welcome: The wilder the idea the better it is. It is easier to jot down than to think up ideas. iii) Quantity is desirable. iv) Combination and improvements are sought from the members. Brainstorming, however, is merely a process for generating ideas. The following two techniques go further by offering methods of actually arriving at a preferred solution. Advantages of the Brainstorming Technique i) The main advantages of this technique are broader participation, enthusiasm, deferred judgment, greater task orientation, team work and stimulated thinking. ii) This technique is very effective when the problem is comparatively specific and can be simply defined. A complex problem can be broken up into in many parts and each part can be taken up separately at a time.

Disadvantages of the Brainstorming Technique The process is very time consuming and it is quite possible that none of the ideas generated would be optimal. But the wasted time can be minimized if the members of the group are chosen carefully so that they understand the problem and feel that their contribution towards idea generation will be substantial. 3) Nominal Group Technique: The Nominal Group Technique restricts discussion or interpersonal communication during the decision-making process, hence, the term nominal. Group members are all physically present, as in a traditional committee meeting, but members operate independently. Specifically, a problem is presented and then the following steps take place: i) ii) Members meet as a group but, before any discussion takes place, each member independently writes down his or her ideas on the problem. After this silent period, each member presents one idea to the group. Each member takes his or her turn, presenting a single idea until all ideas have been presented and recorded. No discussion takes place until all ideas have been recorded.

iii) The group now discusses the ideas for clarity and evaluates them. iv) Each group member silently and independently rank-orders the ideas. The idea with the highest aggregate ranking determines the final decision. The chief advantage of the nominal group technique is that it permits the group to meet formally but does not restrict independent thinking, as does the interacting group.

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Advantages of Nominal Group Technique i) This technique integrates the advantages of both individual creativity and group creativity. ii) In many situations, it saves a great deal of time. iii) There is possibility of equal participation by all the members. 4) Electronic Meeting: The most recent approach to group decision-making blends the nominal group technique with sophisticated computer technology. It is called the computer-assisted group or electronic meeting. Once the technology is in place, the concept is simple, up to 50 people sit around a horse shoeshaped table, empty except for a series of computer terminals. Issues are presented to participants and they type their responses onto their computer screen. Individual comments, as well as aggregate votes, are displayed on a projection screen in the room. Advantages of Electronic Meeting Technique i) It is a quite speedy decision making techniques. ii) This technique ensures honesty on the part of the participants, as their names are not disclosed. iii) The ideas are processed very fast. iv) This technique involves very low social pressure. v) The potential for interpersonal conflict is very low. Disadvantages of Electronic Meeting Technique i) The main criticism lies in the high cost involved in installations of computer terminals. ii) This technique involves very low commitment to solutions on the part of the participants. iii) This technique eliminates the sense of cohesiveness. 5) Delphi Technique: This technique is a modification of brainstorming technique, except that it involves obtaining the opinions of experts physically separated from each other and unknown to each other. Generally, the type of problems handled by this technique is not specific in nature or related to a particular situation at a given time. The process is more involved in predicting and assessing the impact on our society of future events in a given area. For example, the Delphi technique may be used to understand the problems that could be created in the event of a war and after. The technique is characterized by the following sequential steps: i) The problem is identified and a set of questions is built relating to the problem so that the answers to these questions would generate solutions to the problem. These questions are consolidated in the form of a questionnaire. ii) Experts in the problem area are identified and contacted. The questionnaire is sent to each member who anonymously and independently answers the questions and sends it back to the central co-ordinator. iii) Once received, the results of this questionnaire are compiled and analyzed and on the basis of the responses received, a second questionnaire is developed that is mailed to the participating members. iv) The members are asked again to react to these responses and to comment, suggest, evaluate and answer the new questions, possibly generating some new ideas and solutions. v) The responses to this second questionnaire are compiled and analyzed by the central co-ordinator and if a consensus has not been reached, then a third questionnaire is developed, pinpointing the issue and unresolved areas of concern. vi) The above process is repeated until a consensus is obtained. Then final report is prepared and a solution is defined and developed if possible.
The problem is defined by the Delphi leaders

A sample of experts is selected

Questionnaires are developed and sent out to participants The new responses are compiled and new questions may be prepared Participants are asked to re-evaluate responses Responses are compiled and summarized into a questionnaire

Cycle stops when consensus is reached

Advantages of Delphi Technique i) It is simple to conduct. ii) Can be used where quantitative data is not possible. iii) The forecast is reliable as it is based on the opinion of people who know the product very well. iv) It is inexpensive. v) It takes little time.

Solution is developed

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Disadvantages of Delphi Technique i) The results are based on mere hunch of one or more persons and not on scientific analysis. ii) The experts may be biased. iii) The method is subjective and the forecast could be unfavorably influenced by persons with vested interests.

Positive Aspects of Group Decision-Making

1) Pooling of Knowledge and Information: Since many individuals involved in-group decision-making, more data and information can be brought to bear on the decision. The group provides specialized inputs in defining variables and suggests alternatives that the individual alone is unlikely to come up with. 2) Satisfaction and Communication: Individual satisfaction and comment in group decision-making are often enhanced. This may be caused by an attitude change regarding the alternatives a result of discussion. It may also be caused by the development of group spirit as people discover similarities among themselves. 3) Personnel Development: Group decision-making is a source of development of individuals in the organization. Learning is enhanced when one observes others, practices what has been seen, and experiences the positive rewards received for successfully repeating the new behavior. These three learning factors are present in group decision-making. Individuals can learn to know to gather data, evaluate it, generate alternatives, calculate risks, and choose the best solution by practicing with others in group decision. Thus the problem of succession in the organization can be overcome. 4) More Risk Taking: Every decision involves some kind of risk because a decision affects future events and one can never be sure whether a particular decision varies in terms of risk-taking aptitudes and capabilities, risk taking increases when these individuals are pooled in a group. Thus the risk taking tends to be higher in group decision-making. Higher risk taking generates in group decision making because: i) Group is able to share information in an open environment; members become more familiar with the problem being discussed; initially they may be cautious about risk, and ii) If the outcome of the decision is negative, it is easy to pass the buck by individual. Therefore, when amount of risk involved in a decision is significant, group decision-making is more appropriate. 5) Different Perspectives: Individuals with varied experience and interests help the group to see decisions, situations, and problems from different angles.

Negative Aspects of Group Decision-Making

Group decision-making has following negative features, which may either affect the quality of decision or cost of decision. 1) Time-Consuming and Costly: Inevitably, groups take more time to reach decisions than individuals. 2) Individual Domination: Because of the group dynamics prevailing in group interaction, some individuals dominate the group processes and have considerable bearing on decision outcomes. This may be because such individuals may enjoy higher status because of their age, experience, expertise, or other influencing characteristics. 3) Problem of Responsibility: No doubt, group decision brings more commitment from members and its implementation is easier but this is true when the decision implementation outcome is positive. When this outcome is negative, no one can be held responsible. 4) Groupthink: Groupthink is type of thinking that occurs when reaching agreement becomes more important to group member than arriving at a sound decision. Groupthink is more likely to happen in cohesive groups because there is pressure for conformity to group norms and members avoid being too harsh in their judgments of fellow members. They try to avoid bickering and conflict, which they perceive as a threat to the team spirit. 5) Goal Displacement: Sometimes, secondary considerations such as winning an argument, making a point, or getting back at a rival displace the primary task of making a sound decision or solving a problem.

Work Team
Meaning and Definition of Team
A team is a cooperative group whose members interact with each other towards the accomplishment of specified objectives. In many organizations, employees work in regular small groups called teams where their efforts must fit together like the pieces of a picture puzzle. When their work is interdependent, they act as a work team and seek to develop a cooperative state called teamwork.

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According to Katzenbach and Douglas Smith, A team is a small number of people with complementary skills who are committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals and approach for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. According to Stephen P. Robbins, A work team is a collection of people whose individual efforts result in a level of performance which is greater than the sum of their individual contributions.

Nature of Work-Team
A team may be defined as a group whose members have complementary skills and are committed to a common purpose or goals for which they hold themselves mutually accountable. The practice of working in teams for a coordinated is known as teamwork. A work-team generates positive synergy through the coordinated efforts of team members. The team efforts result in a level of performance that is greater than the sum of the individual inputs of the team members. This is why, many organizations structure their processes around teams. The team members focus on collective, rather than individual efforts, have common goals and are mutually accountable to each other.

Importance of Teams
1) Improved Employee Motivation: Work teams help in enhancing the employee motivation. Because work teams encourage employee involvement, these make the jobs more interesting and fulfill the social needs of the employees. Individuals are likely to perform better when they are working in the presence of other people. Individuals will work harder and put in a lot of extra efforts to remain in the teams good graces. 2) Positive Synergy: Teams have the potential to create high levels of productivity due to positive synergy created by them. The output in the form of performance productivities is generally more than the summation of inputs put in the form of employee efforts. There is a draw back of positive synergy also. Sometimes, managements resort to cuts in staff to use the positive synergy to get the same or greater output from fewer people. 3) Satisfaction of Social Needs: Man is a social animal. He always feels the need of affiliation. Teams can satisfy this need of the employees by increasing worker interactions and creating a feeling of brotherhood and friendship among team members. Such employees are always in a better position to cope with stress and they enjoy their jobs more. 4) Commitment to Team Goals: Teams generally develop a common purpose, commitment to that purpose and agreement upon specific goals. All this combined with the social pressures exerted by the team; result in a high degree of commitment to common team goals. The individual members sublimate their individual goals for the common goals of the group. 5) Improved Organizational Communication: As the teams encourage interactions, it will lead to improved communication. In case of self managed teams, interpersonal dependencies are created which require the members to interact considerably more than when they work on jobs alone. Cross functional teams create inter-functional dependencies and increase organization wide communication. 6) Benefits of Expanded Job Training: The implementation of team work always leads to expanded job training. Through this training employees build their technical, decision making and interpersonal skills. 7) Organizational Flexibility: Management has found that teams are more flexible and responsive to changing events than are traditional departments or other forms of permanent groupings. Teams have the capability to quickly assemble, deploy, refocus and disband. All this is because of the reason that teams focus on processes rather than functions. They encourage cross training so members can do each others jobs and expansion of skills. This expansion of skills increases organizational flexibility.

Team vs. Group

Teams are specific kinds of groups; all groups can't be called teams. A group consists of a number of people who interact with one another, are psychologically aware of one another, and think of themselves as a group. A team is a group whose members influence one another toward the accomplishment of organizational objectives. In groups, work performance primarily depends on the work of individual members. But performance of a team depends on both individual contributions and collective efforts of team members working in concert as in case of musical orchestra. Not all groups in organizations are teams, but all teams are groups. A group qualifies as a team only if its members focus on helping one another to accomplish organizational objectives. In today's quickly changing business environment, teams have emerged as a requirement for success. Therefore, good managers should constantly try to help groups become teams.

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Team vs. Group

Basis 1) Purpose Work Groups The basic purpose of a work group is to interact primarily to share information. The performance of a work group is merely the summation of each group members individual contribution. There is no positive synergy. Every work group must have strong and clearly focused leaders. The responsibility is individual. In the work group, the members are individually accountable. The basic objective of work groups is the attainment of the goals of the organization. The work group has formal and efficient meetings. The effectiveness of the work group is measured indirectly. For example, if the overall financial performance of the business is good, it will be presumed that the groups have also effectively contributed to the performance. The functioning of the work group is that it discusses, decides and delegates. Groups can be of any size. Work Teams The basic purpose of a work team is collective performance. A work team generates positive synergy through coordinated effort. The level of performance of a team is greater than the sum of individual inputs. The teams do not have a clearly focused leader, they has shared leadership roles. The responsibility is collective. In a team, there is both individual and mutual accountability. The teams have their own specific objectives that the teams themselves deliver. The team, generally, encourages open ended active problem solving meetings. The effectiveness of the teams is directly measured by the teams by assessing the collective work products.

2) Synergy

3) Leadership 4) Responsibility 5) Accountability 6) Objective

7) Meetings 8) Measurement of Effectiveness

9) Functioning 10) Size

The functioning of the team is that it discusses, decides and does real work. Teams are needed to be small.

Types of Team
In many organizations, there are three types of team: 1) Problem-Solving Teams: A team set up to help resolve a specified problem within the organization is called a problem-solving team. The typical problemsolving team has 5 to 10 members and is formed to discuss ways to improve quality in all phases of the organization, to make organizational processes more efficient, or to improve the overall work environment. After the problemsolving team reaches a consensus, it makes recommendations to management about how to deal with the specified problem. Management may implement these recommendations with or without modification and the problem-solving team may be disbanded. 2) Self-Managed Teams: Also known as self-directed work group, a selfmanaged team is set up to plan, organize, influence and control its own work situation with only minimal intervention and direction from the top management. This creative team design involves a highly integrated group of several skilled individuals who are cross-trained and have the responsibility and authority to perform some specified activity. It is responsible for whole tasks in the area of its responsibility. Self-managed team is an important way of structuring, managing and rewarding work. Such teams require only minimum attention of the top management which can concentrate on strategic planning. The activities which may be delegated to the self-managed teams include setting of work schedules, establishing work-pace, determining the level of increase in the salary and perquisites, designing the performance appraisal system, etc. Selfmanaged teams are being increasingly used in industrial organizations exposed to greater environmental changes. For the success of such teams, the members of such teams should be selected carefully and adequately trained.
Problem Solving Team

Self Managed Team

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Self-managed teams are catching on everywhere, India being no exception. Companies as diverse as Titan, Reliance, ABB, Tata Information Systems (TISL), GE plastics India and Phillips are empowering employeesboth frontline as well as production staff. Wipro had 29 such team and their number was expected to go upto 130. Wipro Infotech has 10 such and the plan was to hike them to around 40 to 50. Self Directed Teams will have the Following Characteristics i) They are empowered to share the management and leadership functions. ii) They plan, control and improve their own work processes. iii) They set their own goals and inspect their own work. iv) They often create their own schedules and review their performance as a group. v) They may prepare their own budgets and coordinate their work with other departments. vi) They usually order materials, keep inventories and deal with suppliers. vii) They are frequently responsible for acquiring any new training they might need. viii) They may hire their own replacement or assume responsibility for disciplining their own members. ix) They, and not others outside the team, take responsibility for the quality of their products or services. 3) Cross-Functional Teams: A cross-functional team is composed of personnel from different functional areas (e.g., finance, marketing, human resources, quality control and operations) of the organization who are all focused on a specified objective.) For example, Hindustan Sanitary Wares Ltd. uses crossfunctional teams to reduce wastage and improve quality. Such learns are also suitable to control product costs, to choose and implement new technology and to achieve effective coordination among different departments. Cross-functional teams may or may not be self-managed, though self-managed teams are generally crossfunctional. Because cross-functional team members are from different departments within the organization, the team possesses the expertise to coordinate all the activities within the organization (hat impact its own work. Even the problem-solving team in an organization may be composed of representatives of different departments, i.e., have the cross-functional characters. Cross-functional teams are generally made up of employees from about (he same hierarchical level, but from different functional areas, who come together to accomplish a task. The common examples of such teams are taskforces and committees. A task force is just a temporary cross-functional team whereas a committee is composed of members drawn from different departments.

Cross-Functional Teams

4) Virtual Teams:With the advent of advanced information technology, members can now communicate at a distance through electronic means, such as e-mail, chat rooms, phone conferencing, faxes, satellite transmissions, and websites. Knowledge-based tasks performed by members in remote locations can become members of so-called virtual teams. Virtual teams are increasingly evident in global and partnered operations. One key to effective use of virtual teams is called synchronous technologies, which allow members to interact at the same time, or in real time. Audio and videoconferencing are examples of synchronous technologies, whereas asynchronous technologies, such as e-mail, chat rooms, group calendars, bulletin boards, and Web pages may be used when delayed interaction is acceptable. Virtual teams can be effective because they are flexible and are driven by information and skills rather than time and location.

Foundation of Group Behavior (Chapter 2.2)

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Stages of Team Development

Handy identifies four stages of team development: 1) Forming, 2) Storming, 3) Norming, 4) Performing. Woodcock suggests corresponding four stages as follows: 1) Underdeveloped, 2) Experimental, 3) Consolidating, 4) Mature.
Form the team Set targets Plan the activity Analyze problems Find solutions Put into action Validate the result Register achievement 6-8 cross-function members Investigate current conditions Assign every member a role Identify the causes

Forming/Underdeveloped Stage
During this stage, new teams are varying of their leaders as well as each other. They are likely to question each other. However, they reveal very little about themselves. They play it safe and conform to the company line. They conceal their mistakes. Of course, they challenge others and do not listen.

Storming/Experimental Stage
There may prevail, varied negative opinions and contradictory feelings among team members. However, these conflicts are effectively handled by them. Once the conflict is constructively resolved, a positive approach may emerge. The worst of the storm is over. The individual starts perceiving himself as a part of the team and begins understanding his role in it.

Consult the leader if necessary Ensure unity of purpose Is the solution permanent? Acknowledge result as target

Norming/Consolidating Stage
As soon as the how to proceed issue is settled, a general consensus takes place. Here members establish standards of behavior and agree with procedural rules. There may be raised searching questions to challenge the intellect of members. An attempt is also made to encourage each other to evolve an agreed plan of action embracing norms of behavior (i.e., how to resolve conflict, time keeping and housework, etc.).

Performing/Maturity Stage

Figure: How Teams manage themselves in Indian Context

In this stage, there exists high level of clarity of goals, participation, trust and creativity. Members listen to each other and make decisions through consensus. They are able to manage conflict effectively.

Advantages of Work Teams

The use of teams in organizations has increased because teams perform better than traditional work groups. Moreover, work teams provide significant benefits to organizations. The use of teams have resulted in improvement in organizational performance, increase in employee benefits, reduction in costs, and improvement in organizational processes. 1) Improved Organizational Performance: Teams help organizations improve their performance by enhancing their productivity, quality and customer service. Teamwork reduces wastage of workers efforts, minimizes workers errors, and enables workers to serve customers better. In addition, teamwork encourages the creative instincts of the workers and encourages them to develop innovative solutions to existing problems. Moreover, since teams bring together people from diverse backgrounds, they are able to develop new and more effective ways of doing a particular job. These improvements are possible when teams effectively combine individual efforts and continuously look for ways to enhance the productivity of their organization. 2) Employee Benefits: A team environment benefits both organizations and employees. Nowadays, employees are not just satisfied with a good pay and other conventional benefits. For these workers, teamwork provides a sense of dignity, self-control, self-fulfillment and satisfaction. Teams allow these employees to manage their work and make independent decisions instead of relying on their superiors for instructions. As a result, employees feel that their work is making a difference to their organization and feel valued and respected. Employees who feel this way enjoy their work, are exposed to lower levels of stress, and make less use of employee assistance programs. 3) Reduced Costs: Working in teams makes employees feel valued and committed. Team members feel that they are responsible for the output produced. Therefore, they try to reduce wastage, be more regular for work and minimize errors. This sense of responsibility also leads to a fall in absenteeism and a decline in employee turnover. Due to these initiatives by team members, organizations have been able to cut costs and reduce turnover rates. Kodak reduced its labor turnover to half the prevailing industry average using the team approach. Similarly, Texas Instruments reduced costs by more than 50 per cent through its use of teams.

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4) Organizational Enhancement: In large organizations, the gap between employees and the top management can be reduced by decreasing the number of layers between them. This can be done by using a team approach to work. The team members feel closer to top management and, as a result, feel important. Moreover, teams bring in innovation and creativity by forcing team members to look for newer ways of doing things. Teams also help organizations adapt to changes quickly, thereby enabling them to withstand competition.

Disadvantages of Work Team

1) Changing Team Composition: The teams keep on undergoing changes from the very beginning to the end of its task life. The members may join, be transferred, promoted or they may simply quit the organization and lured away by another company. Too many such changes interfere with group relationships and prevent the growth of the team. 2) Hidden Cost: The second problem is that the teams take time and cost to develop, maintain and function. The scholars refer to these as hidden costs. At times, it might be much easier for an individual to work out an issue alone than to resolve the differences of opinion with other people. Research indicates that the hidden costs may be so high that they even affect the benefits of teams. 3) Social Loafing: Another problem being faced by the teams is that of social loafing. When the employees think that their contribution to a group contribution cannot be measured, they may lessen their output and engage in social loafing. It occurs when employees exert less effort and usually perform at a much lower level when working in groups than when working alone. Social loafing is most likely to occur in large teams where individual output is difficult to identify. It may also occur when the employees have a feeling of being able to hide in the crowd and therefore not to be able to be singled out for blame. They may even indulge in social loafing when they arent much worried that their performance will be noticed.

Resistance to Teams in Organizations

Though a very large number of people believe in the argument for greater focus on teams, yet when it comes to using the team approach, the same people are reluctant to rely on teams. Three primary sources for peoples reluctance about teams that stand out are: 1) Lack of Conviction: Some people do not believe that teams (except in unusual or unpredictable circumstance); really do perform better than individuals. Some think that the teams waste time in unproductive meetings and discussions, and actually generate more complaints than constructive results. Others think that teams are probably useful, from a human relations point of view, but are a hindrance when it comes to work productivity and decisive action. 2) Personal Discomfort and Risk: Many people fear or do not like to work in teams. Some are true loners who contribute best when left to work quietly on their own. Most peoples discomfort with teams, however, is because they find the team approach; too time consuming, too uncertain or too risky. Many people just do not like the idea of having to depend on others, having to listen or agree to contrary points of view, or having to suffer the consequence of other peoples mistakes our parents, teachers and other elders emphasizes individual responsibility as paramount from our earliest days onwards. Even in organizations, performance assessment is individual based. A reluctance to take a risk and submit ones fate to the performance of a team, therefore, is almost inbred. 3) Weak Performance Ethics: Some organizations lack compelling purpose that would appeal rationally and emotionally to their people. At worst, the environment of internal politics or external public relationship undermines the mutual trust and openness upon which teams depend. Politics displaces performance as the daily focus and inevitably politics plays on individual insecurities that in turn further erode the conviction and courage to invest in a team approach. Replacing individually focused management structures with team oriented designs will matter little, or even do damage, unless the organization has a strong performance ethic.

Guidelines for Effective Use of Teams

1) Use the Right Team for the Job: For example, problem-solving teams should be disbanded once the job is done. 2) Create a Hierarchy of Teams: There must be an organizational structure of teams to facilitate coordination and communication. 3) Build Trust: For example, you cant build team spirit if the teams task is to eliminate team member jobs. 4) Address People Issues: A significant investment must be made in building and maintaining teams if they are going to work.