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Fariha Ansari 05 Arooba Kazi Arshiya Khan Saima Khan Farzana Sayyed 18 22 25 50 (B)
Prof : Jaydeep Sir Topic: Waste Management
Year: 2012-2013

 Waste
Wastes are objects, which the owner or holder wishes to dispose of or where their collection and treatment as waste is required by the public interest. It shall be in the public interest to collect, store, and transport and treat waste if otherwise the results may be: a) Hazard to human health or intolerable nuisances. b) Hazards to the natural living conditions of animals and plants. c) More than inevitable pollution of the environment. d) Fire or explosion risks. e)Sound and noise in excessive amounts. f) Disturbances of public order and safety. g) Appearance and multiplication of harmful animals and plants as well as the encouragement of pathogenic substances.

Types of Wastes:
Wastes from Stone Quarrying Activities

In order to extract the stone from the deposit an appropriate method of quarrying must be applied. The main objective of the exploitation method under the current strict framework of laws and directives concerning the environmental impacts should be the minimization of waste generation. The product of quarrying operations is the commercial size block with dimensions about 1.5x1.4x2.8 m. During extraction huge quantities of waste material are produced due to breakage of the products for various reasons such as physicalmechanical characteristics of the material, the degree of discontinuities in the deposit etc. The types of wastes generated from extraction activities of natural stones can be classified in four main categories based on their characteristics that condition the possibility of recovery (OSNET vol. 7, 2004): a. Defective or third choice blocks with regular dimensions but either with poor technical-aesthetical properties or not the correct size for further processing.

b. Large shapeless blocks (=0.2 m3) which present excessive irregularity in geometry and cannot be sawed into slabs. c. Small shapeless blocks (=0.2 m3 or dimension < 0.5 m) that are extracted from fractured parts of the deposit or derive from block squaring. d. Small to fine size rocks (splints, chips), dust and slurry coming from drilling and cutting operations.

Fig: Typical scheme of waste production from quarrying operations In all extraction activities the operations are carried out with water as a cooling agent for the equipment. Thus, amounts of slurry are produced which is a mixture of water and fine particles of the quarried material. In most cases slurry is collected and recycled in order to retrieve the water in the extraction process. The cake that remains contains about 20 % of water and is usually disposed in dumps. Wastes from Stone Processing Activities Processing of natural stone aims to produce finished (e.g. tiles) or semi-finished (e.g. slabs) products in order to cover the market needs as described in the relative paragraph. During the production of the marketable elements considerable amounts of wastes are generated

(Figure 12). During the production of the above elements considerable amounts of wastes are generated. As reported in OSNET vol. 9, 2004 the quantity of waste for both calcite and silicate materials exceeds 30% of the raw material and can reach 40% (Stone 2004). The processing waste can be classified in three main categories depending on the size of the piece, according to OSNET vol. 9, 2004: a. Large to medium size waste called scrap. This kind of waste can have a size of several centimeters and comes from broken or defective slabs whose surface might be polished. b. Medium to small size waste consisting of splints, flakes, chips which are created during trimming of blocks or slabs. c. Small size waste consisting of fine particles and has the form of dust or slurry. Slurry is created from all stone cutting operations when the cooling water mixes with the fine stone particles. It is collected and recycled in appropriate instalments in order to recycle the water into the production process. Using press filters the water recovery can reach up to 90% still leaving a material called sludge with a high humidity content (22-28%).

Typical scheme of waste production from processing operations The composition of waste generated from processing activities depends on the raw material and on the abrading agents that are used in the processing equipment which are required to process harder stones like granite. The waste is constituted by calcium carbonate or silica aluminates if the original material is marble or granite, respectively. All processing operation like sawing and polishing are carried in wet conditions due to the equipment cooling and surface cleaning needs thus, large amounts of slurry are produced which is recycled in order to recover the water. The amount of stone slurry that was generated in Portugal in 1998 reached 600,000 tons while for the year 2000 it was estimated to 1,000,000 tons (Almeida et al, 2005). Due to its composition, this slurry presents a great potential of being used as a by-product in mineral consuming industries, thus reducing the environmental impact of the natural stone industry.

Other Wastes

In the labouring of a processing plant or a quarry the inevitable production of wastes is always inherent to all the industrial process. The wastes produced can be divided in two great groups, the resultants directly from the activity (inert wastes without commercial value) and wastes resulting from the equipments and subsidiary materials, essential to the development of the activity. In the industry of the ornamental stone are generated wastes that are common to several operations (called non specific since they are result from subsidiary proceedings); metal wastes, used tires, used oils, etc. The table bellow synthesizes for each area the wastes originated in a processing plant. The figure bellow represents the circuit of the main wastes (mud and stone waste) in the extraction and processing phases of the ornamental stone industrial process.

Municipal Waste (including Household and Commercial)

Municipal waste is generated by households, commercial activities and other sources whose activities are similar to those of households and commercial enterprises. It does not include other waste arising e.g., from mining, industrial or construction and demolition processes. Municipal waste is made up to residual waste, bulky waste, secondary materials from separate collection (e.g., paper and glass), household hazardous waste, street sweepings and litter collections. It is made up of materials such as paper, cardboard, metals, textiles, organics (food and garden waste) and wood. Figure 1 highlights the typical composition of municipal waste. As can be seen, the largest fraction is paper and cardboard at 35% of the waste stream, followed by organic material at 25%. Municipal waste represents approximately 14% of all waste generated. Municipal waste has traditionally been landfilled and this remains the predominant management option in most countries. However, some countries have taken significant steps away from landfill. Alternatives offered include incineration (increasingly with recovery of energy), composting and recycling of glass, paper, metal, plastics and other materials. There are numerous potential impacts associated with the landfilling of waste including the production of leachate and landfill gas, odours, flies, vermin and the use of land. Industrial waste (including manufacturing)

Manufacturing industry waste comprises many different waste streams arising from a wide range of industrial processes. Some of the largest waste generating industrial sectors in Western and Central Europe include the production of basic metals, food, beverage and tobacco products, wood and wood products and paper and paper products. It has been estimated that over 33 million tonnes of industrial waste was generated in Europe in 1998. Waste from the manufacturing sector continues to rise, despite national and international declarations to reduce waste from manufacturing industry, to introduce cleaner technologies and other waste minimisation initiatives and to work towards manufacturing practices that are sustainable in the long term. The manufacturing industry has a central role to play in the prevention and reduction of waste as the products that they manufacture today become the wastes of tomorrow. Manufacturers can achieve this by:

Considering the impacts of their products throughout its life at the design stage of the product

Using manufacturing processes that minimise material and energy usage Eliminating or reducing where possible the use of substances or materials hazardous to health or the environment

Manufacturing products in such a way that they last longer and may be recycled or reused at the end-of-life stage.

EU and government policy across Europe is increasingly driven by the need to influence manufacturing practices in an effort to decrease the environmental impact of produces during their manufacture, use and end-of-life. Hazardous waste:

Hazardous waste arises from a wide range of different sources including households, commercial activities and industry. Quantity and content Hazardous waste represents approximately 1% of all waste generated in Europe. Wastes are classified as being hazardous depending on whether they exhibit particular characteristics. Further details can be found by clicking on the following link: Insert link to definitions section. The main disposal route for hazardous waste is landfill, incineration and physical or chemical treatment. On the recovery side, a significant proportion of hazardous waste is recycled or burned as a fuel. Although hazardous waste represents only approximately 1% of all waste generated in Europe, it can present a potential risk to both human health and the environment. Hazardous waste is typically the subject of special legislation and requires special management arrangements to ensure that hazardous waste is kept separate from and treated differently to non-hazardous waste. Construction and Demolition Waste:

Construction and demolition waste is made up of two individual components: construction waste and demolition waste. It arises from activities such as the construction of buildings and civil infrastructure, total or partial demolition of buildings and civil infrastructure, road planning and maintenance. In some countries even materials from land levelling are

regarded as construction and demolition waste. Construction and demolition waste makes up approximately 25% of all waste generated in the EU with a large proportion arising from the demolition and renovation of old buildings. It is made up of numerous materials including concrete, bricks, wood, glass, metals, plastic, solvents, asbestos and excavated soil, many of which can be recycled in one way or another. The main methods used to treat and dispose of construction and demolition waste include landfill, incineration and recycling with some countries obtaining recycling rates as high as 80%. Construction activity is seen as a key indicator of growth and prosperity in Western countries. However, construction and demolition waste instead of being a burden on society and the environment, can become a resource to be recycled and reused within the construction industry. Construction and demolition waste has been identified as a priority waste stream by the European Union. This means that particular attention will be paid to policies and measures to ensure increased recycling of construction and demolition waste. Due to the very large volume of construction and demolition waste produced, it can use up valuable space in landfills. In addition, if not separated at source it can contain small amounts of hazardous waste. However, it also has a high resource value and the technology for the separation and recovery of construction and demolition waste is well established, readily accessible and in general inexpensive. Most importantly, there is a reuse market for aggregates derived from construction and demolition waste in roads, drainage and other construction projects. Mining Waste:

Mining waste arises from prospecting, extraction, treatment and storage of minerals. Mining and quarrying activities give rise to the single biggest waste stream at 29% of the total quantity of waste generated in EEA countries. It has been shown that approximately 50% of the material extracted during extraction and mining activities in Europe becomes waste. It is made up of topsoil, overburden, waste rock, waste from the processing of the ore body (tailings) which may also include process water, process chemicals and portions of the remaining materials. The two major concerns in relation to mining waste are the large volumes that are produced as well as the potential for hazardous substances to be present in the waste stream. Large areas of land are used for depositing mining waste and this activity has the potential to cause environmental pollution if not properly controlled. A number of recent cases of uncontrolled releases of mining waste to surface waters (rivers

and lakes) have highlighted the risks of poor mining waste management. In response, the EU has proposed initiatives that are designed to improve mining waste management. Waste from electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE):

Waste electrical and electronic equipment (commonly referred to as WEEE) consists of end of life products and comprises of a range of electrical and electronic items such as:

Refrigerators, IT and telecommunication equipment, Freezers, Electrical and electronic tools, Washing machines, Medical equipment Toasters, Monitoring and control instruments, Hairdriers, Automatic dispensers, Televisions, etc. Thus, sources are all users of electrical and electronic equipment from householders to all kinds of commercial and industrial activities. WEEE is one of the fastest growing waste streams in the European Union and makes up approximately 4% of municipal waste.An estimate of the composition of WEEE arising is shown in Figure 4. As can be seen, iron and steel are the most common materials found in electrical and electronic equipment and account for almost half of the total weight of WEEE. Plastics are the second largest component by weight representing approximately 21% of WEEE. Non-ferrous metals including precious metals represent approximately 13% of the total weight of WEEE and glass around 5%. Expected growth rates are between 3 and 5% each year. This means that in five years time, 16-28% more WEEE will be generated and in 12 years the amount is expected to double. This rapid growth rate is due to the fast pace of technological development, especially in information technology (IT) which have resulted in the more frequent replacement of electrical and electronic equipment by industry. At present, a large proportion of WEEE is disposed of in landfills or incineration plants, depending on local or national practices. In some countries and regions, products such as fridges and freezers are separately collected and sent to recycling plants for dismantling and recycling. WEEE has been identified as a priority waste stream by the European Commission due to its potentially hazardous nature, the consumption of resources in its manufacture and its expected growth rates. In response, the European Commission has prepared legislation in the form of the following two Directives:

A Directive on Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE); and A Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment. The European Commission is also preparing legislation in the form of the following draft Directive: A Directive on the Environmental Impact of Electrical and Electronic Equipment. The directives propose that manufacturers will become responsible for taking back and recycling electrical and electronic equipment. This will in turn provide industry with incentives to design electrical and electronic equipment in an environmentally more efficient way, taking waste management issues into consideration. Biodegradable municipal Waste:

Biodegradable Municipal Waste (BMW) is waste from households and commercial activities that is capable of undergoing biological decomposition. Food waste and garden waste, paper and cardboard are all classified as biodegradable municipal waste. Approximately 60% of municipal waste is biodegradable. In 1995, approximately 107 million tonnes of biodegradable municipal waste was produced in EU plus Norway of which 66 percent is consigned to landfill. A range of options are used to treat BMW. Alternatives to landfill include composting, mechanical-biological pre-treatment recycling and incineration (with and without energy recovery). As can be seen from the figure below, those countries and regions such as Denmark, The Netherlands, Flanders and Austria, which have a low reliance on landfill, employ a mixture of incineration, composting and recycling to treat BMW. Potential impacts associated with landfilling of biodegradable municipal waste include the production of leachate and landfill gas, odours, flies and vermin. In response to these concerns, the Landfill Directive (Council Directive 1999/31/EC), amongst other things, places targets for the reduction in the proportion of biodegradable municipal waste that may be consigned to landfill. By 2006 Member States are restricted to landfilling a maximum of 75% of the total amount by weight of BMW produced in 1995. This target increases to 50% in 2009 and 35% in 2016. To meet these targets, Member States are obliged to set up national strategies to reduce the quantity of biodegradable waste going to landfill. Packaging waste:

Packaging is defined as any material which is used to contain, protect, handle, deliver and present goods. Items like glass bottles, plastic containers, aluminium cans, food wrappers, timber pallets and drums are all classified as packaging. Packaging waste can arise from a wide range of sources including supermarkets, retail outlets, manufacturing industries, households, hotels, hospitals, restaurants and transport companies. Packaging waste represents up to 17% of the municipal waste stream. As it has a relatively short life, it soon becomes a waste that must be treated or disposed off. A number of different methods are used to manage packaging waste. These included reuse, recycling (mechanical, chemical and feedstock), composting, thermal treatment and landfill. In 1998, approximately 50 percent of packaging waste was recycled in 12 EU countries with an additional 9% reported as being recovered (i.e, waste to energy). The remaining 41 percent of packaging waste was landfilled. Packaging and packaging waste can have a number of impacts on the environment. Some of these impacts can be associated with the extraction of the raw materials used for manufacturing the packaging itself, impacts associated with the manufacturing processes, the collection of packaging waste and its subsequent treatment or disposal. In addition packaging may contain some critical substances e.g., PVC and heavy metals which may pose a risk to the environment. End-of-Life Vehicles (ELVs) and Tyres:

End-of-life vehicles are defined as cars that hold up to a maximum of eight passengers in addition to the driver, and trucks and lorries that are used to carry goods up to a maximum mass of 3.5 tonnes. Thus their sources range from households to commercial and industrial uses. In the year 2000, 13.4 million cars were scrapped in the EU. This is projected to increase by 21% by 2015 to 17 million. Cars are composed of numerous different materials. Approximately 75% of the weight of a car is made up of steel and aluminium, most of which is recycled. Other materials present include lead, mercury, cadmium and hexavalent chromium, in addition to other dangerous substances including anti-freeze, brake fluid and oils that, if not properly managed, may cause significant environmental pollution. The remainder is composed of plastic which is recycled, incinerated or landfilled. The EU introduced a directive on end of life vehicles (2000/53/EC) which had an implementation date of April 2002. The Directive's main focus is on waste prevention. It also contains provisions on recycling ELVs, producer responsibility, reduced use of hazardous substances and increased use of recycled materials in vehicle manufacture.

Progressive targets are set out for ELV recycling. The Directive introduces provisions for the collection of all ELVs, with a requirement for ELVs to be transferred to authorised treatment facilities. Agricultural waste:

Agricultural waste is composed of organic wastes (animal excreta in the form of slurries and farmyard manures, spent mushroom compost, soiled water and silage effluent) and waste such as plastic, scrap machinery, fencing, pesticides, waste oils and veterinary medicines. No overall estimates are available on the quantity of agricultural waste produced in the EU. Ireland has estimated that in 1998 over 80% of national waste arising were from agricultural sources. There are a number of methods used to treat agricultural waste. These include spreading the waste on land under strict conditions, anaerobic digestion and composting. There are a number of potential environmental impacts associated with agricultural waste if it is not properly managed not least of which is the run-off of nutrients to surface waters which can cause over enrichment of the water body. Leaking and improper storage of agricultural waste can also pose a serious threat to the environment should the waste reach surface waters. In addition, farming activities can give rise to emissions of ammonia and methane which can cause acidification and contribute to greenhouse gases emissions.

Waste Prevention and Minimisation:

Prevention means eliminating or reducing the quantity of waste which is produced in the first place, thus reducing the quantity of waste which must be managed. Prevention can take the form of reducing the quantities of materials used in a process or reducing the quantity of harmful materials which may be contained in a product. Prevention can also include the reuse of products. Prevention is the most desirable waste management option as it eliminates the need for handling, transporting, recycling or disposal of waste. It provides the highest level of environmental protection by optimising the use of resources and by removing a potential source of pollution.

Minimisation includes any process or activity that avoids, reduces or eliminates waste at its source or results in re-use or recycling. It can be difficult to draw a clear distinction between the terms "Prevention" and "Minimisation". Waste prevention and minimisation measures can be applied at all stages in the life-cycle of a product including the production process, the marketing, distribution, or utilisation stages, up to discarding the product at the end-of life stage. By examining each stage in the life cycle of a product, it may be possible that the quantities of waste produced at each stage can be reduced. During the design stage of a product, consideration can be given to the types of materials to be used, the quantity of materials and the recyclability of the product once it reaches its end of life. The use of efficient processes in terms of energy and material requirements during the manufacture of a product are other important considerations. Consideration can also be given to minimising the packaging for the product.

Re-use:

Re-use means the use of a product on more than one occasion, either for the same purpose or for a different purpose, without the need for reprocessing. Re-use avoids discarding a material to a waste stream when its initial use has concluded. It is preferable that a product be re-used in the same state e.g., returnable plastic pallets, using an empty glass jar for storing items and using second hand clothes. Reuse is normally preferable to recycling as there isn't the same requirement for the material to have gone through a detailed treatment process thus helping to save on energy and material usage. Recycling:

Recycling involves the treatment or reprocessing of a discarded waste material to make it suitable for subsequent re-use either for its original form or for other purposes. It includes recycling of organic wastes but excludes energy recovery. Recycling benefits the environment by reducing the use of virgin materials. Many different materials can by recycled. Waste materials can either be recycled for use in products similar to their original use (e.g., paper recycling) or can be recycled into a product which is different that the

original use (e.g., recycling plastic bottles into fleece jackets or using construction and demolition waste as road aggregate. In the EU up to 13% of municipal waste is reycled.

Waste Management
Waste management is the collection, transport, processing, recycling or disposal, and monitoring of waste materials. Concern over environment is being seen a massive increase in recycling globally which has grown to be an important part of modern civilization. The consumption habitsof modern consumerist lifestyles are causing a huge global waste problem. Industrialization and economic growth has produced more amounts of waste, including hazardous and toxic wastes. There is a growing realization of the negative impacts that wastes have had on the local environment (air, water, land, human health etc.) Waste management is the collection of all thrown away materials in order to recycle them and as a result decrease their effects on our health, our surroundings and the environment and enhance the quality of life.Waste management practices differ for developed and developing nations, for urban and rural areas, and for residential and industrial producers.Waste Management flows in a cycle: monitoring, collection, transportation, processing, disposal or recycle. Through these steps a company can effectively and responsibly manage waste output and their positive effect they have on the environment. Waste generation per capita has increased and is expected to continue to climb with growing population, wealth, and consumerism throughout the world. Approaches to solving this waste problem in a scalable and sustainable manner would lead us to a model that uses waste as an input in the production of commodities and value monetized, making waste management a true profit center. The conversion of waste as a potential source of energy has a value as a supplemental feedstock for the rapidly developing bio-fuels sector. A variety of new technologies are being used and developed for the production of biofuels which are capable of converting wastes into heat, power, fuels or chemical feedstock. Thermal Technologies like gasification, pyrolysis, thermal depolymerization, plasma arc gasification, and nonthermal technologies like anaerobic digestion, fermentation etc are a number of new and emerging technologies that are able to produce energy from waste and other fuels without direct combustion.Biodegradable wastes are processed by composting,

vermi-composting, anaerobic digestion or any other appropriate biological processing for the stabilization of wastes. Recycling of materials like plastics, paper and metals should be done for future use. There is a clear need for the current approach of waste disposal in India that is focussed on municipalities and uses high energy/high technology, to move more towards waste processing and waste recycling (that involves public-private partnerships, aiming for eventual waste minimization - driven at the community level, and using low energy/low technology resources. There are a number of concepts about waste management which vary in their usage between countries or regions. Some of the most general, widely used concepts include:

Waste hierarchy - The waste hierarchy refers to the "3 Rs" reduce, reuse and recycle, which classify waste management strategies according to their desirability in terms of waste minimization. The waste hierarchy remains the cornerstone of most waste minimization strategies. The aim of the waste hierarchy is to extract the maximum practical benefits from products and to generate the minimum amount of waste see: resource recovery.

Polluter pays principle - the Polluter Pays Principle is a principle where the polluting party pays for the impact caused to the environment. With respect to waste management, this generally refers to the requirement for a waste generator to pay for appropriate disposal of the unrecoverable material.

Methods of Dsiposal
Landfill Disposal of waste in a landfill involves burying the waste, and this remains a common practice in most countries. Landfills were often established in abandoned or unused quarries, mining voids or borrow pits. A properly designed and well-managed landfill can be a hygienic and relatively inexpensive method of disposing of waste materials. Older, poorly designed or poorly managed landfills can create a number of adverse environmental

impacts such as wind-blown litter, attraction of vermin, and generation of liquid leachate. Another common product of landfills is gas (mostly composed of methane and carbon dioxide), which is produced as organic waste breaks down anaerobically. This gas can create odor problems, kill surface vegetation, and is a greenhouse gas. Design characteristics of a modern landfill include methods to contain leachate such as clay or plastic lining material. Deposited waste is normally compacted to increase its density and stability, and covered to prevent attracting vermin (such as mice or rats). Many landfills also have landfill gas extraction systems installed to extract the landfill gas. Gas is pumped out of the landfill using perforated pipes and flared off or burnt in a gas engine to generate electricity. Incineration Incineration is a disposal method in which solid organic wastes are subjected to combustion so as to convert them into residue and gaseous products. This method is useful for disposal of residue of both solid waste management and solid residue from waste water management.This process reduces the volumes of solid waste to 20 to 30 percent of the original volume. Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are sometimes described as "thermal treatment". Incinerators convert waste materials into heat, gas, steam and ash. Incineration is carried out both on a small scale by individuals and on a large scale by industry. It is used to dispose of solid, liquid and gaseous waste. It is recognized as a practical method of disposing of certain hazardous waste materials (such as biological medical waste). Incineration is a controversial method of waste disposal, due to issues such as emission of gaseous pollutants. Incineration is common in countries such as Japan where land is more scarce, as these facilities generally do not require as much area as landfills. Waste-to-energy (WtE) or energy-from-waste (EfW) are broad terms for facilities that burn waste in a furnace or boiler to generate heat, steam or electricity. Combustion in an incinerator is not always perfect and there have been concerns about pollutants in gaseous emissions from incinerator stacks. Particular concern has focused on some very persistent organics such as

dioxins, furans, PAHs which may be created which may have serious environmental consequences. Recycling Recycling is a resource recovery practice that refers to the collection and reuse of waste materials such as empty beverage containers. The materials from which the items are made can be reprocessed into new products. Material for recycling may be collected separately from general waste using dedicated bins and collection vehicles are sorted directly from mixed waste streams and are known as kerb-side recycling, it requires the owner of the waste to separate it into various different bins (typically wheelie bins) prior to its collection. The most common consumer products recycled include aluminium such as beverage cans, copper such as wire, steel food and aerosol cans, old steel furnishings or equipment, polyethylene and PET bottles, glass bottles and jars, paperboard cartons, newspapers, magazines and light paper, and corrugated fiberboard boxes. PVC, LDPE, PP, and PS (see resin identification code) are also recyclable. These items are usually composed of a single type of material, making them relatively easy to recycle into new products. The recycling of complex products (such as computers and electronic equipment) is more difficult, due to the additional dismantling and separation required. The type of material accepted for recycling varies by city and country. Each city and country have different recycling programs in place that can handle the various types of recyclable materials. However, certain variation in acceptance is reflected in the resale value of the material once it is reprocessed.

Sustainability
The management of waste is a key component in a business' ability to maintaining ISO14001 accreditation. Companies are encouraged to improve their environmental efficiencies each year by eliminating waste through resource recovery practices, which are sustainability-related activities. One way to do this is by shifting away from waste

management to resource recovery practices like recycling materials such as glass, food scraps, paper and cardboard, plastic bottles and metal. Bilogical Reprocessing: Recoverable materials that are organic in nature, such as plant material, food scraps, and paper products, can be recovered through composting and digestion processes to decompose the organic matter. The resulting organic material is then recycled as mulch or compost for agricultural or landscaping purposes. In addition, waste gas from the process (such as methane) can be captured and used for generating electricity and heat (CHP/cogeneration) maximizing efficiencies. The intention of biological processing in waste management is to control and accelerate the natural process of decomposition of organic matter. (See resource recovery). Energy Recovery The energy content of waste products can be harnessed directly by using them as a direct combustion fuel, or indirectly by processing them into another type of fuel. Thermal treatment ranges from using waste as a fuel source for cooking or heating and the use of the gas fuel (see above), to fuel for boilers to generate steam and electricity in a turbine. Pyrolysis and gasification are two related forms of thermal treatment where waste materials are heated to high temperatures with limited oxygen availability. The process usually occurs in a sealed vessel under high pressure. Pyrolysis of solid waste converts the material into solid, liquid and gas products. The liquid and gas can be burnt to produce energy or refined into other chemical products (chemical refinery). The solid residue (char) can be further refined into products such as activated carbon. Gasification and advanced Plasma arc gasification are used to convert organic materials directly into a synthetic gas (syngas) composed of carbon monoxide and hydrogen. The gas is then burnt to produce electricity and steam. An alternative to pyrolisis is high temperature and pressure supercritical water decomposition (hydrothermal monophasic oxidation).

Resource recovery
Resource recovery (as opposed to waste management) uses LCA (life cycle analysis) attempts to offer alternatives to waste management. For mixed MSW (Municipal Solid

Waste) a number of broad studies have indicated that administration, source separation and collection followed by reuse and recycling of the non-organic fraction and energy and compost/fertilizer production of the organic material via anaerobic digestion to be the favoured path.

Avoidance And Reduction Methods

An important method of waste management is the prevention of waste material being created, also known as waste reduction. Methods of avoidance include reuse of secondhand products, repairing broken items instead of buying new, designing products to be refillable or reusable (such as cotton instead of plastic shopping bags), encouraging consumers to avoid using disposable products (such as disposable cutlery), removing any food/liquid remains from cans, packaging, ...[1] and designing products that use less material to achieve the same purpose (for example, lightweighting of beverage cans).[2]

Waste collection methods vary widely among different countries and regions. Domestic waste collection services are often provided by local government authorities, or by private companies in the industry. Some areas, especially those in less developed countries, do not have a formal waste-collection system. Examples of waste handling systems include:

In Europe and a few other places around the world, a few communities use a proprietary collection system known as Envac, which conveys refuse via underground conduits using a vacuum system. Other vacuum-based solutions include the MetroTaifun single-line and ring-line systems.

In Canadian urban centres curbside collection is the most common method of disposal, whereby the city collects waste and/or recyclables and/or organics on a scheduled basis. In rural areas people often dispose of their waste by hauling it to a transfer station. Waste collected is then transported to a regional landfill.

In Taipei, the city government charges its households and industries for the volume of rubbish they produce. Waste will only be collected by the city council if waste is disposed in government issued rubbish bags. This policy has successfully reduced the amount of waste the city produces and increased the recycling rate.

In Israel, the Arrow Ecology company has developed the Arrow Bio system, which takes trash directly from collection trucks and separates organic and inorganic materials through gravitational settling, screening, and hydro-mechanical shredding. The system is capable of sorting huge volumes of solid waste, salvaging recyclables, and turning the rest into biogas and rich agricultural compost. The system is used in California, Australia, Greece, Mexico, the United Kingdom and in Israel. For example, an Arrow Bio plant that has been operational at the Hiriya landfill site since December 2003 serves the Tel Aviv area, and processes up to 150 tons of garbage a day.

While waste transport within a given country falls under national regulations, transboundary movement of waste is often subject to international treaties. A major concern to many countries in the world has been hazardous waste. The Basel Convention, ratified by 172 countries, deprecates movement of hazardous waste from developed to less developed countries. The provisions of the Basel convention have been integrated into the EU waste shipment regulation. Nuclear waste, although considered hazardous, does not fall under the jurisdiction of the Basel Convention.

Technologies
Traditionally the waste management industry has been slow to adopt new technologies such as RFID (Radio Frequency Identification) tags, GPS and integrated software packages which enable better quality data to be collected without the use of estimation or manual data entry.

Technologies like RFID tags are now being used to collect data on presentation rates for curb-side pick-ups. Benefits of GPS tracking is particularly evident when considering the efficiency of ad hoc pick-ups (like skip bins or dumpsters) where the collection is done on a consumer request basis.

Integrated software packages are useful in aggregating this data for use in optimisation of operations for waste collection operations.

Rear vision cameras are commonly used for OH&S reasons and video recording devices are becoming more widely used, particularly concerning residential services.

Management of Hazardous Waste in India

India is the second most populous country, which has about 16% of the world population and 25% of the land area. Rapid industrialization last few decades have led to the depletion of pollution of precious natural resources in India depletes and pollutes resources continuously. Further the rapid industrial developments have, also, led to the generation of huge quantities of hazardous wastes, which have further aggravated the environmental problems in the country by depleting and polluting natural resources. Therefore, rational and sustainable utilization of natural resources and its protection from toxic releases is vital for sustainable socio-economic development. Hazardous waste management is a new concept for most of the Asian countries including India. The lack of technical and financial resources and the regulatory control for the management of hazardous wastes in the past had led to the unscientific disposal of hazardous wastes in India, which posed serious risks to human, animal and plant life. Regulatory Frame Work India is the first country that has made constitutional provisions for protection and improvement of the environment. In the Directive Principles of State Policy of the Constitution, Article 48-A of Chapter IV enjoins the state to make endeavor for protection and improvement of the environment and for safeguarding the forest and wild life of the Country. In Article 51 A (g) of the Constitution, one of the fundamental duties of every citizen of India is to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes, rivers and wild life and to have compassion for living creatures. In order to manage hazardous waste (HW), mainly solids, semi-solid and other Industrial wastes which are not covered by the Water & Air Acts, and also to enable the authorities to control handling, treatment, transport and disposal of waste in an environmentally sound manner, Ministry of Environment & Forests (MoEF). Government of India notified the Hazardous Waste (Management & Handling) Rules (HWM Rules) on July 28, 1989 under the provisions of the Environment (Protection) Act, 1986 and was further amended in the

year 2000 & 2003. These amendments enable to identify hazardous wastes by means of industrial processes and waste streams in Schedule I and also by way of concentrations of specified constituents of the hazardous waste in Schedule II. Categories of wastes banned for export and import have also been defined (Schedule-8) The procedure for registration of the recyclers /reprocessors with environmentally sound facilities for processing waste categories such as used lead acid batteries, non-ferrous metal and used oil as contained in schedule-4 and schedule-5 respectively has also been laid down. Further, separate Rules have also been notified in continuation of the above Rules for biomedical wastes as well as used lead acid batteries. The Basel Convention on hazardous wastes

India is a Party to the Basel Convention on transboundary movement of hazardous wastes. The basic objectives of the Basel Convention are for the control and reduction of transboundary movements of hazardous and other wastes subject to the Convention, prevention and minimization of their generation, environmentally sound management of such wastes and for active promotion of the transfer and use of cleaner technologies. As a party to the Convention, India is obliged to regulate and minimise the import of hazardous waste or other wastes for disposal or re-cycling and also to prohibit export of waste to parties, which have prohibited the import of such wastes. As a partyIndia is also required to minimise generation of hazardous waste in the country taking into account social, technological and economic aspects. Further, hazardous waste generated in the country is also required to be managed in an environmentally sound manner. India, as a party, can prevent the import of hazardous waste or other waste if it has reason to believe that the waste in question will not be managed in an environmentally sound manner.

Present Hazardous Waste Generation Scenario

The hazardous waste generated in the country per annum is estimated to be around 4.4 million tones (Table 1) while as per the estimates of Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development(OECD) derived from correlating hazardous waste

generation and economic activities, nearly five million tones of hazardous waste are being produced in the country annually. This estimate of around 4.4 million MTA is based on the 18 categories of wastes which appeared in the HWM Rules first published in 1989.Out of this, 38.3% is recyclable, 4.3% is incinerable and the remaining 57.4% is disposable in secured landfills. Twelve States of the country (Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Madhya Pradesh ,Assam, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Kerala, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka and Rajasthan) account for 97% of total hazardous waste generation. The top four waste generating states are Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu . On the other hand, states such as Himachal Pradesh, Jammu & Kashmir, all the North Eastern States excepting Assam generate less than 20,000 MT per annum. Given the wide variations in quantity and nature of waste generated across states and union territories (UTs) and also considering the wide variations in climatic as well as hydro-geological conditions in different regions of the country, the approach to waste management has to be essentially state-specific. Consequent upon amendments made in the year 2000 and subsequently in 2003,the State Pollution Control Boards (SPCBs) and Pollution Control Committees (PCCs) are in the process of re-inventorising hazardous waste generated. The current exercise has brought to light the serious short-comings in the earlier inventorisation. As a result, the total quantum of waste generated as well as its composition in terms of landfillable, incinerable etc. would undergo substantial changes. Nevertheless, the geographical distribution of waste generated and its distribution amongst the states is unlikely to undergo major changes. While it is well recognised that inventorisation has to be reviewed and updated periodically to account for growing industrialisation, it is necessary to prepare a reliable inventory as this forms the basis for formulating a suitable hazardous waste management strategy & developing infrastructure (treatment/disposal facilities) for their management. While field verification supplemented by stoichiometric assessments would be the ideal way forward, reasonably reliable estimates can be made based on product wise waste streams generated and quantities thereof..In India, there are over 13,000 industrial units located in 340 districts, out of which nearly all units have been granted authorization for multiple disposal practices encompassing incineration, storage, land disposal and other disposal (mostly recycle and reuse)options.

Small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs), however, are the major hazardous waste generators. The amount of hazardous waste generated in this country is quite small in comparison to that of the USA, where as much as 275 million tones of hazardous waste was generated annually. However, considering the fragile ecosystem that India has (The State of India's Environment, Part I, National Overview, The Citizens Fifth Report, Centre for Science & Environment, 1999), even this low quantum of hazardous wastes (around 4.4 million MTA) can cause considerable damage to natural resources if untreated before releases. India's fragile ecosystem could be seen from the following: Air pollution in Indian cities is highest amongst the world. Over seventy percent of the country's surface water sources are polluted and, in large stretches of major rivers, water is not even fit for bathing India has among the lowest per capita availability of forests in the world, which is 0.11 ha as compared to 0.50 ha in Thailand and 0.8 ha in China The security of Indian fragile ecosystem, therefore, warrants sustainable consumption of natural resources and protection from environmental degradation. Significance of SMEs in Industrial Output and Hazardous Waste Generation Nearly fifty percent of the total industrial output in India is contributed by the SMEs. They also account for 60 to 65 percent of the total industrial pollution. However, most of these industries generate hazardous wastes, which find their way uncontrolled into the environment. According to the National Productivity Council, New Delhi (India), there are more than 3 million small and medium scale industries, which are spread throughout the country in the form of clusters/industrial estates. SMEs in India cannot afford to adopt and maintain adequate hazardous waste treatment and disposal technologies. In the absence of common disposal facilities, the waste generators have been accorded temporary permission to store waste in their premises except in areas serviced by common facilities that have come up in the States of Gujarat, Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh(where storage period should not exceed for more than 90 days). The lack of common facilities has been a major factor in mushrooming of illegal dump sites since most of the units in the small and

medium sector do not have adequate space within their premises to arrange for storage over several years. Therefore it is urgently required to make available common hazardous waste treatment and disposal facility in the areas in all the states where SMEs are operating. There has been considerable delay in notifying sites for hazardous waste disposal. Of the 93 sites identified, only 30 have been notified. The State Governments should not only expedite notification of sites based on environmental impact assessment but play a catalytic role and persuade the industry associations to set up common facilities. Such common facilities would need to be planned based on reliable estimate of current waste generation and projections for the future. As this was not done, hazardous waste dumping was rampant in all the states which prompted in public interest litigations in High Courts and Supreme Court. Ministry of Environment and Forests(MOEF)

Inter-sectoral coordination The MOEF is the focal point in the Government of India for all matters relating to the environment. The directions sought for by the petitioner to which MOEF has agreed shall be implemented in letter and spirit. The implementation wherever it is to be done by the MOEF, should be done forthwith and wherever it is required to be done by any other Ministry or Authority or Agency, the Nodal Ministry/MOEF shall ensure that it be so implemented.. As the Nodal Ministry, its first and foremost responsibility is to ensure coordination with all other Ministries that come into the picture. HPC discussions and studies show that there are major roles that have to be played by other Ministries as well. For example: All imported goods have to pass through Customs, which comes under the Ministry of Finance. All matters relating to imports and exports are handled by the Ministry of Commerce under whom the Director General of Foreign Trade( DGFT) and Director General of Commercial Intelligence (DGCIS), both located in Calcutta, operate.

The need for employment generation, and consequently, matters relating to labour and industrial policy, industrial safety, occupations health hazards, compensation for disability/death are all matters dealt with by the Ministry of Labour. A significant part of environmental pollution relates to water (both surface water and, particularly, groundwater); the Ministry of Water Resources is clearly involved. Toxicological aspects of hazardous wastes like heavy metals, hormone disrupting chemicals and such other issues have to be dealt with by the Ministry of Health. Major research facility that comes under it is the Indian Council of Medical Research. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research (CSIR) and the Department of Biotechnology, on the other hand, comes under the Ministry of Science and Technology. Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas is involved in respect of the oil sector while the Ministries of Railways, Defence and Surface Transport deal with matters relating to large scale use of battery systems and their disposal. Ministry of Law is to be interacted on matters that relate to legislation, and extensively with the State Government in relation to implementation of laws, rules and regulations, and guidelines at grassroots level. In case of any doubt or dispute, it would be the responsibility of MOEF to satisfy this Court. Further, the Ministry shall also develop a mechanism to ensure that wherever its directions are not implemented, necessary action shall be taken against those who are responsible for it. If any Inter-Ministerial consultation is required, the lead is to be taken by MOEF to see that such consultation takes place and effective measures are taken. The HPC believes that the principal role and responsibilities of the MOEF should be to inculcate the necessary concern and sense of urgency, and to ensure coordination amongst the various Ministries and State Governments on issues as they come up. Such coordination can be at the level of meetings taken by the Minister/Secretary who chairs Secretary-level interDepartmental meetings. Consideration for zero import of hazardous waste The import of 29 items has been prohibited under Schedule-8 of the HW Rules as amended in May, 2003 while the Basel Convention has banned 76 items. The Ministry of Environment and Forests is required to examine the remaining items. It is implicit that if

more items are banned, the corresponding Notification shall be issued by the Central Government under Section 11 of the Customs Act. Section 11 of the Customs Act, 1962 empowers the Central Government to prohibit either absolutely or subject to such conditions as may be specified in Notification the import and export of the goods if satisfied that it is necessary so to do for any of the purposes stated in sub-section (2). The Court directs that, in addition to 29 items, the MOEF will take into consideration what has been stated under heading 'A' (Imported Hazardous Waste which need to be included in the HWM Rules and ban of other Wastes) in the directions sought for by the petitioner on the basis of the recommendation of HPC. Further, the Ministry should also examine the question of banning used edible oil, cow dung, plastic scrap used PVC in any form, pet bottles etc. which, though not covered by Basel Convention, have hazardous impacts in terms of the HPC Report. According to the recommendations of HPC, these items also deserve to be banned. The Ministry shall also examine any other item which may have similar hazardous impact. Another aspect that has been brought to the notice of the Court is the malpractice arising out of purported import of some permitted items. It appears that unscrupulous traders in the garb of importing used oil or furnace oil, in fact, import waste oil which is a banned item. They also Illegally import zinc wastes despite it being not permissible except in case where more than 65% of zinc can be recovered from the wastes. The Court is of the opinion that an enquiry should be conducted and appropriate action taken against concerned officer/officers of department responsible therein and, if necessary, a specific provision to that effect can be incorporated in Rules, wherever needed. Disposal of illegally imported wastes

It has been brought to the notice of the Court that 15 importers, whose names and addresses are known, illegally imported waste oil in 133 containers in the garb of lubricating oil. The HPC in its report (pp. 170-171) had noticed the presence of the consignment of this waste oil. On direction of the Court, the laboratory tests undertaken have shown the same as hazardous waste oil. By order dated 5th May, 1997, the Court directed that no import would be made or permitted by any authority or any person of any hazardous waste which is already banned under the Basel Convention or to be banned hereafter with effect from the date specified therein. The importers are directed to show

cause why the consignment in question shall not be ordered to be re-exported or destroyed at their cost and why the amount spent on analysis in the laboratory (Rs.6.35 Lacs) be not recovered from them and why they should not be directed to make payment of compensation of Polluter Pays Principles and other action taken against them. The Ministry would be empowered to have assistance from Police/District Magistrate/Metropolitan Magistrate for affective service of notice on the importers.

Awareness Creation

Another important role that the MOEF has to play is to create awareness in society and other stakeholders at large, and to ensure educational training programs. The latter should certainly cover those directly concerned with implementation programs, e.g. environmental scientist, officials etc. Research and development initiatives

The MOEF also has a responsibility to ensure that research and development is conducted on scientific and technological aspects relating to this area. By and large, broad ranging and futuristic research has to be conducted with the support of the Central Government. It is unlikely that, in the present financial situation, any significant financial support will come from State Governments for this. The MOEF should also encourage industry and industrial associations to participate in research, particularly related to their specific areas of activity e.g. ETPs, CETPs, disposal facilities, clean and cleaner technologies, etc. There can also be a cess levied on those industries dealing with hazardous material, which should be specifically earmarked for the promotion of research and development. Sustainable development initiatives

The MOEF has to work closely with the Planning Commission in the area of sustainable development. The need for development programs to increase production, productivity and to create employment is well recognized. GDP growth, industrialization, energy production, exports are all part of this. However, this cannot be at the cost of present and the future in terms of quality of life for society as a whole. Industrial policy relating to what industries should be encouraged and permitted, the role of SMEs, issues relating to

industrial estates (including their governance, facilities to be provided etc.), land use patterns, urban development and zoning and such other matters are of a general nature which call for over all national policy. These cannot be dealt with by any individual Ministry Department with concerns only for its limited area of responsibility. MOEF has the responsibility to put forward the environmental implications implicit in various policy options. The MOEF willbe the focal point in the Government of India with regard to the international issues that arise in this area.

Testing Facility Creation

The MOEF must be encouraged to make use of the vast technical capabilities that exist in the country. This may be with CPCB, suitably strengthened and assigned necessary responsibilities. In addition, the State Pollution Control Boards must be equipped and staffed properly, as also laboratories coming under various scientific agencies in the country and in the private sector. The MOEF must ensure that adequate facilities are available at the gateway points in the country (e.g. Ports, ICDs, Customs areas) to make the first level measurements to aid decision-making; as also certified laboratories (whether these are in the public or the private sector) which can provide reports that are scientifically valid and credible. Increasingly, exports will have to be environmentally compliant suitably labeled and certified. Location of Industrial Sites and Secured Landfills

The MoEF would consider the suggestion of HPC regarding development of National Policy for landfills sites. The suggestion is to the following effect: In industrialized countries, the selection of sites for disposal facilities lies with the Government. In view of this, a national policy needs to be developed for locating such centralized/common TSDFs. The location of final disposal facilities should be based on the total quantity of hazardous waste generated in the individual State. For effective monitoring and an economically viable facility, it is important to locate a centralized facility within a distance of about 100 km. of the waste-generating units. Those States which generate less than 20,000 tones per year of hazardous waste may be permitted to have only temporary storage facilities and then transfer the waste to the final treatment and

disposal facilities in the nearby State. It is not necessary and also not advisable to develop a facility in each and every district and/or State as land is a valuable natural resources. National Policy Document on Hazardous Waste

MoEF is directed to either itself or through the CPCB or any other agency draft a policy document on hazardous waste generation and its handling within the country. While examining this aspect, the following recommendations of the HPC would be kept in view:

The policy document should emphasize a commitment to the recycling of wastes and propose incentives for encouraging and supporting recycling. Industries must be given a clear message that they must show concrete and tangible results as far as prevention and reduction of wastes are concerned. If they do not, they should be made to pay a waste generation tax. The policy document should enunciate a doctrine of partnership between SPCBs, entrepreneur and other stakeholders like the community, which will be involved in monitoring, preventing and reducing hazardous waste generation. The policy should review further growth of non-ferrous metallic waste, waste oil and used lead acid battery recycling in the SSI sector. MoEF and Health Ministry shall examine and respond to the recommendations of HPC which read MoEF and Ministry of Health are required are to compile an extensive data regarding exposure and epidemiological studies (with special reference to endocrine disruptors). Directions may also be issued for centres of excellence for environmental health science and for existing institutes engaged in related activities. A network of R&D institutions, medical colleges and universities may also be created. MoEF should encourage the industries and their associations to participate in research activities concerning environmental health. These studies should be made public so that people could know about toxicity and its impact. A cess can be levied on the industries dealing with H.W., which should be specifically earmarked for promotion of R&D. Implementation of Plastic Waste Recycling Rules, Battery Waste Recycling Rules, Draft Used Oil (Management and Handling) Rules.

MOEF is directed to ensure compliance of "Recycled Plastics, Plastics Manufacture and Usage Rules, 1999 and the "Batteries Management and Handling Rules, 2001". The Ministry shall issue directions to all Public Sector Institutions not to openly auction their hazardous wastes but only to those who are registered units having Environmentally Sound Technologies (EST). MOEF has constituted a Standing Committee on hazardous waste to advise the Ministry on issues pertaining to hazardous waste and other related areas. The Terms of Reference of the said Committee are as follows: a)Characterization of hazardous wastes: Identification of hazardous waste and characterization of the constituents that would render such wastes hazardous. b)Prohibition/restriction of hazardous wastes:Identification and listing of hazardous wastes of prohibition/restriction for exports/imports and handling of these wastes. c)Environmentally sound technologies:Identification and list of environmentally sound technologies for reprocessing and recycling of wastes, treatment and disposal; and MOEF should consider making a provision for bank guarantee being given by importer while seeking permission to import used oil, furnace oil and zinc wastes to be released only on the imported consignment being found to be in conformity with the declared item of import. Responsibilities of Ministries of Labour and Industry

The Court considered the suggestion of HPC under term of reference no. 4 relating to impact of hazardous waste on worker's health and directed the Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Industry to constitute a special committee to examine the matter and enumerate medical benefits which may be provided to the workers having regard to the occupational hazard as also keeping in view the question of health of the workers and the compensation which may have to be paid to them. The Court directed the Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Industry to constitute a special committee to examine the matter and enumerate medical benefits which may be provided to the workers having regard to the occupational hazard as also keeping in view the question of health of the workers and the compensation

which may have to be paid to them. The Committee while examining the recommendations, shall also keep in view the judgment of this Court in Consumer Education and Research Centre Vs. Union of India (1995 (3) SCC 42). Responsibilities of the Central Government The Export and Import Policy (Exim Policy) issued from time to time, under the Foreign Trade (Development and Regulations) Act, 1992, inter alia, sets out the goods, import whereof is prohibited. We direct the Central Government that the said policy shall also correspond with the Hazardous Waste Rules, as amended from time to time, which means that if import of any item is prohibited under Hazardous Waste Rules, it shall be reflected in the prevalent Exim Policy.

For design and setting up of disposal facility as provided in Rule 8-A of HW (M&H) Rules, the criteria for Hazardous Waste Landfills published by CPCB in February, 2001 and the Manual for Design, Construction & Quality Control of Liners and Covers for Hazardous Waste Landfills published in December 2002 shall be followed and adhered to. 89 sites were identified out of which 30 were notified. Out of 30, 11 common landills are ready and operationl - one in Maharashtra, one in Andhra Pradesh and nine in Gujarat and that some of these landfills are in accordance with the Criteria and Manual aforesaid. The steps are being taken to expedite the completion of the remaining landfills. With this development in view, steps should be taken towards shifting of hazardous waste from wherever it is permissible to these landfills. The transport of hazardous waste would be in accordance with Rule 7 and the Guidelines issued. Under Article 9 the HPC has recommended that in order to deter any transboundary movement of hazardous wastes or other wastes, i.e. illegal traffic, the national/domestic legislation shall be enacted/amended appropriately to prevent and punish illegal traffic. The Government is directed to examine the aspect and file a report. Responsibility of Central Pollution Control Board , SPCBs and PCCs

All SPCBs/PCCs are required to implement the directions that may be issued by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF).

The SPCBs are directed to produce a comprehensive report on illegal hazardous waste dump sites in their jurisdiction. Reports should be based on inspection, assessment of the size of the dump site, age, whether the dump site is passive or active and whether precautions have been taken to prevent damage to the environment. The SPCBs will and PCCs also take samples of the groundwater in the vicinity of the dump site at different point and prepare a report on contamination of the groundwater, if any, and if so, to what extent. The SPCBs and PCCs are directed to draw up a plan with financial estimates for immediate measures that may be required to stop environmental damage. A full scale rehabilitation should also be prepared, together with detailed estimate of costs. All these reports will be sent to the CPCB.

The CPCB shall issue guidelines to be followed by all concerned including SPCBs and PCCs and the operators of disposal sites for the proper functioning and upkeep of the said sites. SPCBs and PCCs are directed to close forthwith those units which are functioning without valid authorization issued under the HWM Rules. The authorization for any unit should not be issued or renewed until the occupier undertakes that they have a programme in place to reduce the volume or quantity and toxicity of hazardous wastes to the degree determined by them to be economically practicable and that the proposed method of treatment, storage and disposal is the most practicable method currently available to them which minimizes the present and future threat to human health and environment. Further, for effective implementation of the directions and to regulate the hazardous waste, it is necessary to strengthen the SPCBs and CPCB by providing them the requisite infrastructure and manpower so that they can issue the necessary guidelines to monitor the handling of hazardous wastes as suggested under Terms of Reference. Particular care must be taken to prevent industries that use our Indian soil for processing of products and commodities of which production has been banned in other industrial countries. Units which propose to engage in this activity should not be permitted or licensed under any circumstances. The Rules should effectively prevent this. It is not

enough to protect the country form the import of hazardous wastes; one should also look carefully at the import of those industries that will generate problematic hazardous wastes. The import of industries or product must be carefully screened in order to avoid dirty technologies and products, and the CPCB should do research on this so that the relocation of these industries from industrialized countries to India is effectively thwarted and technology transfer does not turn into hazardous transfer. The research done in this regard should be communicated by the CPCB to the SPCBs to form part of their decision-making process regarding absence of consents and authorizations. After research, if necessary, CPCB shall take up the matter with the MOEF for requisite regulatory measure. The HPC has observed that incineration is the most important treatment method for the destruction of all high calorific and highly toxic wastes. High temperature incineration at 1200 degree Celsius mineralizes (breaks down into basis non-toxic components) all kinds of organic matter. Destruction efficiencies of effectively 99.99% of toxic compounds with no generation of persistent organic pollutants (as products of incomplete combustion) should be prima criteria for design of such disposal systems. It has further observed that in addition, while designing the disposal system, relevant operating parameters for example temperature, residence time and turbulence should be considered. On inspection it was bound by HPC that barring a few, most of the incinerators are mere combustion chambers or industrial boilers where the maximum temperature is around 500oC, which is much too low. Often they are not equipped with adequate air pollution control devices and all types of wastes, including non-chlorinated with chlorinated hydrocarbons, being burnt. There seems to be an urgent need to develop the design criteria for incinerators to safeguard the environments so as to have proper and efficient working of incinerators close to the place of generation of hazardous wastes. The design criteria is required to be set by the CPCB which is now ready in the form of a draft report. Inventory

The Court directs that toxic inventory prepared by SPCBs regarding the generation of hazardous wastes, after its verification by CPCB shall be filed to this Court so that order for its conversion into National Toxic Inventory can be passed. The inventorization is in progress and the information is provided in the Action Taken Reports (ATRs) submitted by the SPCBs and PCCs to the CPCB.

Dump sites

The Toxic inventory with regard to hazardous waste dump sites in different States should be prepared by SPCBs and PCCs and after verification by CPCB, shall be filed in this Court so that the orders can be passed on the same being treated as Authenticated National Inventory on hazardous waste dump site. Steps before clearance :

Before clearance of any hazardous wastes imported to India the Port and Customs authorities would ensure that the consignment in question corresponds with the details of authenticated copy of Form 7 sent by the country of export. CPCB, for a period of two year, would be empowered to monitor the import of hazardous waste, which means, it would be empowered to undertake random check from time to time as a safeguard.

Public Participation and Third Party Audit

It has been recommended that public participation should be secured in the management of environment pollution and hazardous waste to maximum possible extent. Suggestions given in these regards are as under: Selected local residents should be appointed as wardens for environmental surveillance, particularly to take note of illegal dumping of hazardous wastes. Access to public records with the environment protection authorities should be freely allowed to the public, as the right to a healthy environment has been defined as part of the Right to Life under Article 21 of the Constitution. Relevant important information should be displayed on notice boards and newspapers and communicated through radio, television and the Internet. The HPC would like to see all industries, involved in hazardous chemicals and the generating hazardous wastes display on-line date outside the factory gate, on quantity and nature of hazardous chemicals being used in the plant, as well as water and air emissions and solids wastes generated within the

factory premises. If such date is not made available, the unit should be asked to show cause or even be asked to close down. Informers and "whistle-blowers" within industry, who provide information, should be protected and strict confidentiality about them maintained. Third-party audit of hazardous wastes, where the audit team includes members of the community, should be made a routine practice. Hazardous waste from ship breaking:

Ship breaking activity grew into a full-fledged industry by 1979, when Govt. of India recognized it as a manufacturing industry. Now it has been recognized as a manufacturing process as per Central Excise and Sales Act, also. The ship braking activities are carried out at various coasts of the county; however, the main centre lies on the West Coast at Alang, Gujarat. The geography of Alang makes it ideal for ship breaking. The beach is low and tides are as high as 10 meters. During low tide, the sea recedes by three km. The industry was set up in Alang in 1982, By 1990, over 100 ships started landing in Alang each year. In 1996-97, the industry scrapped a record 348 ships. The annual turnover of the industry stands at Rs 6,000 crore. The profit margins in the ship breaking industry are huge and big-time contractors make unbelievable profits. On an average 200 ships per year are being cut at the Alang Ship Breaking Yard. The ship breaking industry is generating re-rollable steel scrap, directly used by the re-rolling industries at the down stream. At present, ship-breaking industry is producing around 2 million tones of re-rollable steel per annum. During the process of ship breaking, pollutants like oil, paint-chips, debris, rubber & plastics insulating materials, thermocole, glass wool, asbestos, etc. find their way to marine / terrestrial eco-system. Also some times the ships contain unidentified matters and toxic chemicals like paints / components, lead, heavy metals, poly-chlorinated byphenyls (PCB), asbestos, tin etc. Water pollutants, generated during ship breaking, result in change in water quality and marine eco-system especially in inter-tidal zone. The open burning of solid wastes including hazardous wastes, becomes a potential source of air pollution.

The accidental death rate reported at ship breaking yard is high. The reasons of death are gas leakage, explosions, inadequate safely measures during cutting, breaking and other operations. The Court did not suggest discontinuing of ship breaking activity but noted that it deserves to be strictly and properly regulated. When the ship arrives at a port for breaking, the concerned authorities have to be vigilant about the hazardous waste which may be generated if appropriate timely action by various agencies, in particular, Maritime Board and the SPCB are not taken. The major ship breaking activity in India is at Alang in State of Gujarat and, therefore, Gujarat Maritime Board and Gujarat SPCB have to be alive to the consequences of the appropriate steps to be taken before the breaking activities start. According to the recommendation of HPC, the Inter Ministerial Committee comprising Ministry of Surface Transport, Ministry of Steel, Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Environment should be constituted with the involvement of Labour and Environment organizations and representatives of the ship breaking Industries

The Court has accepted the following recommendations of HPC:

Before a ship arrives at port, it should have proper consent from the concerned authority or the State Maritime Board, stating that it does not contain any hazardous waste or radioactive substances. The ship should be properly decontaminated by the ship owner prior to the breaking. This should be ensured by the SPCBs. Disposal of waste material, viz. oil, cotton, dead cargo of inorganic material like hydrated/solidified elements, thermocole pieces, glass wool, rubber, broken tiles, etc. should be done in a proper manner, utilizing technologies that meet the criteria of an effective destruction efficiently of 99.9 per cent, with no generation of persistent organic pollutants, and complete containment of all gaseous, liquid and solid residues for analysis and, if needed, reprocessing. Such disposed of material should be kept at a specified place

earmarked for this purpose. Special care must be taken in the handling of asbestos wastes, and total quantities of such waste should be made known to the concerned authorities. The Gujarat Pollution Control Board should authorize appropriate final disposal of asbestos waste. The ship breaking industries should be given authorization under Rule 5 of the H.W. Rules, 2003, only if they have provisions for disposal of the waste in environmentally sound manner. All authorization should be renewed only if an industry has facilities for disposal of waste in environmentally sound manner. The State Maritime Board should insist that all quantities of waste oil, sludge and other similar mineral oils and paints chips are carefully removed from the ship and taken immediately to areas outside the beach, for safe disposal. There should be immediate ban of burning of any material whether hazardous or nonhazardous on the beach. The concerned State Pollution Control Board(s) be directed to close all units which are not authorized under the HW Rules. That the plots where no activities are being currently conducted should not be allowed to commence any fresh ship breaking activity unless they have necessary authorization.

The Gujarat PCBs should ensure continuous monitoring of ambient air and noise level as per the standards fixed. The Gujarat PCBs be further directed to install proper equipment and infrastructure for analysis to enable it to conduct first level inspection of hazardous material, radio-active substances (wherever applicable). The Gujarat SPCB will ensure compliance of the new Gujarat Maritime Board (Prevention of Fire & Accidents for Safety & Welfare of Workers and Protection of the Environment during Ship breaking Activities) Regulations, 2000, and should submit a compliance report to the Court. The Notification issued by GMB in 2001 on Gas Free for Hot Work, should be made mandatory and no ship should be given a beaching permission unless this certificates is shown. Any explosion irrespective of the possession of certification should be dealt sternly

and the license of the plot holder should be cancelled and Explosives inspector should be prosecuted accordingly for giving false certificate. A complete inventory of hazardous waste on board of ship should be made mandatory for the ship owner. Breaking permission should not be granted without such an inventory. This inventory should also be submitted by the GMB to concerned SPCBs to ensure safe disposal of hazardous and toxics wastes. Gujarat Maritime Board and Gujarat SPCB officers should visit sites at regular intervals so that the plot owners knows that these institutions are an Inter-Ministerial Committee comprising Ministry of Surface Transport, Ministry of Steel, Ministry of Labour and Ministry of Environment should be constituted with the involvement of labour and environment organizations and representatives of the ship breaking industry. The SPCBs along with the State Maritime Board should prepare land fill sites and incinerators as per the CPCB guidelines and only after prior approval of the CPCB. This action should be taken in a time bound manner. The maximum time allowed should be one year. At the international level, India should participate in international meetings on ship breaking at the level of the International Maritime Organisation and the Basel Convention's Technical Working Group with a clear mandate for the decontamination of ships of their hazardous substances such as asbestos, waste oil, gas and PCBs prior to exports to India for breaking. Participation should include from Central and State level. That the above conditions also apply to other ship breaking activities in other Coastal States, if practiced. Constitution of the Supreme Court Monitoring Committee It appears from the HPC Report that about 80% of country's hazardous waste is generated in the State of Maharashtra, Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh. This may also show good industrial growth in those States. In order to ensure that the generation of hazardous waste is minimum and it is properly handled in every State including the aforesaid States, in particular, it is necessary to appoint a Monitoring Committee to oversee the compliance of law, directions of this Court and Rules and Regulations.

The Court, therefore, constituted a Monitoring Committee comprising of the following members as also Dr. Claude Alvares, NGO and Dr. D.B. Boralkar, now the Member Secretary of the Maharashtra Pollution Control Board. This Committee shall oversee that the direction of this Court are implemented timely. It would also oversee that the aspects to which the Ministry has agreed are implemented in letter and spirit and without any laxity or delay in the matter. It would be open to the Monitoring Committee to co-opt a representative of the State Government or State Pollution Control Boards or any other person or authority as the Committee may deem fit and proper. The Monitoring Committee shall file quarterly reports in this Court. To import of sludge oil under Marpol Convention the Court directed the Central Government to file an affidavit indicating in detail how the said oil is dealt with after import. It shall also be clarified in the affidavit whether such oil can, in the perception of the Central Government, be imported or it is only a technical import at the time of discharge of oil as suggested in the affidavit from MoEF dated 14th February, 2003. Conclusions The industry driven economy of India's has resulted in hazardous waste problems, which are difficult to manage in an environmentally friendly manner. The non-enforcement of 'Polluter Pays' principle, continuation of import of hazardous wastes despite the ban, absence of proper infrastructure viz. centralized disposal facilities and lack of technical and financial resources have led to the unscientific disposal of hazardous wastes posing serious threat to human, animal and plant life. A High Power Committee (HPC) on hazardous waste management, constituted by the Hon'ble Supreme Court of India in 1997, made similar observation and conclude that the hazardous wastes situation in India is fairly grim. Thus, there is an urgent need for formulating proper hazardous waste management strategies, implementation of hazardous wastes management regulations and establishment of proper hazardous waste treatment and disposal facilities (HWTDF) for controlling the unscientific disposal of hazardous wastes This is now being done in accordance with the order of the Supreme Court which was issued on October 14, 2003 under the supervision of the Supreme Court Monitoring Committee.