Reproductive System Introduction Sexual reproduction is the process of producing offspring for the survival of the species, and

passing on hereditary traits from one generation to the next. The male and female reproductive systems contribute to the events leading to fertilization. Then, the female organs assume responsibility for the developing human, birth, and nursing. The male and female gonads (testes and ovaries)

produce sex cells (ova and sperm) and the hormones necessary for the proper development, maintenance, and functioning of the organs of reproduction and other organs and tissues.

The reproductive system comprises the reproductive organs. In the male, the organs include the testes, accessory ducts, accessory glands, and penis. In the female, the organs include the uterus, uterine tubes, ovaries, vagina, and vulva.

Male reproductive organs

The testes are paired reproductive organs in the scrotum, which hangs outside the human body. Normal sperm production requires the cooler outside temperature. Each testis contains coiled seminiferous tubules where sperm (male reproductive cells) production occurs. Between the seminiferous tubules are Leydig cells, clusters of endocrine (secretory) cells. Leydig cells produce androgens (sex hormones), mostly testosterone.

Each sperm cell has three parts: a head, middle piece, and tail. An acrosome at the head tip produces enzymes that help penetrate the female ovum (egg). During conception, chromosomes (genetic material) in the nucleus (cell control center) join with

chromosomes in the ovum. The middle piece contains mitochondria, structures that provide energy for the sperm. The mitochondria are tightly spiraled around the axial filaments (contractile portion) of the flagellum (tail). Centrioles form the tail, which moves the sperm toward the ovum. An ejaculation (ejection of sperm from the penis) has 300 to 500 million sperm. The accessory ducts store secretions from the testes and accessory glands and deliver secretions to the penis. The

epididymis, a coiled tube next to each testis, receives sperm from the seminiferous tubules. The epididymis has three parts: a head, body, and tail. The epididymis stores sperm and propels it toward the penis. Smooth muscle contractions in the epididymis walls move sperm through the duct. As sperm pass through the epididymis, the sperm mature and receive nourishment.

The vas deferens is the dilated continuation of the epididymis. The vas deferens travels out of the scrotum and into the abdomen (gut cavity) through the inguinal canal. Once in the abdomen, the vas deferens passes behind the urinary bladder and expands to form an ampulla (expanded end part). Each ampulla joins with a seminal

vesicle (an accessory gland) to form an ejaculatory duct. The vas deferens is the main sperm carrier. Its walls contain three layers of smooth muscle innervated by sympathetic nerves. Stimulation of these nerves propels sperm into the ejaculatory ducts. Here, the ampulla of the vas deferens and seminal vesicles meet and secretions from the seminal vesicles and sperm are stored. From this junction, the ejaculatory ducts pass through the prostate gland, where they receive more secretions, then join with the single

urethra (tube through which sperm and urine pass out of body). The urethra is the final section of the duct system. It passes from the urinary bladder and the ends of the ejaculatory ducts through the prostate gland and into the penis. The urethra receives secretions from the ejaculatory ducts, the prostate gland, and the bulbourethral glands (accessory glands). The urethra carries sperm through the penis during intercourse; during urination, urine passes through it. The urethra

cannot execute both functions simultaneously. During ejaculation, a muscular sphincter (ring of muscle) closes off the bladder.

and energize the sperm for the journey to the

ovum. For example, during sexual excitement the seminal vesicles add secretions to the sperm in the ejaculatory duct. These secretions provide energy for the sperm and a neutralizing chemical that reduces vaginal acidity. The prostate gland lies under the urinary bladder and surrounds the first part of the urethra. Its secretions also help neutralize vaginal acidity and make sperm motile (able to move). The bulbourethral glands secrete a clear fluid that neutralizes the acidity of remaining urine in the

urethra. When secretions of these glands combine with sperm, the result is seminal fluid, or semen. Only 1 percent of semen is sperm. The remainder contains fructose to nourish the sperm, an alkaline component to neutralize vaginal and urethral acidity, and salts and phospholipids, substances that make sperm motile. The penis (male sexual organ) deposits semen into the vagina during sexual intercourse and carries urine through the urethra during urination. It contains erectile tissue that becomes

engorged with blood during sexual excitement, resulting in an erection. The penis includes the shaft (tubular portion), glans (penis tip and sexual sensation center), and the prepuce, or foreskin (loose skin fold over glans). In a circumcision procedure, the prepuce is removed. Female reproductive organs The female reproductive system is more complex than that of the male. It produces ova (egg cells); nourishes, carries, and protects the developing embryo; and nurses the newborn after birth. The system

structures are the ovary, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, vulva, and mammary glands.

Ovaries, a pair of female gonads (sex organs), reside in the pelvic part of the abdomen on either side of the uterus. Ovaries produce ova and estrogen (female sex hormone).

At puberty onset, the menstrual (uterine) cycle, a series of cyclic changes to the endometrium (uterine lining) begins. The ovarian cycle, fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones in the blood, causes the menstrual cycle. The ovarian and menstrual cycles begin each month when a follicle (developing ovum surrounded by a cluster of cells) develops in the ovary. The hypothalamus in the brain produces hormones that cause these cycles. The hypothalamus releases gonadotropin-releasing hormone

(GnRH), which acts on the anterior pituitary gland. GnRH causes the pituitary to release two more hormones: follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH causes the primary oocyte within the follicle to develop into a secondary oocyte. Development occurs through meiosis (cell division that reduces the chromosome number in the cell from 46 to 23). Each secondary oocyte completes this division only when sperm fertilizes it. The developing follicle produces estrogen, which causes the

endometrium to prepare to nourish a fertilized egg. Estrogen also inhibits pituitary gland production of FSH. The elevated estrogen level causes the anterior pituitary to release LH. This action causes ovulation, a process in which the follicle rapidly enlarges and releases the secondary oocyte. LH also causes the collapsed follicle to become the corpus luteum, an endocrine (secretory) body. The corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone (hormone that stimulates endometrium thickening). These hormones

complete the endometrium development and maintain the endometrium for 10 to 14 days.

Unless sperm fertilize the secondary oocyte, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate, dropping blood progesterone levels. Without progesterone to maintain the endometrial lining, the lining is shed with the

degenerated oocyte approximately 14 days after ovulation. After ovulation, estrogen and progesterone act in the bloodstream to inhibit anterior pituitary production of LH and FSH. This negative feedback control ensures that only one follicle develops each cycle. Each cycle lasts approximately 28 days. The uterine tubes (oviducts or fallopian tubes) are paired tubes that receive the developing ovum from the ovary. The infundibulum end is beside the ovary; its fimbria (feathery structures) "sweep" the

developing ovum into the tube. The ampulla, the middle part of the uterine tube, contains smooth muscle to move the egg. Cilia (inner wall little projections) also sweep the egg along the tube. The unfertilized ovum degenerates in the ampulla; the fertilized ovum resumes its journey to the uterus. The isthmus end of the uterine tube opens into the uterus. The uterus is a hollow muscular organ in front of the rectum and behind the urinary bladder. The fundus is the wide upper portion. The body is the tapered middle part

that ends at the cervix (junction between the vagina and uterus). The isthmus is the constricted region between the body and cervix. The round ligaments hold the uterus anteverted (inclined forward) over the urinary bladder.

The uterus has three layers. The outer serous layer forms ligaments that hold it to the pelvic walls. The

middle muscular layer has three muscle layers used in labor to deliver a baby. The endometrium inner mucosal lining has two layers, the stratum functionalis and stratum basalis. Every month the stratum functionalis is built up in response to estrogen secretion. It contains blood vessels and glands to nourish the fertilized ovum. Unless sperm fertilizes the secondary oocyte, the corpus luteum disintegrates into corpus albicans, and estrogen and progesterone secretion cease. Without these hormones, the

endometrium breaks down and menstruation (expulsion of endometrial lining from the uterus through the vagina) occurs. After menstruation, progesterone and LH levels decrease. The inhibition of LH causes the anterior pituitary to secrete FSH, which stimulates development of another ovum. The monthly cycle begins again. The vagina is a muscular tube from the uterus to outside the body. In some women, the hymen (thin tissue) partially covers the vaginal orifice. Initial sexual intercourse or other form of penetration ruptures

the hymen. The vagina receives sperm from sexual intercourse, channels menstrual flow out of the body, and is a birth canal for the baby during childbirth. Normally collapsed, it can enlarge to accommodate an erect penis or a birth. The vulva, external genitalia, includes the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, and clitoris. The mons pubis is a mound of fatty tissue at the junction of the thighs and torso. During puberty, pubic hair covers it. The labia majora are skin folds that form the vulva outer

border. During puberty, pubic hair covers the labia majora, too. The labia minora are inner, smaller skin folds that surround the urethral and vaginal openings. The labia minora merge anteriorly to form the prepuce (foreskin) of the clitoris. This small erectile structure, comparable to the male penis, becomes engorged with blood during sexual excitement and is the female center of sexual sensation. The mammary glands have 15 to 20 lobes of glandular tissue. The lobes contain lactiferous ducts that converge toward the nipple. These

ducts dilate just before they reach the lactiferous sinus, then constrict again before passing out of the nipple through 15 to 20 openings.

The mammary glands are in the breasts. These glands overlie the pectoral muscles and are attached to them via fascia (connective tissue). The glands are connected to the skin by the suspensory

ligaments of the breast. These glands are modified sweat glands that produce and secrete milk during the lactation process to feed the newborn. During pregnancy, high blood estrogen and progesterone levels stimulate lactation. The corpus luteum produces these hormones during early pregnancy; the placenta takes over later. The hormones stimulate the ducts and glands in the breasts, enlarging the breasts. Development of sex cells The formation of sex cells begins before birth; spermatozoa form in

males and oocytes in females. Spermatogenesis (sperm cell production) occurs in the seminiferous tubules. Spermatogonia (stem cells) line these tubules at birth and contain 46 chromosomes (genetic material). After birth, spermatogonia continue to divide during mitosis. This cell division process produces two daughter cells with the same chromosome number (46) as the parent. At puberty onset, some spermatozoa grow to become primary spermatocytes. These cells

undergo meiosis, the cell division process that cuts back the number of chromosomes from 46 to 23. Each primary spermatocyte undergoes the first meiotic division to produce two secondary spermatocytes. Each secondary spermatocyte undergoes the second meiotic division to produce two spermatids. Each spermatid develops into a mature spermatozoon (sperm cell). In this way, meiosis produces millions of sperm every day. Oogenesis is the formation of the ovum (female sex cells), which

begin as hundreds of thousands of oogonia (stem cells) in the fetal ovaries. During prenatal development, the oogonia grow to become primary oocytes that contain 46 chromosomes. Each oocyte undergoes meiosis; at birth, oocytes are in prophase. During this first meiotic division, oocytes enter a resting phase that lasts until the oocyte resumes development during the ovarian cycle (puberty). Human reproductive system

Further information: Human reproduction Human reproduction takes place as internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the erect penis of the male is inserted into the female's vagina until the male ejaculates semen, which contains sperm, into the female's vagina. The sperm then travels through the vagina and cervix into the uterus or fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Upon successful fertilization and implantation, gestation of the foetus then occurs within the

female's uterus for approximately nine months, this process is known as pregnancy in humans. Gestation ends with birth, the process of birth is known as labor. Labor consists of the muscles of the uterus contracting, the cervix dilating, and the baby passing out the vagina. Human's babies and children are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care for many years. One important type of parental care is the use of the mammary glands in the female [4] breasts to nurse the baby.

Humans have a high level of sexual differentiation. In addition to differences in nearly every reproductive organ, numerous differences typically occur in secondary sexual characteristics. [edit] Male reproductive system Main article: Male reproductive system (human)

Partially shaved erect male genitalia. 1. Testicles, 2. Epididymis, 3. Corpus cavernosum penis, 4. Foreskin, 5. Frenulum, 6.

Urethral opening , 7. Glans penis, 8. Corpus spongiosum, 9. Penis, 10. Scrotum. The human male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside of the body and around the pelvic region of a male that contribute towards the reproductive process. The primary direct function of the male reproductive system is to provide the male gamete or spermatozoa for fertilization of the ovum. The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three categories. The first category is

sperm production and storage. Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the temperature regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel to the epididymis for development and storage. The second category are the ejaculatory fluid producing glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate, and the vas deferens. The final category are those used for copulation, and deposition of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the male, these include the penis, urethra, vas deferens, and Cowper's gland.

Major secondary sexual characteristics includes: larger, more muscular stature, deepened voice, facial and body hair, broad shoulders, and development of an adam's apple. An important sexual hormone of males is androgen, and particularly testosterone.[5] [edit] Female reproductive system Main article: Female reproductive system (human)

Photograph of the vulva. 1. Pubic bone, 2.Clitoral hood, 3. Clitoris, 4. Labia majora, 5. Labia minora (enclosing the Vaginal Opening), 6. Perineum. The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily located inside of the body and around the pelvic region of a female that contribute towards

the reproductive process. The human female reproductive system contains three main parts: the vagina, which acts as the receptacle for the male's sperm, the uterus, which holds the developing fetus, and the ovaries, which produce the female's ova. The breasts are also an important reproductive organ during the parenting stage of reproduction. The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes the labia, clitoris and urethra; during intercourse this area is lubricated by mucus secreted by the

Bartholin's glands. The vagina is attached to the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries via the fallopian tubes. At certain intervals, typically approximately every 28 days, the ovaries release an ovum, which passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and unfertilized ova are shed each cycle through a process known as menstruation. Major secondary sexual characteristics include: a smaller stature, a high percentage of body

fat, wider hips, development of mammary glands, and enlargement of breasts. Important sexual hormones of females include estrogen and progesterone.[5] [edit] Production of gametes Main articles: Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis The production of gametes takes place within the gonads through a process known as gametogenesis. Gametogenesis occurs when certain types of germ cells undergo meiosis to split the normal diploid number of chromosomes in

humans (n=46) into haploids cells containing only 23 chromosomes.[6] In males this process is known as spermatogenesis and takes place only after puberty in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The immature spermatozoon or sperm are then sent to the epididymis where they gain a tail and motility. Each of the original diploid germs cells or primary spermatocytes forms four functional gametes which is each capable of fertilization. In females gametogenesis is known as oogenesis which occurs in the

ovarian follicles of the ovaries. This process does not produce mature ovum until puberty. In contrast with males, each of the original diploid germ cells or primary oocytes will form only one mature ovum, and three polar bodies which are not capable of fertilization. It has long been understood that in females, unlike males, all of the primary oocytes ever found in a female will be created prior to birth, and that the final stages of ova production will then not [6] resume until puberty. However,

recent scientific data has challenged that hypothesis.[7] This new data indicates that in at least some species of mammal oocytes continue to be replenished in [8] females well after birth. Development of the reproductive system Main article: Development of the urinary and reproductive organs The development of the reproductive system and urinary systems are closely tied in the development of the human fetus. Despite the differences between

the adult male and female reproductive system, there are a number of homologous structures shared between them due to their common origins within the fetus. Both organ systems are derived from the intermediate mesoderm. The three main fetal precursors of the reproductive organs are the Wolffian duct, Mllerian ducts, and the gonad. Endocrine hormones are a well known and critical controlling factor in the normal differentiation of the [9] reproductive system.

The Wolffian duct forms the epididymis, vas deferns, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, and seminal vesicle in the male reproductive system and essentially disappears in the female reproductive system. For the Mllerian Duct this process is reversed as it essentially disappears in the male reproductive system and forms the fallopian tubes, uterus, and vagina in the female system. In both sexes the gonad goes on to form the testes and ovaries, because they are derived from the same undeveloped

structure they are considered homologous organs. There are a number of other homologous structures shared between male and female reproductive systems. However, despite the similarity in function of the female fallopian tubes and the male epididymis and vas deferens, they are not homologous but rather analogous structures as they arise from different fetal structures. Examples of homologous human reproductive organs Male Female Shared organ organ function

Cowper's Bartholin's Lubrication gland glands secretions Erectile Penis Clitoris tissue and sensation Gamete Testes Ovary production Ejaculatory Prostate Skene's fluid and gland gland sensation Diseases of the human reproductive system Main article: Reproductive system disease

Like all complex organ systems the human reproductive system is affected by many diseases. There are four main categories of reproductive diseases in humans. They are: 1) genetic or congenital abnormalities, 2) cancers, 3) infections which are often sexually transmitted diseases, and 4) functional problems cause by environmental factors, physical damage, psychological issues, autoimmune disorders, or other causes. The best known type of functional problems include sexual dysfunction and infertility which

are both broad terms relating to many disorders with many causes. Specific reproductive diseases are often symptoms of other diseases and disorders, or have multiple, or unknown causes making them difficult to classify. Examples of unclassifiable disorders include Peyronie's disease in males and endometriosis in females. Many congenial conditions cause reproductive abnormalities but are better known for their other symptoms, these include: Turner syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome,

Cystic fibrosis, and Bloom syndrome.[10] It is also known that disruption of the endocrine system by certain chemical adversely affects the development of the reproductive system and can cause vaginal [11] cancer. Many other reproductive diseases have also been link to exposure to synthetic and environmental chemicals. Common chemicals with known links to reproductive disorders include: lead, dioxin, styrene, toluene, and pesticides.[12]

Examples of congenital abnormalities

Kallmann syndrome - Genetic disorder causing decreased functioning of the sex hormoneproducing glands caused by a deficiency of a hormone. Cryptorchidism - Absence of one or both testes from the scrotum. Androgen insensitivity syndrome - A genetic disorder causing people who are genetically male (i.e. XY chromosome pair) to develop

sexually as a female due to an inability to utilize androgen. Intersexuality - A person who has genitalia and/or other sexual traits which are not clearly male or female. Prostate cancer - Cancer of the prostate gland. Breast cancer - Cancer of the mammary gland. Ovarian cancer - Cancer of the ovary. Penile cancer - Cancer of penis. Uterine cancer - Cancer of the uterus.

Examples of cancers

Testicular cancer - Cancer of the testicles. Cervical Cancer - Cancer of the cervix. HIV - Infection by the retrovirus known as human immunodeficiency virus. Genital warts - Sexually transmitted infection caused by some sub-types of human papillomavirus (HPV). Herpes simplex - Sexually transmitted infection caused by a virus called herpes simplex virus (HSV) type 2

[edit] Examples of infections

Gonorrhea - Common sexually transmitted disease caused by the Gram-negative bacterium Neisseria gonorrheae Yeast infection - Infection of the vagina by any species of the fungus genus Candida. Pelvic inflammatory disease Painful infection of the female uterus, fallopian tubes, and/or ovaries with associated scar formation and adhesions to nearby tissues and organs. Syphilis - Sexually transmitted infection caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum.

Pubic lice - Infection of the pubic hair by crab lice, Phthirius pubis. Trichomoniasis - Sexually transmitted infection by the single-celled protozoan parasite Trichomonas vaginalis. Impotence - The inability of a male to produce or maintain an erection. Hypogonadism - A lack of function of the gonads, in regards to either hormones or gamete production.

Examples of functional problems

Ectopic pregnancy - When a fertilized ovum is implanted in any tissue other than the uterine wall. Hypoactive sexual desire disorder - A low level of sexual desire and interest. Female sexual arousal disorder A condition of decreased, insufficient, or absent lubrication in females during sexual activity Premature ejaculation - A lack of voluntary control over ejaculation.

Other vertebrates

See also: Sexual reproduction Vertebrate animals all share key elements of their reproductive systems. They all have gamete producing organs or gonads. These gonads are then connected by oviducts to an opening to the outside of the body, typically the cloaca, but sometime to a unique pore such as a vagina or intromittent organ. Mammals

A newborn joey suckles from a teat found within its mother's pouch Most mammal reproductive systems are similar, however, there are some notable differences between the "normal" mammal and humans. For instance, most mammalian males have a penis which is stored internally until erect, and most have a penis bone or baculum. Additionally, males of most species do not remain continually sexually fertile as humans do. Like humans, most groups of mammals have descended testicles found within a

scrotum, however, others have descended testicles that rest on the ventral body wall, and a few groups of mammals, such as elephants, have undescended testicles found deep within their [13] body cavities near their kidneys.
[14]

Marsupials are unique in that the female has two vaginae, both of which open externally through one orifice but lead to different compartments within the uterus; males usually have a two-pronged penis which corresponds to the females' two vaginae. Marsupials

typically develop their offspring in an external pouch containing teats to which their newborn young (joeys) attach themselves for post uterine development. Also, marsupials have a unique prepenial [15] scrotum. The 15mm (5/8 in) long newborn joey instinctively crawls and wriggles the several inches (15 cm), while clinging to fur, on the way to its mother's pouch. The uterus and vagina are unique to mammals with no homologue in birds, reptiles, amphibians, or fish. [16] In place of the uterus the other

vertebrate groups have an unmodified oviduct leading directly to a cloaca, which is a shared exit-hole for gametes, urine, and feces. Monotremes (i.e. platypus and echidnas), a group of egg-laying mammals, also lack a uterus and vagina, and in that respect have a reproductive system resembling that of a reptile. Birds Male and female birds have a cloaca, an opening through which eggs, sperm, and wastes pass. Intercourse is performed by pressing the lips of the cloacae

together, which is sometimes known as the "cloacal kiss", during which time the male transfers his sperm to the female. A few species of birds (e.g. most waterfowl) have a intromittent organ which is known as a phallus that is analogous to the mammals' penis. The female lays amniotic eggs in which the young gestate. Unlike most vertebrates female birds typically have only one functional ovary and oviduct.[17] As a group, birds, like mammals, are noted for their high level of parental care. Reptiles

Reptiles are almost all sexually dimorphic, and exhibit internal fertilization through the cloaca. Some reptiles lay eggs while others are viviparous (animals that deliver live young). Reproductive organs are found within the cloaca of reptiles. Most male reptiles have copulatory organs, which are usually retracted or inverted and stored inside the body. In turtles and crocodilians, the male has a single median penis-like organ, while male snakes and lizards each possess a pair of penis-like organs.

A female frog sitting in a mass of its own spawn Amphibians Most amphibians exhibit external fertilization of eggs, typically within the water, though some amphibians such as caecilians have internal fertilization.[18] All have paired, internal gonads, connected by ducts to the cloaca. Fish

Main article: Fish#Reproductive_method Fish exhibit a wide range of different reproductive strategies. Most fish however are oviparous and exhibit external fertilization. In this process, females use their cloaca to release a large quantities their gametes, called spawn, into the water and one or more males release "milt", a white fluid containing many sperm over the unfertilized eggs. Other species of fish are oviparous and have internal fertilization aided by pelvic or anal fins that are

modified into an intromittent organ analogous to the human penis.[19] A small portion of fish species are either viviparous or ovoviviparous, and are collectively known as [20] livebearers. Fish gonads are typically pairs of either ovaries or testes. Most fish are sexually dimorphic but some species are hermaphroditic or [21] unisexual. [edit] Invertebrates See also: Reproductive system of gastropods

Invertebrates have an extremely diverse array of reproductive systems, the only commonality may be that they all lay eggs. Also, aside from cephalopods, and arthropods, nearly all other invertebrates are hermaphroditic and exhibit external fertilization. Cephalopods All cephalopods are sexually dimorphic and reproduce by laying eggs. Most cephalopods have semiinternal fertilization, in which the male places his gametes inside the female's mantle cavity or pallial cavity to fertilize the ova found in

the female's single ovary. Likewise, male cephalopods have only a single teste. In the female of most cephalopods the nidamental glands aid in development of the egg. The "penis" in most unshelled male cephalopods (Coleoidea) is a long and muscular end of the gonoduct used to transfer spermatophores to a modified arm called a hectocotylus. That in turn is used to transfer the spermatophores to the female. In species where the hectocotylus is missing, the "penis" is long and able to extend beyond

[22]

the mantle cavity and transfer the spermatophores directly to the female. Many cephalopods shed their gonads during reproduction, and thus only reproduce once. Most cephalopods die after reproducing. Females nautilus however, can regenerate their gonads, making them the only cephalopods to spawn once per year. The females in many cephalopod species exhibit some level of parental protection for their eggs Sexual Reproduction

In sexual reproduction new individuals are produced by the fusion of haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote. Sperm are male gametes, ova (ovum singular) are female gametes. Meiosis produces cells that are genetically distinct from each other; fertilization is the fusion of two such distinctive cells that produces a unique new combination of alleles, thus increasing variation on which natural selection can operate. Rotifers will reproduce asexually when conditions are favorable by having females produce eggs by

mitosis. When conditions deteriorate, rotifers will reproduce sexually and encase their zygotes inside a resistant shell. Once conditions improve, these eggs hatch into diploid individuals. Rotifers thus use sexual reproduction as way to survive a deteriorating environment. Sexual reproduction offers the benefit of generating genetic variation among offspring, which enhances the chances of the population's survival. Costs of this process include the need for two individuals to mate, courtship

rituals, as well as a number of basic mechanisms described later. Human Reproduction and Development | Human reproduction employs internal fertilization, and depends on the integrated action of hormones, the nervous system, and the reproductive system. Gonads are sex organs that produce gametes. Male gonads are the testes, which produce sperm and male sex hormones. Female gonads are the ovaries, which produce eggs (ova) and female sex hormones.

The Male Reproductive System Testes are suspended outside the abdominal cavity by the scrotum, a pouch of skin that keeps the testes close or far from the body at an optimal temperature for sperm development. Seminiferous tubules are inside each testis, and are where sperm are produced by meiosis. About 250 meters (850 feet) of tubules are packed into each testis. Spermatocytes inside the tubules divide by meiosis to produce spermatids that in turn develop into mature sperm.

The male reproductive system. Images from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th

Edition, by Sinauer Associates used with permission. Spermatogenesis Sperm production begins at puberty at continues throughout life, with several hundred million sperm being produced each day. Once sperm form they move into the epididymis, where they mature and are stored.

Human Sperm (SEM x5,785). This image is copyright Dennis Kunkel at used with permission. Male Sex Hormones The anterior pituitary produces follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Action of LH is controlled by the

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH). LH stimulates cells in the seminiferous tubules to secrete testosterone, which has a role in sperm production and developing male secondary sex characteristics. FSH acts on cells to help in sperm maturation. Negative feedback by testosterone controls the actions of GnRH. Sexual Structures Sperm pass through the vas deferens and connect to a short ejaculatory duct that connects to the urethra. The urethra passes through the penis and opens to the

outside. Secretions from the seminal vesicles add fructose and prostaglandins to sperm as they pass. The prostate gland secretes a milky alkaline fluid. The bulbourethral gland secretes a mucus-like fluid that provides lubrication for intercourse. Sperm and secretions make up semen. The Female Reproductive System The female gonads, ovaries, are located within the lower abdominal cavity.

The ovary contains many follicles composed of a developing egg surrounded by an outer layer of follicle cells. Each egg begins oogenesis as a primary oocyte. At birth each female carries a lifetime supply of developing oocytes, each of which is in Prophase I. A

developing egg (secondary oocyte) is released each month from puberty until menopause, a total of 400-500 eggs.

Oogenesis. Ovarian Cycles After puberty the ovary cycles between a follicular phase (maturing follicles) and a luteal

phase (presence of the corpus luteum). These cyclic phases are interrupted only by pregnancy and continue until menopause, when reproductive capability ends. The ovarian cycle lasts usually 28 days. During the first phase, the oocyte matures within a follicle. At midpoint of the cycle, the oocyte is released from the ovary in a process known as ovulation. Following ovulation the follicle forms a corpus luteum which synthesizes and prepares hormones to prepare the uterus for pregnancy.

The secondary oocyte passes into the oviduct (fallopian tube or uterine tube). The oviduct is connected to the uterus. The uterus has an inner layer, the endometrium, in which a fertilized egg implants. At the lower end of the uterus the cervix connects the uterus to the vagina. The vagina receives the penis during intercourse and serves as the birth canal. External Genitals The female external genitals are collectively known as the vulva.

The labia minora is a thin membrane of folded skin just outside the vaginal opening. The labia majora cover and protect the genital area. A clitoris, important in arousal, is a short shaft with a sensitive tip covered by a fold of skin. Hormones and Female Cycles The ovarian cycle is hormonally regulated in two phases. The follicle secretes estrogen before ovulation; the corpus luteum secretes both estrogen and progesterone after ovulation. Hormones from the hypothalamus

and anterior pituitary control the ovarian cycle. The ovarian cycle covers events in the ovary; the menstrual cycle occurs in the uterus.

Hormonal controls and the functioning of the female reproductive system. Image from Purves et al., Life: The Science of Biology, 4th Edition, by Sinauer

Associates and WH Freeman (used with permission. Menstrual cycles vary from between 15 and 31 days. The first day of the cycle is the first day of blood flow (day 0) known as menstruation. During menstruation the uterine lining is broken down and shed as menstrual flow. FSH and LH are secreted on day 0, beginning both the menstrual cycle and the ovarian cycle. Both FSH and LH stimulate the maturation of a single follicle in one of the ovaries and the secretion of estrogen. Rising levels of estrogen

in the blood trigger secretion of LH, which stimulates follicle maturation and ovulation (day 14, or midcycle). LH stimulates the remaining follicle cells to form the corpus luteum, which produces both estrogen and progesterone. Click here to view a "movie" of the hormone sequences. Estrogen and progesterone stimulate the development of the endometrium and preparation of the uterine inner lining for implantation of a zygote. If pregnancy does not occur, the drop in FSH and LH cause the corpus

luteum to disintegrate. The drop in hormones also causes the sloughing off of the inner lining of the uterus by a series of muscle contractions of the uterus.

Hormonal changes and the female productive cycles.