GENERATING PLANTS Need for Electrical Energy Electrical energy is vital for all living being on earth, its

need cuts across every aspect of human life as other nearly developed technologies ride on its back. Without electrical energy it would be impossible to make telephones, computers, television, sound systems, etc. It is also used in illumination system (for lighting purposes), manufacturing processes and in some advanced countries for heating or transportation applications. (1) Ex 1: Outline other areas where electrical energy is highly useful.

Sources of Electrical Energy. The law of conservation of energy states that energy cannot be destroyed but only changed from one form to another chemical energy is converted to electrical energy in potential energy of water is concerted to electrical energy in hydro electric stations, or thermal energy to electrical in steam power plants. In same view, electrical energy is obtained from sourced like wind energy, potential energy of water, nuclear energy, solar energy, heat energy, chemical energy (coal) etc. This conversion of energy takes places at electric power stations / generating stations. Electric power station / generating stations is a plant where electric energy is produced from some other forms of energy by means of suitable apparatus.

Electrical generating plants can be grouped into two broad groups, namely: (1) Thermal Stations (2) Non - Thermal Stations. Diagram

Thermal Stations: are power station in which electricity generation involves the production of heat energy. Examples are Steam power and Nuclear power stations.

Non Thermal Stations: Here, generation of electricity is not accomplished throgh heat energy production e.g. hydroelectric power station.

STEAM POWER STATIONS In steam power plants, heat is produced from combustion of either coal, gas or oil to produce super-heated from water in a boiler at elevated temperatures and pressures (about 541C, pressure of 13mpa). The steam is then passed through steam turbines to drive the blades of the turbine and hence drive a coupled alternator, the output of which is electrical energy. The turbine shaft is mechanically coupled to the rotor of a generator and as the rotor revolves, the generated voltage is collected at the stator terminals. The spent steam is cooled down at the condenser and the condensed water goes back to the hot well for continuous repeating of the cycle. In order to reduce the running cost which could have been laid linking the power station with an oil refinery and through these pipelines, gas and oil are directly pumped into the power station. Where coal is chemical - thermal - mechanical - electrical is used, the coal when received at the power station is conveyed to a mill for crushing into powder, that is, the coal is pulverized before being made to undergo combustion. Pulverization aids in complete combustion of the coal and increases the system efficiency. The heat of combustion 20% is used to convert water in the boiler into super heated steam which at a very high temperature is used to drive the steam turbine that has been mechanically coupled to drive the rotor of a generator.

Diagram

Large volumes of ash have to be handled after ensuring that ash is extracted to the maximum possible content (up to 99%) by using electrostatic / Electrolyte precipitators.

Heat losses are experienced during electricity generation in a steam power plant. Typical thermal power plant are shown

Plant's Unit Boiler Condenser Alternator Output Power Total Unit

Heat loss (%) 15.9 53.7 0.9 29.5 100%

It could be observed that a large % of heat loss is experienced at the condenser. In order to increase the efficiency of the steam plant (which is usually < 40%) called bleeding is employed. Bleeding is a process whereby a small quantity of steam is tapped off from the turbine to preheat water flowing through the pipe linking the hot well to the boiler as shown below: Diagram

The efficiency of the station is improved because through bleeding, a lesser quantity of fuel is consumed for the same magnitude of power generated. The thermal and overall efficiencies of a steam power plant are expressed respectively as:

A unit of electricity is 1kwh = 1000w x 3600s = 3.6 X

In terms of Heat energy and mechanical energy, 1 caloric = 4.18J Since 1kwh = 1000 X 3600s = 3.6 X J

(KCal = Kilocaloric)

Thermal and Overall efficiency could also be rewritten as: Thermal Efficiency = Boiler efficiency X Turbine Efficiency = boiler X turbine Overall efficiency = Thermal efficiency X Electrical Efficiency = thermal X electrical ADVANTAGES OF STEAM POWER PLANTS 1) The fuel (i.e. coal) is quite cheap. 2) It requires less space as compared to the hydroelectric power station 3) The cost of generation is less than that of the diesel power station 4) It can be installed at any place irrespective of the existence of coal

DISADVANTAGES OF STEAM POWER PLANTS 1) It is costlier in running cost as compared to hydroelectric plant 2) It pollutes the atmosphere due to the production of large amount of smoke and fumes GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT In a gas turbine power plant, air is used as the working fluid. The air is compressed by the compressor and is led to the combustion chamber where heat is added to air, thus raising its temperature. This heat is added to compressed air either by burning fuel in the combustion chamber or by the use of air heaters. The hot and high pressure air from the combustion chamber is then passed to the turbine. The air drives the gas turbine. The gas turbine then drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy to electrical energy.

It is worthy to note here that compressor, gas turbine abd the alternator are connected on the same shaft so that a part of mechanical power of the turbine can be utilized for the operation of compressor. Below is the schematic arrangement of a gas turbine plant.

Diagram

A simpler arrangement arrived at by removing some auxiliaries is drawn below.

Diagram 5

From the previous diagram (figure 2), the air at atmospheric pressure is drawn by the compressor via the filter which removes the dust from air. The pressure of the air is raised and air at high pressure is available at the output of the compressor. Next is the regenerator. The regenerator is a device which recovers heat form the exhaust gasses of the turbine. The exhaust is passed through the regenerator before wasting into the atmosphere and in this way compressed air (from the compressor) is heated by the hot exhaust gasses. The air at high temperature from the compressor is led to the combustion chamber via the regenerator. In the combustion chamber, heat is added to the air by burning fuel. Oil is injected through the burner into the chamber at high pressure. The combustion gasses are then delivered to the gas turbine. The products of combustion comprising a mixture of gasses at high temperature and the pressure are then passed to the gas turbine. These gasses in passing over the turbine blades expand and thus do the mechanical work. The gas turbine is connected to the alternator. The alternator then converts mechanical energy of the turbine into electrical energy. The output from the alternator is given to the bus-bars through transformers, circuit breakers and isolators. Before starting the turbine, compressor has to be started. For this purpose, an electric motor is mounted on the same shaft as that of the turbine ADVANTAGES OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANTS 1) It is simpler in design, construction and operation and smaller in size as compared to steam power station of the same capacity since gas turbine plant does not require boiler, feed water pump and condenser.

2) The initial and operating costs are much lower than that of equivalent steam power station. 3) The maintenance charges are quite small 4) It can be started quickly from cold condition 5) There are no standby losses. DISADVANTAGES OF GAS TURBINE POWER PLANT 1) There is a problem for starting the unit before starting the turbine, the compressor has to be operated for which power is required from some external sources. However, once the unit starts, the turbine itself supplies the necessary power to the compressor. 2) Since a greater part of power developed by the turbine is used in driving the compressor, the net output is low hence the overall efficiency is low (about 20%) DIESEL POWER STATION A generating station in which diesel engine is used as the prime mover for the generating of electrical energy is known as diesel power station. In a diesel power station, the prime mover is a four-stroke, internal combustion engine. The diesel burns inside the engine and the products of this combustion act as the working fluid to produce mechanical energy. The diesel engine drives the alternator which converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. The fuel used is diesel and the running cost is high. This explains why it is not used to supply base load but only switched on in time of emergencies when unexpected peak load demand arises on the power system. It is called an internal combustion engine because fuel combustion takes place inside the engine and not externally as it is the case with steam power plants

The four-stroke cycle consist of: 1) INTAKE: A valve opens and let's in atmospheric air into the cylinder. 2) COMPRESSION: The piston moves up and compresses the atmospheric air thereby reducing its volume and increasing the temperature of the compressed air inside the cylinder. 3) COMBUSTION: The increased temperature of the compressed air ignites the combination of fuel and air. 4) EXHAUST: The second valve in the cylinder opens to let out the product of combustion which is the observable fume, the cycle again repeats itself from step 1 to step 4.

The diesel engine is also called a compression- ignition engine as it does not require a spark plug to ignite the fuel. ADVANTAGES OF DIESEL POWER PLANTS 1) The design and layout of the plant are quite simple 2) It occupies less space as the number and size of the auxiliaries are small 3) It can be located at any place 4) It can be started quickly and can pick up load in a short time 5) There are no standby losses 6) It require less quantity of water for cooling 7) The overall initial cost of installation is much less than that of steam power station of the same capacity 8) It requires less operating staff

DISADVANTAGES OF DIESEL POWER PLANTS 1) The plant has very high running charges as the fuel (diesel) used is costly. 2) The plant does not work satisfactory under load conditions for a long period. 3) The plant can only generate small power. 4) The cost of lubrication and maintenance charges are generally high. SOLAR POWER PLANT This is a power plant that harnesses the energy of the sun to generate electricity. Two methods are used to convert solar energy into electrical energy. The direct method involves the use of solar cells. These are photo-voltaic cells which generate an emf when exposed to sunlight instantly. To collect an appreciable magnitude of generated voltage, many of the solar cells are connected in series and arranged in a panel. The technology required for the manufacture of solar cell is highly sophisticated and for this reason, solar cells are expensive. Also, sunshine is intermittent changing with atmospheric conditions. This

explains why solar cells are always connected to a bank of batteries for the electrical loads to receive a steady supply of electricity. Another military factor is the large expanse of land required to set up a generating station based on the use of solar energy. The indirect method makes use of curved reflecting surfaces, minors or lenses to concentrate sun energy on a receiver to help raise water to superheated steam, which is used to drive a turbine and generate electricity. The concentrators are designed with self-adjusting mechanism to enable them track the movement of the sun as it rises in the east and moves to set in the west. This is thermal method of electricity generation. Power generation based on the solar principle does not enjoy a large scale application. Further scientific developments on the solar power plant are on-going.

WIND POWER PLANT The wind power plant harnesses wind energy to generate electricity. It consists of a wind mill which is mechanically coupled to drive the rotor of a dc generator. The generated voltage collected is not continuous but rather it is intermittent since the blowing of wind is irregular depending on atmosphere changes. However, to collect a steady supply of electricity, the dc generator is made to charge a bank of batteries and the electrical load in turn is connected to the bank of batteries so that an uninterrupted supply of electricity can be ensured. This method of power generation is still on an experimental scale and not on a large scale use. Diagram

AC POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM Electrical energy is generated at the power stations (thermal, hydro-electric or nuclear) which are usually situated far away from the load centres. Hence, an extensive network of conductors between the power stations and the consumers is required. This network of conductors may be divided into two main components called the TRANSMISSION SYSTEM and the DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM.

The generation, transmission and distribution system of electrical power is called the
ELECTRICAL POWER SUPPLY SYSTEM.

In Nigeria, power is generated at a voltage of 16KV the generated voltage is stepped up by a station transformer to 330KV. The generated power at 330KV is transported by means of transmission lines to a transformer sub station ( e.g. Ipaja in Lagos, Ayede at Odo - ona, Ibadan, Akangba at Surulere). The transported power is stepped down to 132KV and transported by the means of secondary/ sub - transmission lines to 132/33KV transformer substation (e.g. Ojere, Jericho, Ewekoro). At the utilisation level, i.e. At consumer's point, further stepping down occurs such that 415V is the voltage between live conductors (line voltage) between a live conductor and a neutral is 240V (Phase voltage) [Check the diagram of a typical layout of power supply scheme in Nigeria on the Next page]

FACTORS AFFECTING THE CHOICE OF SYSTEM VOLTAGE Two factors determine the choice of system voltage. They are:(1) Geographical Reason (2) Historical Reason

Diagram of TYPICAL AC POWER SUPPLY SCHEME

NOTE :- All system of power transmission and distribution may or may not include all elements enumerated above, for example, some system may have no primary transmission, some may not have secondary transmission and the others may not have transmission at all,, being very small and so on. GEOGRAPHICAL REASON The level of industrialization of a country and the land mass over which power will be transported all combine to determine the voltage level for power transmission. For example, in America as at 1975, power is transmitted at 750KV and by now 1000KV lines should have been operational. However, in Nigeria, the relativity less developed country, the highest voltage level for power transmission is 330KV.

HISTORICAL REASON In the western countries, where free economy is practised, private ownership of generating station is encouraged. However, in socialist countries and most African countries, state ownership of generating station is the tradition and so the government recommends the voltage at every level of the power system just as it is the case presently in Nigeria. However in countries where private ownership is encouraged, the government regulates the statutory limit of voltage and frequency at the utilisation level to ensure standardisation of electrical equipment. Statutory Units are: 240V 5% & 50HZ 1% ADVANTAGES OF TRANSMITTIN AT HIGH VOLTAGE For a single-phase system, the apparent power is given by: S = VI--------(a) Where S = apparent power, V= voltage(v), I = Current (A) The following points could be summarized:1) The higher the voltage of power transmission (from equation (a), the lower the current flow on the line and hence less voltage drop (IR) is experienced on the line 2) Less power losss (IR) is experienced if the voltage is very high and this means improved efficiency. 3) The lower the current flow on the line, the higher the resistance of the transmission line and the lesser the conductor material required from the construction of the line. DISADVANTAGES OF HIGH VOLTAGE TRANSMISSION 1) With the increase in voltage of transmission the insulation required between the conductors and the earthed tower increases the cost of line supports 2) With the increase in voltage of transmission, more clearance is required between conductors and ground. Hence higher towers are required 3) With the increase in voltage of transmission, more distance is required between the conductors. Therefore longer cross-arms are required TRANSMISSION AND DDISTRIBUTION The transmission system is to deliver bulk power from power stations to the load centres and large industrial consumers beyond economical service range of the regular primary distribution lines whereas distribution system is to deliver power from power stations or substation to the various consumers. Electrical power can be transmitted and distributed by either ac or dc. [Students can find out the advantages and disadvantages of using ac and dc transmission and distribution]

The transmission system can be further divided into primary and secondary (or sub) transmission. Similarly, the distribution system may be divided into primary and secondary distribution COMPARISM BETWEEN TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION Transmission 1) Usually 3-phase, 3-wire system 2) Has fewer substation with high capacity 3) Rated voltages are higher 4) Line parameters are R, L & C 5) There are no tappings 6) Configuration is mostly radial 7) Line lengths cover several hundred (and in some cases thousands) Distribution Usually 3-phase, 4 wire sysytem There are several with low capacity Rated voltages are lower Predominants line parameters are R and C There are tappings on line at several points Configuration can either be radial or ring Line lengths usually cover a fewer km to fraction of km.

PERFORMANCE OF SHORT AND MEDIUM TRANSMISSION LINES The transmission line is the main energy corridor in a power system. Hence, the performance of a power system depends mainly on the performance of transmission lines in the system. The important consideration in the design and operation of the transmission lines are voltage drop, line/power losses and efficiency of transmission. The performance of a transmission line is governed by its four parameters, viz: 1) Series Resistance, R: the opposition the conductor offers to the flow of current 2) Series Inductance, L: Due to the fact that the current carrying conductor is surrounded my magnetic lines of force. 3) Shunt Capacitance, C: Due to the fact that the conductor carrying current forms a capacitor with the earth which is always at lower potential than the conductor and the air between forms a dielectric medium.

4) Shunt Conductance, G: Due to the flow of leakage currents over the surface of the insulators especially during bad weather. Shunt conductance is very small in the case of overhead lines and may be assumed zero

CLASSIFICTION OF TRANSMISSION LINES Depending on the manner in which capacitors is taken into account, transmission lines are classified as: 1) Short transmission lines : having length up to about 50km and operating voltage lower than 20KV are usually considered short transmission lines. Due to smaller distance and lower line voltage, the capacitance effects are extremely small, and therefore, can be neglected. Hence the performance of short transmission lines depend upon the resistance and inductance of the line. Though in an actual line, the resistance and inductance are distributed over the whole length, but in case of shunt lines, the total resistance and inductance are assumed to be lumped at one place. In case of single phase circuit, the total loop resistance and inductance is considered, whereas in case of 3- phase circuits only resistance and inductance to neutral i.e per phase is required to be taken into account For 3 phase short transmission lines, given voltages and currents are line to line values while the powers (VA, VAR & KW) are for the three phases. Here, the 3 phase short transmission line is believed to be carrying equal load on each phase. 2) Medium Transmission Lines: Lines having lengths between 50Km and 200Km and line voltage between 20KV and 100KV are referred to as medium transmission lines. Owing to appreciable length and voltage of the line, the charging current is appreciable and therefore capacitance effect cannot be ignored. Though the capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line, yet the capacitance may be assumed to be one or more points. 3) Long Transmission Lines: When the length of an overhead transmission line is more than 200Km and line voltage is very high (usually more than 100KV), it is considered as a long transmission line the treatment of such a line assumed that the line constant are considered uniformly distributed over the whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed for solution. NOTE: The exact solution of any transmission line must consider the fact that the constants of the line are not lumped but are distributed uniformly throughout the length of the line. However, reasonable accuracy (obtained from approximate solutions) can be obtained by considering these constants as limped for short and medium transmission lines. IMPORTANTS TERMS

1) VOLTAGE REGULATION: when the load is supplied, there is a voltage drop in the line due to resistance and inductance of the line and therefore, receiving end voltage, V R, is usually less than the sending end voltage, Vs. This voltage drop (i.e. Vs VR) expressed as a percentage of receiving voltage VR is called the REGULATION. Voltage Regulation is therefore defined as the change in voltage at the receiving (load) and when the full load is thrown off, the sending end (or supply) voltage and supply frequency remaining unchanged. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the receiving end voltage. Alternatively, Voltage Regulation can be defined as the difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line between conditions of no-load and full-load, expressed as a percentage of the receiving and voltage, VR NOTE: At no load, there is no drop in the line so that at no load, Vs = VR. However, at full load there is a voltage drop in the line so that receiving end voltage is V R. Difference in voltage at receiving end between no-load and full-load = Vs VR.

Mathematically,

The lower the voltage regulation, the better it is, because low voltage regulation means little variation in receiving end voltage due to variation in load current. 2) TRANSMISSION EFFICIENCY: The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line is generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance. Efficiency of a transmission line is defined as the ratio of the power delivered at the receiving end to the power sent from the sending end mathematically 3)
X 100% =

Or
Where

X 100%

and are the receiving end voltage, current and power factor (all phase values) while and are the sending end voltage, current and power factor (all phase values) respectively.

SHORT TRANSMISSION LINES

(OC) = (OD) + (DC) = (OE + ED) + (DB + BC)

=(

) + ( ( ) (

) )

(a)

(b)

(c) Sending end pf, (d)Power delivered = Line Losses = IR Power sent out = % transmission efficiency = =

X 100%

Using the diagram of fig 1.2, an approximate expression for the sending end voltage, Vs, can be obtained as follows:

OC = OF = OA + AF = OA + AG + GF = OA + AG + BH

The solution can also be obtained using complex notation as shown below:

Taking

( Z= R + j ( ( ( + ) ( )

) (R + j ( ) (

) ) )

The second term under the root is quite small and can be neglected with reasonable accuracy. Therefore, the approximate expression for becomes:

DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS Power is usually generated at power generating stations, then transmitted and distributed up to find point of consumption by the consumers. That part of power system which distribution electric power for local use (Consumers find point) is known as distribution s ystem. In general,

the distribution system is the electrical system between the Sub station fed by the transmission system and the consumer meters. A distribution system consists of feeders, distributors and service mains. In trying to define their terms, a tabular comparison is made between a feeder and a distributor and finally,Service mains is defined. FEEDER 1. A feeder is a conductor which connects the sub station (or localized generating station) to the area where power is to be distributed. DISTRUBUTION A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken for supply to the Customers.

2. No tappings are taken from the feeder so Current in it remains the same throughout

The current through a distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at various places along its length

3. The main consideration in the design of feeder is the current carrying capacity

While designing a distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main consideration (because statutory unit of voltage variations is 16% of rated value at the consumers terminal)

SERVICE MAINS: A service mains is generally a small cable which connects the distributor to the consumer terminals Diagram

CLASSIFICATION OF DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM A distribution system may be classified according to:1 Nature of current DC distribution system AC distribution system 2 Type of construction Underground system Overhead system 3 Scheme of connection Radial system Ring system However, only classification category according to scheme of connection (i.e Radial System) are of interest to us in this chapter.

RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM The radial system is serviced by a single transformer substation. In this system, separate feeders radiate from a sub station and feed the distributors at one end and only. Any fault on the transformer substation renders all consumers out of supply of electricity, hence the radial system suffers from insecurity of the electricity supply. Diagram

The diagram above shows a radial system whereby the distributor AB is only fed at one end (point A) by feeder OC. DEMERITS OF RADIAL DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM 1. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding point will be heavily loaded 2. The consumers are dependent on a single distributor. Any fault on the feeder and single distributor cut off supply to the consumers who are on the site of the fault away from supply from the sub station.

3. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor would be subjected to various village fluctuations when the load on the distributors changes.

RING & MAIN SYSTEM In this system, the primaries of distribution transformers form a closed loop. A sub station supplies to the closed feeder ABCEFGHI according to the diagram that follows

The distributors are tapped from different place C, F and H of the feeder through distributor transformers. MERITS OF RING DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM i. There are less voltage fluctuation at consumer terminal ii. The system is very reliable as each distribution is fed via two feeders. This means in the rent of fault on any section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is maintained. For example, suppose any fault occurs at any point P of section ABC, of the feeder, then section ABC of the section can be isolated for repairs and at the same time. Continuity of supply is maintained to all the consumer via feeder AIHGFEC. However, it is possible for a feeder ring to be energized by two or more substations (or generating stations) as shown below. Diagram

Here, distributors are connected to points O< P< R & Q of the feeder ring through distribution transformers. VOLTAGE DROP IN DC DISTRIBUTION LINES When DC Voltage is transported, voltage drop is only due to line resistance and the circuit representation becomes:

Vs, = Sending end voltage Vr = Receiving end voltage In calculation, involving dc distribution, consideration is given to the type of distributor. The most general method of classifying is the way they are fed by the feeder on this basis, dc distributors are classify: a. Distributor fed at one end. b. Distributor fed at both ends. c. Distributor fed at the centre. d. Ring distributor. In addition to the methods of feeding, a distributor may have i Concentrated loading ii Uniform loading iii Both concentrated & Uniform loading

VOLTAGE DROP IN AC DISTRIBUTION AC distribution calculations differ from the dc distribution in the following respects: 1. In case of dc system, the voltage drop is a resistance alone. However in ac system, the drops are due to the combined effects of resistance inductance and capacitance as can be seen in the ac distribution representation below:-

Vs = Sending (supply) end voltage Vr = Receiving end voltage L = Line inductance per km per phase

Iron, stoneware, asphalt or treated wood. After the cable is laid in position, thetroughing is filled with a bituminoun or asphatic compound and covered over. DISADVANTAGES 1. It is more expensive than direct laid system. 2. It requires skilled labour and favorable weather conditions. 3. Due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the current carrying capacity of the cable it required.

LINE INSULATOR AND SUPPORTS LINE INSULATORS These are items that prevent current from flowing between conductors (overhead lines) and their supports i.e the poles or towers. Line insulators are so place and arranged in such a way that leakage currents from conductors do not flow to earth through line supports (poles and towers). Some of the desired properties of a good insulator are high mechanical strength to withstand conductor load are high mechanical strength to withstand conductor load, high electrical resistance to avoid leakage currents to flow to earth, high relative permittivity, etc. The most commonly used material for insulators of overhead line is porcelcum or china clay. Porcelam is produced by firing at a high temperature a mixture of kaolin, feldspar and quarte in a kiln. Other types of insulator material are glass, steatite, etc. TYPES OF INSULATORS

1. PIN TYPE INSULATOR: - The pin type insulator is secured to the cross arm on the pole. There is a groove on the upper end of the insulators for housing the conductors proper binding of the conductor is done by an annealed wire of the same material as the conductor pin type insulators are used for transmission and distribution of electric power at voltages from 11kv up to 33kv. Beyond operating voltage of 33kv, the pin type insulators become too bulky and

2. SUSPENSION INSULATORS: - These are employed for high voltage i.e. beyond 33kv. (>33kv). They consist of a number of porcelain disis connected in series by metal links in the form of a string. The conductor is suspended at the bottom end of this string is secured to the cross armof the tower. Each unit or disc is designed for low series voltage, say 11KV. The number of discs in series would obviously depend on the working voltage. For instance, if the working voltage is 66KV, then six discs in series will be provided on the string.

ADVANTAGES OF SUSPENSION INSULATORS 1. They are cheaper than pin type insulators for voltages beyond 33KV. The bottom insulator. The guard ring introduces capacitance between metal fittings line capacitance currents L1, L2, etc resulting in the same charging current I through each unit of string. This brings about

uniform potential distribution across the units.

3. STRAIN INSULATORS: - when there is a dead end of the line or there is corner or sharp curve, the line is subjected to greater tension. In order to relieve the time of excessive tension, strain insulators are used for low voltage lines (C11CV), shackle insulators are used as strain insulators. However, for high voltage transmission lines strain insulators consisting of an assembly of suspension insulators use in the vertical plane are employed. 4. SHACKLE INSULATORS: - They are used for low voltage distribution lines such insulator can either be used in the vertical or horizontal position. They can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt

Or to the cross arm. The conductor in the groove is fixed with a soft binding wire. They are used for 415V distribution lines. POOR PERFORMANCES OF INSULATORS

Any electrical insulator may be subjected to poor performance due to the following reasons: 1. Cracking 2. Puncture Insulator

3. Porosity of material4. Improper glazing 5. Mechanical stress 6. Short Circuit

TESTING OF INSULATORS In accordance with the British standard, the insulators most undergo the following tests: 1. Flash over tests 2. Performance Tests 3. Routine Tests

LINE SUPPORTS. These are supporting structures for overhead line conductors. The line support used for transmission and distribution of electric power are of various types. These include wooden poles, Reinforced concrete poles and steel towers. The choice of supporting structure for a particular case depend on the line span, cross sectional area, line voltage and cost. WOODEN POLES: - These are made of seasoned wood and are suitable for lines of relatively, shorter spans (distance between two poles) of less than 50meters. They are mostly used in the rural areas for low distribution voltages. The wooden poles generally tend to rot below the ground level, causing foundation failure. In order to prevent this, the portion of the pole below the ground land is impregnated with preservative compounds like composite oil. Advantages 1 They are sharp 3 Provide Insulating Disadvantages 1. Have the tendency to rot below ground level 2. Comparatively shorter life span. 3. Cannot be used for high voltages 4. Have less mechanical strength 2 They are easily available

2.REINFORCED CONCRETE POLES: - They are for high distribution voltages of up to 33KV Lines. They have greater mechanical strength, longer life span and permit longer spans than wooden poles. They are more expensive than wooden poles. 3. STEEL TOWERS: - Where as wooden and reinforced concrete poles are used for distribution purposes at voltages between up to 33KV, Steel tower are used for long distance transmission voltages (above 33KV). Steel towers have greater mechanical strength, longer life, permit longer spans (more than 300m) and can withstand most severe climatic conditions. Tower footings are grounded by driving rods into the earth. This minimizes the lightning troubles as each tower acts as a lightning conductor check diagrams of various types of steels towers on the page that follows.

PROTECTION IN POWER SYSTEM A power malfunctions or experiences a form during conditions of short circuits. A short circuit is always accompanied by an excessive flow of current which if left unchecked can damage circuit component and electrical devices. Several protective devices exist in power system. They include fuses, circuit breakers, Relays lighting arresters switchgear, isolators (Reclosers and sectionalizers) etc. However, the scope of this course limited to fuses and circuit breakers (moulded case type) and as such only these two will be discussed. FUSES A fuse is a protecting device which has an element made of silver or tinned copper (tinned in a circuit and melts, (or blows out) excessive current flows through it and breaks the circuit. The fuse element is generally made of materials having low melting point, high conductivity andleast deterioration due to oxidation. Fuses are inserted in series with the current to be protected whenever a short circuit or overload occurs, excessive current flows through the fuse thereby raising its temperature and fuse element blows out, disconnecting the circuit protected by it. The time required to blow out the fuse depends upon the magnitude of excessive current. The greater the current, the smaller is the time taken by the fuse to blow out. For small currents up to 10A, tin or an alloy of lead and tin is used for making the fuse element. For larger currents, copper or silver is employed. DEFINITION OF IMPORTANT TERMS. 1 CURRENT RATING: - This is the maximum value of current, stated by the manufacturer, that the fuse can carry without overheating or melting.

It depends on the temperature rise of the contacts of the fuse holder, fuse material and the surrounding of the fuse. It is also called the continuous rating of the fuse. 2 FUSING CURRENT: _ This is the maximum current which causes the fuse to blow or melt. Value of fusing current is always more than the current rating of the fuse element. It is also called the interrupting current of the fuse. 3 FUSING FACTOR: - This is the ratio of the minimum fusing current rating of the fuse element i.e. Fusing Factor = Minimum fusing current

Current Rating of fuse Its magnitude is always greater than unity Types of fuse 1. Rewirable fuse 2. Cartridge fuse 3. HRC fuse 4. Current breakers Fusing Factor 1.8 1.25 1.75 1.25

TYPES OF FUSES There are 3 major types of fuses. THEY ARE: 1 REWIRABLE FUSES: They are commonly used in domestic installation. They are used where low values of fault current are to be interrupted. It consists of I a base and ii a fuse carrier. The base is of porcilin and carries the fixed contacts to which the incoming and outgoing phase wires are connected. The fuse carrier is also of porcelain and holds the fuse elements (tinned copper wire) between its terminals. The fuse carrier can be inserted in or taken out of the Saxe when desired. Whenever a fault occurs, the fuse element is blown out and the circuit is intempted. The fuse carrier is taken out and the blown out fuse element is replaced by the new one. The carrier is then re- inserted in the base to restore the supply.

Advantages of Rewirable Fuse 1 Cheap and easy to repair on the cost of replacement is negligible. 2 Easily accessible.

Disadvantages of Rewirable Fuse 1 It can be replaced with a wire of incorrect size Produces an electric are when it melts to open a circuit, hence cannot be used in environment containing chemicals and flammable gases. Since it is semi enclosed, it oxidizes while carrying normal current, thereby reducing in cross sectional area and with time, fuse will trip when carrying rated current below the rated value.

2 CARTRIDGE FUSE: This fuse also finds its plication in domestic installations. It is the type usually in 13A fused plugs used in homes and offices. Cartridge fuse overcomes the disadvantage sociated with the rewirable fuse as the rating of a placement fuse element is determined by the manufacturer. ADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSE Fuse element is totally enclosed in a glass or porcelain tube and hence does not oxidize while in operation therefore breaking the circuit only at rated values It is easily replaceable. DISADVANTAGES OF CARTRIDGE FUSE It is more expensive than a rewirable fuse. It does not have an arc extinguishing mechanism, hence unsuitable in areas where inflammable gases

HIGH RUPTURING CAPACITY (HRC) This type of fuse has its characteristics trolled by the manufacturer. These fuses are used to protect large industrial loads, mainly in other situations where very large fault can occur.

The fuses element made of silver is

in a fibre tube. When short circuit current the fuse

element melts and the resulting heat up the fibre tube. It releases gases and high pressure, the high pressure in turn extinguishes the electric arc. The HRC Fuse, unlike the carrier and rewirable fuses, does not heat up its surrounding circuit. It is safe for use in industries and refineries where inflammable gases exist in the environment. However, it is the most expensive fuse.

CIRCUIT BREAKERS A circuit breaker is a piece of equipment which can: i. ii. Make or break a circuit manually or by remote control under normal conditions Break a circuit automatically A circuit breaker can make a circuit either manually or automatically under all conditions, VIE no load, full load and short circuit conditions. Thus, a circuit breaker incorporates manual (or remote control) as well as automatic control for switching functions. The automatic control employs relays and operates only under fault condition. PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION OF CIRCUIT BREAKERS A circuit breaker essentially consists of fixed and moving contacts called electrodes, under normal operating conditions, these contacts remain closed and will not open automatically until and unless the system becomes faulty. However, the contacts can be opened manually or by remote control whenever desired. When a fault occurs on any part of the system, the trip coils of the circuit breaker get energized and the moving contacts are pulled apart by some mechanism than opening the circuit. When the contacts of a circuit breaker are separated under fault conditions, an arc is struck between them. The production of arc not only delays the current interruption process but it also generates enormous heat which may cause damage to the system or to the circuit breaker itself. Therefore, the main problem in a circuit breaker is to extinguish the arc within the shortest possible time so that heat generated by it may not reach a dangerous value. Based on the medium of arc extinction, circuit breakers are classified in: -

1. Oil circuit Breaker 2. Air blast circuit Breakers 3. Sulphur hexafluoride (SF6) circuit Breakers 4. Vacuum circuit breakers

ISOLATORS Isolators (sometimes referred to as disconnect switches) are simple pieces of equipment employed only for isolating circuit when the current has already been interrupted. They ensure that the current is not switched into the circuit until everything in order. Isolators 1. They operate under no load or off-load condition 2. They are not equipped with arc quenching devices 3. They do not have specified current breaking capacity or current making capacity Circuit Breakers 1. They operate when the circuit is still on load 2. They are equipped with arc quenching devices 3 They are specified interrupt capacity (current breaking and making capacity).

Isolators are employed in addition to circuit breakers and are provided on each side of every circuit breaker to provide isolation. While opening a circuit, the circuit breaker is opened first, then isolator. If an isolator is opened carelessly, when carrying a heavy current, the resulting arc could easily cause a flash over to ground. This may shatter the supporting insulators and may even cause a fatal accident to the operator. When closing a circuit, the isolator is closed first, then circuit breakers. Isolators are necessary on the supply side of the circuit breakers in orders to ensure isolation (disconnection) of the circuit breaker from the live parts for the purpose of maintenance.

CONDUCTORS AND CABLES USED IN POWER SYSTEMS In power systems (transmission and distribution this time around) transfer of power is done from the generating stations to points of use via conductors. Conductors can either be bare overhead conductors or underground cables. Any material which offers free or easy passage of an electric current is known as a conductor. Conductors offers less/ minimal resistance to the flow of electric current. Some typical materials used as conductors are : 1. SILVER: - This is the best known conductor but it is too expensive for general use. The contacts of some switches are plated with silver to reduce the contact resistance 2. COPPER: - This material is widely used for the manufacture of electric wires, cables and bus bars. Its conductivity is second only to silver. Some of major advantages of using copper as conducting material are: a. Low resistance and high electrical conductivity, b. It is ductile and therefore easily formed into wires. c. Copper has high current denity i.e. current carrying capacity of copper permit of cross sectional area is quite large. However, due to its higher cost and non availability, it is rarely used for general purposes.

3. ALUMINIUM: - This is the most widely used conductor material when considering properties like cost, conductivity, tensile strength, weight, etc. Aluminum is cheap and light as compared to copper but it has much smaller conductivity and tensile strength. Advantages of using aluminum could be summarized as follows: a. It is cheap b. it has light weight c. It is readily available. The relative comparison between copper and Aluminum is presented in the table that follows. Copper Conductor 1. Has less resistance, hence higher conductivity. Aluminum Conductor Higher resistance, lower conductivity. The conductivity of aluminum is about 60% that of

copper 2. Weighs more than aluminium hence supporting structure for copper need to be strong 3) Higher mechanical strength and so needs no reinforcement 4) More expensive than Aluminium Less mechanical strength and is reinforced with steels Less expensive than copper Weighs less, 1/3 of copper

STEEL CORED ALUMINIUM: Pure aluminium has low tensile strength and produces greater sag. In order to increase the tensile strength, the alluminium conductor is reinforced with a core of galvanized Steel wires to obtain Aluminum conductor steel Reinforced (ACSR). The galvanized steel is used in order to prevent rusting and electrolytic corrosion. The reinforcement with steel keeps the composite conductor light. Other types of conductor materials include gold, brass, nichrome, manganin, cadmium, copper, etc. There are various sizes of conductors. 35mm2, 70mm2, 95mm2, 100m2, etc. The type to be used depend on the amount of current to be carried. CHOICE OF CONDUCTOR MATERIALS The choice of conductor materials for use as overhead lines depends on the following factors a. Cost b. Electrical properties c. Mechanical properties d. Local condition

COST: - it plays a prominent role in determining what material to use for an engineering design since the costlier the material used, the more expensive the finished product will be. This certainly will inhibit the marketability of a finished product. 2. ELECTRICAL PROPERTIES: This refers to the voltage and the power being transported by the line. Losses of the transported power must be drastically reduced. The choice of material for overhead construction has a bearing on it. 3. MECHANICAL PROPERTIES: - Overhead lines are subjected to swinging and vibration due to the blowing of the wind; the overhead lines are designed to have adequate mechanical stress to withstand the strain placed on it by high velocity winds.

4. LOCAL CONDITION: - In the temperate regions of the world, ice or snow formation on overhead lines are common features. The choice of materials used for the overhead lines construction must be able to sustain the weight of the ice deposits. Overhead lines are usually stranded to make them flexible and mechanically strong to withstand strains from ice formation and high velocity weights. Otherwise, unchecked swinging of the line leads to mechanical fatigue and an eventual fracture of the line stranding helps to overcome this type of damage. A stranded conductor comprises a central wire around which other strands of wire are twisted. The equation for determining the numbers of wires in a stranded overhead wire is = 3n (n+ 1) = 1 Where n = no of layers. The overall diameter of the conductor is given as D = (2n + 1) d where d = diameter of a strand. Stranding reduces skin effects.

CORONA This is a phenomenon that arises as a result of lonisation of air around Overhead conductor lines above a particular applied voltage called the critical disruptive voltage. Corona effects are usually observed at a working voltage. Corona effects are usually observed at a working voltage of 33KV above. Effects of corona are maximum at the conductor surfaces. These effects include violet glow, hissing noise and production of ozone gas. Corona formed from these effects are always accompanied by energy loss which is dissipated in form of light, heat, sound and chemical action. Corona is dependent on the following factors: 1. Atmosphere i.e. Physical state of atmosphere, whether stormy, humid or dry. 2. Conductor size: The rough and irregular surface will give rise to more corona because unevenness of the surface decreases the value of breakdown voltage 3. Spacing between conductors: The more the spacing, the less the effect of corona

4. Line voltage: If it is low, no corona is formed but as the value increases (above 33KV), the more the tendency for corona to be formed. Critical disruptive voltage is defined as the minimum phase mental voltage at which corona occurs. It is given by =

Where r= radian of the conductor, d= spacing between lines. Corona effects are reduced by: 1. Increasing conductor size. 2. Increasing conductor spacing. CONCEPT OF BUNDLE CONDUCTORS Bundle or multiple conductors is an arrangement of two or more conductors per phase supported by one insulator assembly. The idea behind the concept is to reduce the effect of corona discharge. CABLES Underground cables, or simply cables, used in power systems have several advantages such as less liability to damage through storms or lightning, low maintenance cost, les chances of faults, smaller voltage drop and aesthetic value i.e. better general appearance when compared with bare overhead conductors. However, their major drawback is that they have greater installation cost and introduce insulation problems at high voltages. For this reason, underground cables are employed where it is impracticable to use overhead lines. E.g thickly populated areas or areas where maintenance conditions do not permit the use of construction. The chief use of underground cables for many years has been for distribution of electric power in congested urban areas. Recently underground cable are now employed for transmission of power for short or moderate distances. CONSTRUSTION OF CABLES Cables essentially consist of one or more cores or conductors 1. Covered with suitable insulation 2.And surrounded by a protecting cover. Cables are made of 3 main parts.

1. CONDUCTORS / CORES: A cable may have more than one core (conductor) depending upon the type of service for which are intended. The conductors are made of tinned copper or aluminum and are usually stranded in order to provide flexibility to the cable 2. INSULATION: Each core / conductor is provided with a suitable thickness of insulation, depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the cable. The most commonly used materials for insulation are impregnated paper, rubber mineral compound, polyvinyl chloride (PVC), varnished cambric, etc. 3. PROTECTING CORES: This are usually in different layers. These layers include: a. METALLIC SHEATH: used in order to protect the cable from ingress of moisture, damaging liquids and other gases in the soil and atmosphere. They are made of either lead or aluminum. b. BEDDING: This is a fibrous material to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion. c. ARMORING: consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel were steel tape to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it. It is laid over the bedding. Armouring may not be done in the case of some cables. d. SERVING: This is a layer of fibrous material similar to bedding laid over the armoring to protect the armoring from atmospheric condition TYPES OF CABLES According to the voltage for which they are manufactured, cables are divided into the following groups: 1. LOW VOLTAGE CABLES ( 3KV): The cable insulation is PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and can withstand moderate temperature up to 70C. PVC cables are mainly used in domestic wiring. 2. HIGH VOLTAGE CABLES ( 11KV): This type of