Dept. of Architecture, Tunghai University Fall, 2006 Dept.

of Architecture, Tunghai University Fall, 2006

Dept. of Architecture, Tunghai University
Fall, 2006

Sustainable City

UGB/URA
Week11
UGB/URA, Compact City,
Sustainable development Indicators

1 1 2

Controlling Population Growth „ Standard land use forecast

approach is based on aspirations
and consensus.
„ Cities can limit population growth within a „ Land use models reflect market
boundary by either using an Urban Growth Highway location affects forces and transportation
land development patterns. improvements, but most don’don’t
Boundary or an Urban Service Boundary address possibility of alternative
outcomes.

Urban Growth Boundaries

ƒ Delineates land to be developed and land to be
Legend
protected for rural uses
Rural
ƒ Purpose: Growth within serviced areas/preserve Urban Growth Area
Potential urban reserve areas for
rural areas Poss. Urban Reserve inclusion into urban growth
Highway boundaries. They affect future
ƒ General timeline: 20 years Poss. Highway
transportation demand.

3 4

„ Urban Growth Boundary - Portland, Oregon

• Outlaw development outside urban boundary
„ Urban Service Boundary - Boulder, Colorado
• Development is legal though city doesn’
doesn’t provide
services
„ Effect
• Reduces demand for residential land outside the
boundary ⇒Lower price of residential land outside boundary
• Increases demand for residential land inside the
boundary⇒
boundary⇒ Higher price of residential land outside boundary
• Restricts supply of labor
„ Fewer jobs
„ Firms must pay higher wage rate
• Reduces congestion
5 6

1
 Dept. of Architecture, Tunghai University Fall, 2006
„ Growth management approaches – Urban Growth Boundaries /
Population caps

INFILL DEVELOPMENT

8
7

WHAT IS INFILL DEVELOPMENT? Why Infill?

ƒ The creative recycling of vacant or underutilized land ƒ Relieves pressure on rural land
within cities and suburbs.
ƒ Increases the tax base
ƒ Infill projects can include a single use type or
incorporate mixed-
mixed-use. ƒ Capitalizes on existing services and
infrastructure
Two primary factors have brought forth the use of ƒ Decreases inaccessibility
infill development as a tool to help curb sprawl. ƒ Removes vacant/blighted property that can
ƒ Growth Management Programs in the 1970’
1970’s and weaken a neighborhood
1980’
1980’s.
ƒ “Back to the City Movement”
Movement”
9 10

Types of Infill Property Legal Constraints

ƒ Vacant Land:
Land: skipped over parcels, may have ƒ Comprehensive Plans and Traditional Euclidean Zoning
environmental constraints, owner problems, or an odd often don’
don’t encourage mixed-
mixed-use and have stringent
shape. requirements that would make innovative uses of the land
less feasible.
ƒ Brownfield Sites:
Sites: abandoned commercial or industrial
properties that have been left damaged. ƒ The Solution
ƒ Update regulatory measures to encourage infill.
ƒ Underutilized properties/Adaptive Reuse:
Reuse: ƒ Updating the comprehensive plan, or creating overlay zoning.
rehabilitation of existing structures. Some cities also target blighted properties and begin the
appropriation process in order to streamline the process for
developers.
ƒ Teardowns: removal of existing building to
accommodate a better use.
11 12

2
 Financial Constraints
ƒ Traditional lenders are often skeptical to invest
in economically depressed areas, and have
different criteria for commercial, retail, and
residential development.
ƒ The Solution
ƒ As infill projects become more frequent and notably
successful, lenders are becoming more open minded
to such projects, and developing strategies to deal
with them.
Historic Preservation Requirements
ƒ The rehabilitation of historic structures can be
costly, and historic district requirements can
intimidate developers.
ƒ The Solution
ƒ Developers may be encouraged to take on such
projects upon learning that restored historic
buildings command some of the highest rents.
ƒ Tax incentives to encourage historic restoration,
developed their own tax incentive programs.
Brownfield Redevelopment
ƒ Brownfields can be expensive and time
consuming to clean-
clean-up, and investors are
especially wary to lend money for redevelopment.
ƒ The Solution
ƒ A variety of programs are in place to encourage
brownfield projects.
ƒ USEPA : Brownfields Economic Development
Initiative.
ƒ The Conservation, Lender Liability and Deposit
Insurance Act
ƒ Voluntary Clean-
Clean-up Programs (VCP)
ƒ Some Programs to overcome these financial
constraints in US include:
ƒ The Hope VI/Urban Revitalization Demonstration
Program (URD)/Severely Distressed Public Housing
Initiative
ƒ The Federal Low-
Low-Income Housing Tax Credit
Program
ƒ The Federal Community Reinvestment Act (CRA)
13 14
ƒ The National Park Service (NPS) and the
Internal Revenue Service (IRS), in conjunction
with State Historic Preservation Offices (SHPO)
offer the Federal Historic Preservation Tax
Credit Incentive Program.
• This program offers a 20% tax credit for a certified
rehabilitation of a certified historic building,
building, and a 10%
tax credit for the rehabilitation of any non- non-residential
non-
non-historic building built before 1936.
15 16
Environmental Constraints
ƒ Wetlands, floodplains, odd shaped lots, and steep
slopes are all possible reasons why parcels may have
been skipped over in the natural course of development.
ƒ The Solution:
Solution:
ƒ Governing agencies can modify existing regulations on
parcels where infill would be desired.
ƒ Strategies like clustering development can allow for one part
of a parcel to be developed more densely in order to preserve
another portion.
17 18
3
 Community Opposition
ƒ The Solution:
Solution:
ƒ There are two primary reasons why communities ƒ try to mitigate the negative effects of infill development
oppose infill. by insuring that there is a large affordable housing
component in the proposed development, setting aside a
ƒ The fear of displacement of the poor when property portion for low-
low-income residents and offering tax breaks
values rise as a result of new development in to those most likely to be ‘priced out’
out’.
economically depressed neighborhoods. ƒ involving communities from the proposal stage and
ƒ Past experiences of poorly designed infill projects can encouraging their input can create an empowered
community who is able to use their bargaining power to
discourage neighbors. get a development that suits their needs.

19 20

The Can Company,

Recognize Successful v. Unsuccessful Infill Projects
Baltimore MD
ƒ The Can Company in Baltimore, MD is an example of adaptive
reuse on a former brownfield site.
ƒ SUCCESSFUL INFILL
ƒ It was the first project to use Maryland’
Maryland’s VCP, as well as the
ƒ incorporate mixed-
mixed-use, a variety of housing. Federal Historic Preservation Tax Credit Initiative.

ƒ “weave a fabric of land uses”

uses” that support each
other into an existing neighborhood.

ƒ designed to safety, and scaled to the pedestrian.

21 22

Denver Dry Goods, Denver CO Unsuccessful Infill Development

ƒ The Denver Dry Goods building is an example of a
public/private partnership that has renovated a historic structure
structure
to accommodate mixed use.
ƒ It offers affordable and market rate housing, as well as retail and
office space.

ƒ Unsuccessful infill may incorporate auto-

auto-oriented projects, and
be dominated by super blocks, parking lots, and wide roads.

ƒ These may come in the form of big box retailers, or large office
buildings in use only from 9-
9-5.

23 24

4
 How to Evaluate Infill Development ? 其他相關工具
9 Does the program have an infill component? • Habitat Conservation Plans
9 Have they encouraged infill by: • Transferable development rights
9 Changing an antiquated comprehensive plan?
• Voluntary conservation schemes
9 Created zoning that allows for mixed-
mixed-uses?
9 Identified sites for potential infill development, and aligned them
• Green offsets
them
with economic goals?
9 Created incentives for the developer to choose infill over
greenfield development?
9 Is the city accepting infill in any form, or do they have guidelines
guidelines
that encourage:
9 Transit and pedestrian-
pedestrian-oriented development?
9 Design that fits the character of the neighborhood?
9 Mixed-
Mixed-income housing and mixed-mixed-use?
25 26

„ Coastline Management Plans Dept. of Architecture, Tunghai University Fall, 2006

„ Plans for natural water system management

Land Use Agreements / Joint Management
„
Compact City

• 都市在固定範圍內發展，提供不同之混合使用土
地型態，達到公共設施、社會與功能集中，自給
自足的生活形態，減少資源消耗與污染
• 「密集且具社會多樣化的城市，在這個城市中，
經濟及社會活動互相重疊，而且社區的發展集中
在鄰里」（Rogers, 1998:33）

28
27

„ 都市形式
• 不等於高密度和高容積率 „ 能源
• 強調功能緊湊，居住、工作、交通和休憩四大功能相對緊鄰，功能配套完善
(dwellings, services, workplaces) • 都市朝向密集發展，達到省能與降低公共支出成本
• 提供鄰里網絡發展區，有自己的公園及公共空間，並提供各種私人及公共活動 • 減少能源浪費，例如「汽電共生」由於區位接近，因
• 創造可以在健康且無污染環境下提供活力社區之彈性結構
此可以一方面輸送電力，一方面直接將熱水送至家
„ 交通 中，這種方式比傳統的輸電方式至少多了二倍的效率
• 圍繞在大眾運輸節點的社區中心成長
• 對自然環境和田園風光的保護，提高公共交通效率
• 構築以步行者為中心、具有人的行為尺度的城市空間 „ 經濟
„ 社會文化 • 商業生活文化功能與居住功能的緊湊以及與就業地點
• 「社區主體社會」的理想棲地 的相對近接
• 可以透過各種文化型式加以解釋的都市結構型態
• 城市是關於地方居民、日常接觸、人類活動集中、生產及地方文化表達 • 再生的城市空間以其魅力聚集人氣，吸引更多交流人
• 充分利用歷史、文化、自然資源營造舒適、安全城市環境 口，促進城市與地域經濟可持續發展
• 實現以人為本、具有地域特色的城市空間持續再生目標

29 30

5
Dept. of Architecture, Tunghai University Fall, 2006

環境永續發展的評估

Sustainable Development
Indicators

31
資料來源：李永展、張曉婷 (1999)「永續性衡量工具之反思：以台中都會區永續性指標與生態足跡為例」，《第32
一屆環境與資源學術研討會》，1999年9月17日，台北，中興大學資源管理研究所，第561頁~579頁

„ 經濟合作暨開發組織(OECD)所訂定的
經濟合作暨開發組織(OECD) PSR系統：「壓力
所訂定的PSR 系統：「壓力
永續發展指標(Sustainable Development Indicators)
永續發展指標(Sustainable (pressure)」→「狀態(state)」→「反應
(pressure)」→「狀態(state) (response)
」→「反應(response)

„ 永續發展理念融入指標設計之基本理念與架構
中，賦予環境指標新的意義，稱之為「永續發
展指標」（SDI）
展指標」（SDI）

33 34

Pressure State
The pressures Human Society • Condition (typically of the
puts on the environment, as a environment) that results
result of: from the pressures,
e.g. pollution levels,
„ human activities degree of land degradation
„ trade, and consumption or extent of deforestation

• These changed conditions may, in turn, affect

These activities, or Driving Forces, result in direct human health and well-being
pressures on the environment such as:
„ pollution • One therefore needs an understanding of both
„ resource depletion the State of the Environment as well as the
35
direct and indirect effects - or Impacts 36

6
 Response Responses Include

„ Regulatory action &

Relates to actions taken by society Instruments of Policy
either individually or collectively,
„ Public opinion & consumer preference
¾ to prevent or mitigate against „ Changed management strategies
negative environmental „ Environmental or research expenditure
impacts, „ Provision of environmental information
¾ to correct existing damage,
¾ or, to conserve natural resources Do Not Include
Coping Strategies: These tend to be State or Impacts, are less
easy to influence with policy instruments,
and are symptoms rather than causes
37 38

Pressure-
Pressure-State-
State-Response Condition
of the
Human
Environment
Activities
There are a number of different that
diagrams illustrating PSR Influence
the
environment

Response to
Prevent / Reduce
Negative Impact
Adapted from: Pinter et al,
UNEP, IISD & Ecologistics
International, 1999
39 40

Development of PSR
„ Driving forces:
• What is causing
PSR: environmental conditions
change?
Pressure - State - Response „ State:
• What are the effects of
human being activities on
the environment?
Responses:
DSR: „

• What actions are being

Driving Force - State - Response taken to respond to the
changes in the state of
environment?
„ 聯合國永續發展委員會提出以PSR模式為基礎擴充之
聯合國永續發展委員會提出以PSR 模式為基礎擴充之DSR DSR (Driving force-
force-State-
State-
DPSIR: Response)指標系統
Response)指標系統
Driving Force - Pressure - State - Impact - Response „ linkages between pressures and responses, between the state and
the pressures, and from the state to the response
„ to better understand the consequences of policy and technology
interventions
41 42
http://www.virtualcentre.org/en/dec/toolbox/Refer/EnvIndi.htm#DSR

7
 „ 「邁向永續歐
洲」(Toward
洲」(Toward
Sustainable
Europe)
„ 「永續西雅
圖」
(Sustainable
Seattle)
„ 英國永續發展
• Driving forces, such as industry and transport, produce
• Pressures on the environment, such as polluting emissions, which then 指標(UKSDI)
指標(UKSDI)
degrade the 等
• State of the environment, which then
• Impacts on human health and eco-systems, causing society to
• Respond with various policy measures, such as regulations, information
and taxes, which can be directed at any other part of the system 43 44

環境永續性指數
(Environmental Sustainability Index, ESI)
„ 「台灣地區永續發展指標系統」、台北市 „ 世界經濟論壇明日環境工作小組(World Economic
世界經濟論壇明日環境工作小組(World
Forum’
Forum’s Global Leaders for Tomorrow, GLT)、耶魯大
GLT)、耶魯大
永續發展指標系統」、「國家景氣指 學環境法律及政策中心(the Yale Center for
學環境法律及政策中心(the
標」、「永續台灣的評量系統」等 Environmental Law and Policy, YCELP)及哥倫比亞大
YCELP)及哥倫比亞大
學國際地球科學資訊網路中心(Columbia University
學國際地球科學資訊網路中心(Columbia
Center for International Earth Science Information
Network, CIESIN) 於2000年一月提出
2000年一月提出

„ 「在各面向持續維持高水準表現的能力」
• 環境系統(Environmental System)
環境系統(Environmental
• 降低環境壓力(Reducing Stresses)
降低環境壓力(Reducing
• 降低人類脆弱度(Reducing Human Vulnerability)
降低人類脆弱度(Reducing
• 社會及制度容量 (Social and Institutional Capacity)
45 46
• 國際參與(Global Stewardship)
國際參與(Global

台灣ESI分數圖

組成 概念
環境系統 國家環境永續等級：環境系統健康的維持及改善環境惡化的程度

降低環 國家環境更永續的可能，如降低污染造成的壓力，使其低至對環境系統
境壓力 不會造成明顯的傷害。
降低人類 國家能更加達成環境永續的程度，當人們與社會系統更不易受到衝擊
易受災性 時，人類越少受到的天然災害的傷害，代表社會更具有永續性。
社會與機 國家體制能反應環境永續需要的程度，地方制度能夠針對環境挑戰培養
構之能力 有效因應的技能、態度與網絡的基本社會模式。

全球參 國家與其他國家合作共同處理環境問題擴大對環境永續性的努力，減少
與管理 在其他國家負面跨界轉移的環境衝擊，並減少損害的程度。 47 48

8
 2005年
2005年ESI在
ESI在2004-
2004-2005年度成長競爭力指標迴歸
2005年度成長競爭力指標迴歸 2005年相對人均國內生產毛額，環境永續指標迴歸
2005年相對人均國內生產毛額，環境永續指標迴歸

49 50

環境空間
„ 源自於1992年荷蘭地球之友
源自於1992 年荷蘭地球之友(Friends (Friends of the Earth
Netherlands, FOEN)「荷蘭永續行動計畫」
FOEN)「荷蘭永續行動計畫」(Action (Action
Plan Sustainable Netherlands)
„ 不危及支撐現世代及未來世代地球的容受力情況
下，人類可使用的資源與可釋出的污染量
„ 永續性的概念必須包括環境空間與公平兩個原則
„ 國家永續資源使用量，包含能源、不可再生資源、
土地資源、森林、以及水資源等五大類的評估
„ 制訂2010年人均環境空間、
制訂2010 年人均環境空間、2010 2010年平均每國的環境
年平均每國的環境
空間(人均環境空間乘未來人口數)
空間( 人均環境空間乘未來人口數)、平均每國實際
使用量、人均實際使用量等四個分析項目
51 52

「環境空間」重點原則 生態足跡 (Ecological Footprint)

1. 環境空間是可被計算，可被實踐的
• 資源分配利用/
資源分配利用/蘊藏量與使用量，二氧化碳總排放量與綠色植物吸收量 „ 1994年加拿大學者
1994年加拿大學者ReesRees &
2. 不超過地球生態的界線 Wackernagel提出
Wackernagel提出
• 「在未永久減損某個集居地人口賴以為生的生態系統之生產力下，該集居地
所能永久支持的最大人口數(李永展，1996)
所能永久支持的最大人口數(李永展，1996)。」
。」 „ 總負荷量=人口*
總負荷量= 人口*每人消費量

3. 推展環境空間，以不犧牲眾人的福祉為前提
„ 計算人類對自然界的需求
• 不是要回歸到原始叢林生活，而是重新塑造資源使用態度
„ 具備生物性生產力，能產
4. 公平原則 生特定人口數所需資源、
• 當代/
當代/未來世代，相同權利享有相等資源
並吸收廢棄物的面積大
5. 民主與共同體意念
• 民主討論的過程與共同體意念
小，就是該特定人口的生
態足跡
6. 預警原則
• 對於不確定是否會對環境造成危害時應採取保守態度
• 已經造成危害部份應該採取更積極態度來面對 53 54

9
 „ 區域自然資本需求與自然資本能力數量比
較（資產負債分析）
www.elements.nb.ca/pub http://www.ew.govt.nz/enviroinfo/indicators/
/forum/footprint/ef.htm community/sustainability/ecofoot/report.htm
„ 基礎成本評估（區域生存承載能力）
„ 生態足跡分析核算區域內人類對生態 „ 運行成本評估（區域發展正常需求）
系統利用的狀況，例如國家、區域、
縣市、企業或組織因生活消費行為而 „ 損失成本評估（區域環境超限程度）
對環境衝擊的程度，是以換算的土地
面積做為比較的基礎，即環境衝擊越 „ 借用成本評估（區域生態赤字狀況）
大其生態足跡越大
„ 計算四類“成本” 的EF及其滿足程度
„ 這種指標系統的內涵是複合的，包括
各種與能源和資源相關的行為或處
置，透過各項對應的轉換因子可轉換
55 56
成所需的土地面積 www.elements.nb.ca/.../janice/harvey.htm

„ 四類成本專案的人均 EF分量計算（需求,A）
生態赤字 A(i) = (P+ I - E) / (Y*N) (i=1,2,3,4)
„ 六類規範因數(equivalent factor)的確定：“耕
• 定義：超出資源承載力和環境容受力、借用後 地、草地、林地、建築用地、能源用地、水
代發展機會的自然資本總和。 域用地”的統一化與標準化（w）
生態赤字可以簡略地表達為： „ 區域生態承載能力（carry capacity of region）
的確定（供給,Y)
生態赤字 = 損失成本+
損失成本+借用成本
„ 生態赤字或生態盈餘

57 58

1. 耕地
• 農產品消費所對應的土地面積
• 包括穀物、水果和蔬菜、根莖類和塊根類、堅果、茶、咖啡、糖、菜
油、煙草、棉花、黃麻
• 上述農產品所餵養的肉、奶跟蛋等被消費產品
2. 牧地
„ 生態足跡的土地分為： • 所消費的肉、乳製品、獸皮和羊毛等未經作物餵養的家畜產品，佔用
• 耕地（Cropland） 牧草地
3. 林地
• 牧地（Grazing Land） • 森林產品對應土地面積，包含所有木製產品：原木、木材為主的木板
• 林地（Forest） 或是纖維板，也包含紙漿、紙與硬紙板
• 建地（Built-up Land） 4. 建地
• 表面被覆蓋、被建造的土地，包含道路、建築物與其他人造設施
• 魚獲區（Fishing Ground）
5. 漁獲區
• 能源地（Energy Land） • 捕撈魚類和海產等消費所需要面積，包括所有的海洋和淡水魚、甲殼
綱、和頭足綱動物，也包含飼養魚
6. 能源地
• 能源消費後所產生的CO2 沉積以及自然代謝必需的面積。
• 包含四種能源：礦物燃料（煤炭、石油和天然氣）、生物能（木材和
木炭）、核能和水力發電
59 60

10
 „ 全世界的生態足跡平均是2.2公頃，生態系統
全世界的生態足跡平均是2.2 公頃，生態系統
容受承載力1.8公頃，生態赤字為
容受承載力1.8公頃，生態赤字為--0.4公頃
0.4公頃
„ 台灣每人生態足跡4.3公頃，生態系統容受承
台灣每人生態足跡4.3公頃，生態系統容受承
載力0.2公頃。生態赤字為
載力0.2公頃。生態赤字為--4.1公頃
4.1公頃

„ 計算自己生態足跡：
http://www.myfootprint.org
http://www.myfootprint.org/
/
„ 生態足跡相關網站：
http://www.footprintnetwork.org/index.php
http://www.footprintnetwork.org/index.php
61 62

11