1

Flow under pressure through a fixed

cross section: e.g.
orifices, nozzles, short pipes, gates
Open flow through an undetermined
cross section: e.g.
weirs, spillways, drop structures
Main tasks:
Find the discharges Q;
Maintain water levels
Hydraulic Structures and Flow Measurements
Type 1
Type 2
Applications of the structures:
Irrigation
Water supply
Drainage
Sewage treatment
Hydropower engineering
Hydraulic Structures
(gates, weirs, Spillways, Culverts)
2
Reference Books
1. Hydraulics in Civil and Environmental Engineering, 2
nd
Ed, Andrew
Chadwick and John Morfett, E & FN SPON, 1994
2. The Hydraulics of Open Channel Flow, Hubert Chanson,
Eliane Wigzell, 1999.
3. Civil Engineering Hydraulics, 4
th
Ed, C. Nalluri and R. E. Feathrstone,
Blackwell Science, 2001.
3
1. Orifices and sluiceways
2. Flow under gates
3. Flow over weirs
Sharp crested (thin plate) weirs
Long-based (broad-crested) weirs
4. Spillways
5. Culverts
Contents
x
h A c Q = Constant
General Relation for Q:
Our main task: to find the values of c for various kinds of structures
4
1. Orifices and sluiceways
Fig. 1 Notations for the orifice problem
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
2 2
z
p
g
v
z
p
g
v
+ + = + +

(9.1)
Q
2
h
1
Area A
Apply Bernoulli Eq from (1) to (2):
Since p
1
= p
2
= p
atm
, Z
1
-Z
2
= h,
and V
1
= 0
or (9.2)
g V h 2 /
2
2
=
gh V V
jet
2
2
= =
(9.1)
5
Q can then be obtained as:
gh A AV Q
jet
2 = = (9.3)
where A is the area of the orifice.
There are two reasons:
1) the size of the jet is smaller than the size of opening;
2) the viscous shear effect between the edge of the orifice and the water.
Experimental results showed that actual
Q is smaller than Q from Eq. (9.3).
Vena
contracta
6
Fig. 2 Development of the vena
contracta.
Fig. 3 Velocity distribution due to
viscous shear loss.
Assumed V
distribution
Actual V
distribution
Vena contracta
Diameter d
is minimum
A
2
A
1
Typical value:
A
1
/A
2
=0.64
7
A discharge coefficient, c, is introduced to Eq.(9.3) due to the combined
effect of the above two factors:
(9.4)
1) A is the area of the opening
2) c is determined by experiments, ranging from 0.6 to 0.68 for small,
round, and square orifices discharging into air.
2) c is larger with smaller diameters and large heads.
3) when the jet exits into the downstream water, h will be the difference
between the two levels.
4) For actual structures, when orifice cannot be considered infinitely thin
but, rather, is a short tube with length of l, the discharge coefficients for
short tubes of various materials and configurations are given in Fig. 4.
gh cA Q 2 =
8
Fig. 4 Discharge coefficients
for short tubes.
c
l/d
c: discharge coefficient
l: length of the tube
d: diameter of the tube
Different types of pipes
9
A practical application of this concept is for sluiceways under dams.
Fig. 5 A sluiceway under
a concrete gravity dam.
Use: removal of water from the reservoir;
Materials: concrete or steel plates coated, or
steel pipe;
Locations: reservoir control considerations.
10
Example 1. A drain pipe located at the bottom of a concrete storage tank, 5
m below the water level. The discharge through the pipe is Q = 0.5 m
3
/s.
Determine the pipe diameter D.
Solution:
D=?
5m
0.5m
concrete
storage
gh cA Q 2 =
Using Eq. (9.4),
4 / , 5 , / 5 . 0
2 3
D A m h s m Q = = =
c depends on l/D, using trial and error:
Assume pipe is smooth with sharp entrance:
Try D =0.1m, l/D=5, from Fig.4 c =0.825 Q =0.06m
3
/s
Try D =0.25m, l/D=2 c =0.85 Q =0.413m
3
/s
Try D =0.275m, l/D=1.8 c =0.851 Q =0.5m
3
/s
11
2. Flow under gates
Fig. 6 Notations for flow under gates.
) ( 2
2
1 0
H H g bac
h g cA Q
=
=
(9.5)
A: area of the opening
b: width of the gate,
perpendicular to the paper
c: discharge coefficient;
a: gate opening.
H
2
H
0
a
H
1
g V 2 /
2
1
By using Bernoulli Eq and
introducing discharge coefficient c:
12
1) H
2
does not influence the flow;
2) H
1
= ??
3) a << H
0
a H
H
g bac Q
+
=

0
0
2
(9.6)
where c and are determined by experiments, as shown in Fig. (7).
2.1 Comments on Eq.(9.5):
Note: Eq. (9.6) is valid only if the downstream water level is not
influencing the flow.
Eq. (9.5), Q can be rewritten as:
Can be related with gate opening
1
H a =
2 2 2
0 1 0
H H H
13
Fig. 7
Discharge coefficient
for flow under gates.
0
2
4
6
8
10
0.595 0.600 0.605 0.610 0.615
0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65 0.66 0.67
c

c
H
0
/
a

14
Example 2
A 1.8 m wide vertical gate on top of a spillway withholds a 1.2 m deep
water. Determine the discharge under the gate if it is raised by 0.3 m.
15
How to judge?
Method (1): calculate the conjugate depth of H
2
using the formula
with y
2
= H
2
; y
1
is the depth immediately in front of the jump.
Method (2): using Fig. 8.
e.g. Try H
0
/a = 10, H
2
/a =3;
and H
0
/a = 10, H
2
/a =6;
2.2 Check the influence of downstream water level on Eq(9.6)
[ ] 1 8 1
2
2
2
2
1
+ = Fr
y
y
(9.7)
(1) No influence: When a hydraulic jump exists, i.e., the conjugate depth
of H
2
is equal or greater than H
1
.
When y
1
H
1
, not influenced.
16
Fig. 8 The range of downstream influence on flow under gate
a
H
2
a H /
0
17
(2) Influenced outflow Two cases
(a) When Absolute downstream control.
2 1 0
H H H
Q is based on h = H
0
-H
2
,
2 Q cA gh =
(9.9)
Where A: area of the opening
c: discharge coefficient;
18
kQ Q
retarded
= (9.8)
where Q is obtained from Eq. (9.6) and k can be found in Fig. 9
Fig. 9 Partial downstream control of flow under gates
e.g.
For H
2
/a=9 and
H
0
/a=15,
k = 0.68
(b) Partial downstream control:
19
Example 3. A 3 m wide vertical gate discharges into a pool in which the
water level is 1.5 m. The upstream water level is 2.4 m and the gate opening
is 0.3 m. Determine the discharge through the structure.
20
Definition: All barriers on the bottom of the channel that cause the flow to
accelerate to pass through can be considered as weirs.
Function: Flow measuring and flow control
Types: Sharp crested weirs
Materials: plastic, metal plate,
Shapes: full width or contracted rectangular, vee shape etc.
Broad crested weirs
Materials: concrete, wood,
Shapes: Ogee, flat top etc.
3 Flow over weirs
21
Fig.11 (b) Contracted
Rectangular weir
Fig.11 (a) Full-width weir
22
Fig 11 (c) Vee weir Fig. 11 (d) Broadcrested weir
23
The crest: the bottom edge of the opening over which the
water flows;
The crest height: the height of the crest over the bottom of
the channel;
The nappe: the overfalling stream of water;
Broadcrested weirs: crest thickness is more than 0.6 nappe
thickness;
Sharp crested weirs: crest thickness less than 0.6 nappe
thickness;
What to study: relationship between water depth above
the weir and Q;
Methods: Bernoulli equation plus experiments.
Some definitions
24
Materials: plastic or metal plate of a suitable gauge;
Geometry: rectangular or triangular depending on the applications;
Installation: the plate is vertical and spans the full width of the channel,
and the weir is incorporated into the top of the plate.
Rectangular weirs
Two types:
1. Uncontracted or full-width weirs;
2. A contracted weir (crest width is less than channel width).
Weir operation: based on the gauged depth to estimate the discharge.
Estimation of discharge: (1) experimental methods.
(2) numerical methods.
An idealized relationship Q ~ h is developed using Bernoullis Eq and then
be modified to take account of the differences between ideal & real flows.
3.1 Sharp crested (thin plate) weirs - uncontracted
25
3.1.1 The rectangular weir equation: un-contracted
Apply Bernoulli equation along
streamline A-A.
At Station 1, the total energy :
g
u
z
g
p
H
2
2
1
1
1
1
+ + =

(9.10)
At Station 2 as the underside
of the overspilling jet is
exposed to the atmosphere,
the pressure is taken as P
atm
:
g
u
z H
2
2
2
2 2
+ =
26
Assuming no losses occur between Station 1 and Station 2,
2 1
H H =
g
u
z
g
u
y
2 2
2
2
2
2
1
1
+ = +
with
g
p
z y

1
1 1
+ =
Therefore
2 / 1
2
1
2 1 2
)]
2
( 2 [
g
u
z y g u + =
u
2
is a function of y
1
and z
2
, i.e. u
2
varies with depth above weir crest.
At Station 2, the discharge through an elemental strip of width b and depth
z is
z b
g
u
z y g z b u Q
ideal

2 / 1
2
1
2 1 2
)]
2
( 2 [ + = =
(9.11)
Or:

+ = bdz
g
u
z y g Q
ideal
2 / 1
2
1
2 1
)]
2
( 2 [
27

+ = =
1
1
0
)]
2
( 2 [
0
2 / 1
2
1
2 1 2
h
h
ideal
z b
g
u
z y g z b u Q
(
(

|
|

\
|

|
|

\
|
+ =
2 / 3
2
1
2 / 3
2
1
1
2 2
2
3
2
g
u
g
u
h g b
if u
1
2
/2g is negligible compared with h
1
, Eq (9.12) can be reduced to:
(9.12)
2 / 3
1
2
3
2
h g b Q
ideal
=
(9.13)
For integration, the limiting values of z:
Lower limit: z = 0 if the datum is raised to the same level as weir crest.
Upper limit: z
2
= h
1
( rather drastic assumption! Physically impossible)
This is the idealised discharge equation for rectangular weirs.
28
Reasons for modification to Eq. (9.13):
(1) Vena contracta phenomenon actual Q should be less than Q
ideal
.
(2) Pressure distribution in the flow passing over the weir is not atmospheric;
(3) Viscous effects: two effects non-uniform U distribution and loss of
energy between (1) and (2).
3.1.2 Modifications to un-contracted rectangular weir equation
Pressure distribution
Contraction or vena contracta
29
d ideal
Q C Q =
The values of C
d
:
Should be determined experimentally
It is not strictly a constant,
It is a function of:
Reynolds number,
weir types,
Ratio between height above the weir crest and the weir height.
(9.14)
In practical applications, we introduce an experimentally
determined coefficient C
d
, i.e.
30
Other empirical relations which incorporate C
d
for un-contracted
weirs under free discharge conditions:
Valid for: 30 mm < h
1
< 750 mm, b > 300 mm, P
s
> 100 mm, and h
1
< P
s
.
3/ 2 3/
1 1
2
2 (0.602 0.083 / )( 0.0012)
3
s
s
Q b g h P h m = + + (9.15)
s m h P h g b Q
s
/ ) 001 . 0 )( / 153 . 0 1 ( 562 . 0
3 2 / 3
1 1
+ + =
(9.16)
1. Rehbock formula:
2. Whites formula:
Valid for: h
1
> 20 mm, Ps > 150 mm, and h
1
< 2.2Ps.
31
1. The accuracy of Q depends, to a discernible extent, on the sitting of the
gauging station for measuring the upstream head (h
1
). It is recommend
that this should be at least 2.67P
s
upstream of the weir, to avoid undue
drawdown effects.
2. The British Standard (BS 3680) recommendation is that the station
should be between 4h
1
and 5h
1
upstream of the weir.
Requirements of the measurement location for h
1
:
32
Example 4
A 40cm wide channel is equipped with a full-width rectangular weir whose
crest is 20cm above the channel bed. What will be the discharge according to
the Rehbock formula and Whites formula, if the water depth above the weir
crest are 0.1m, 0.15m and 0.2m? Compare the results.
Solution: b = 0.4m, P
S
= 0.2m,
h
1
= 0.1m, 0.15m and 0.2m.
33
34
35
(a) The Hamilton-Smith formula
) / 1 ( 616 . 0
1 s d
P h C =
Valid for: B > (b+4h
1
), h
1
/B < 0.5, 75 mm < h
1
< 600mm, P
s
> 300 mm,
and b > 300 mm (B = channel width).
(b) The Kindsvater-Carter formula
This formula uses concept of effective head and width, h
e
and b
e
, where
and
(9.17)
(9.18)
3.1.3 Sharp crested (thin plate) weirs - contracted
For contracted rectangular weirs, Eq. (9.13) for Q
ideal
is applicable.
But Q will be affected by the vertical and lateral contraction of the jet.
Two formulae for estimating C
d
are given below:
h e
k h h + =
1 b e
k b b + =
36
The discharge formula is
Where C
e
depends on b/B and h
1
/P
s
, i.e.
(9.19)
k
h
and k
b
are experimentally determined quantities which allow for the
effects of viscosity and surface tension to be considered.
It has been found k
h
= constant = 0.001 m.
C
e
must be determined empirically. British Standard (BS 3680) gives
charts for the determination of C
e
and k
b
.
) / ( 2
3
2
3 2 / 3
s m h b g C Q
e e e
=
{ }
S e
P h B b f C / , /
1
=
37
All of the above equations assumed that downstream depth is too low to
impede the free discharge over the weir. This is known as modular flow.
In engineering applications, modular flow operations may not be possible
sometimes.
(9.20)
where Q is the free discharge which corresponds to the upstream depth h
1
,
and y
3
is the downstream water depth.
3.1.4 Submergence effects
( ) [ ]
385 . 0
2 / 3
1 3
/ 1 / h y Q Q
S
=
If an estimate of the discharge Q
s
of a submerged weir has to be made,
Villemontes formula may be used:
38
As vee weirs have much better sensitivity than rectangular weirs at low
discharge, they are normally used to measure small discharges.
Fig. 14 Vee weir
2
2
1 / 2
1
1 2
[ 2 ( ) ]
2
i d e a l
Q u b z
u
g y z b z
g

=
= +
Theory and assumptions are the same
as for the rectangular weir.
The discharge through an elementary
strip across the weir is:
3.1.5 Vee weirs
h
1
P
s
z
2
b
z

Methods of analysis:
2
2 t a n ( / 2 ) b z = As ,

+ =
1
0
) 2 / tan( 2 )]
2
( 2 [
2
2 / 1
2
1
2 1
h
ideal
z z
g
u
z h g Q
39
The approach velocity, u
1
, is always negligible for vee weirs in view of the
small discharges for which they are designed. Therefore

=
1
0
) 2 / tan( 2 )] ( 2 [
2
2 / 1
2 1
h
ideal
z z z h g Q
2 / 5
1
) 2 / tan( 2
15
8
h g =
C
d
is a function of Reynolds number, h
1
, the weir height and the angle .
C
d
must be determined experimentally.
The BS 3680 gives magnitudes of C
d
for a wide range of weirs.
The 90
o
weir is probably the most widely used with a C
d
of 0.59 may be
used as a first approximation for this angle.
ideal d
Q C Q =
(9.21)
(9.22)
Values for C
d
:
40
Example 5
A series of tests have been conducted to a vee weir of 90
o
. Determine the
discharge coefficient based on the following measured data.
25.1 24.9 24.9 25.5 25.6 25.0 25.4 25.1 Q(L/s)
0.2 0.198 0.196 0.204 0.21 0.195 0.205 0.201 h
1
(m)
5 / 2
1
8
2 t a n ( / 2 )
1 5
d
Q C g h =
5 / 2
1
5 / 2
1
0 . 4 2 3 3 /
8
2
1 5
d
Q
C Q h
g h
= =
0.64 0.536 0.574 0.62 0.604 0.594 0.565 0.587
C
d
Averaging: C
d
= 0.59
41
1) Large and generally more heavily constructed (concrete).
2) Usually designed for use in the field, and to handle large discharges.
3) An ideal long-based weir has the following characteristics:
Cheaply and easily fabricated, and easily installed;
Possesses a wide modular range;
Produces a minimum afflux (i.e. increase in upstream depth due to
the installation of the weir); 0.869
Requires a minimum of maintenance.
3.2 Long-based (broad-crested) weirs
Long-based weir hydraulics
From Open Channel section, we know:
a local increase in the velocity of flow,
a reduction in elevation of water surface,
normally critical flow will be produced.
Long-based weirs:
42
Assuming no loss, total available energy on the upstream side:
In most hydraulic structures, P is significant and the kinetic energy can
normally be neglected. For free fall, the discharge will occur under critical
flow condition. The depth y
c
over the weir (Refer to Open Channel Section)
(9.23)
(9.24)
3.2.1 Discharge equations for long-based weirs
g V h E 2 /
2
1 1
+ =
3 / 2 3 / 2
1
h E y
c
=
h
1
V
1
2
/2g
P
y
c
Figure 15
datum
long-based weirs
2
1
43
2
1
/ 2
c c
h y v g = +
1 / 2
1 1
2 ( ) 2 / 3
c c
v g h y g h = =
2 / 3
1
2 / 3
1
2 384 . 0
3
2
3
2
bh g h
g
b b y v Q
c c ideal
= = =
Introducing a discharge coefficient c:
2 / 3
1
2 bh g c Q =
(9.25)
3 / 2
1
Q M b h = (9.26)
(9.25a)
Eq (9.25) may be solved in metric terms by combining c with (2g)
1/2

where h
1
is water depth and M is metric weir coefficient (Table 3.1).
Note that various relations for c can be obtained from the references books.
Velocity v
c
can be obtained using Bernoulli Eq between and : 1 2
44
Table 3.1 Collection of Metric Weir Coefficients for various Long-Based Weirs
determined by laboratory experiments.
45
Table 3.1 Collection of Metric Weir Coefficients for various Long-Based Weirs
determined by laboratory experiments (continued)
46
Example 6.
A weir of 10m wide with a cross-section similar to the case No. 4 of Table
3.1. The upstream water head is 45 cm. Determine the discharge.
3 / 2 3 / 2 3
1
1.77 10 0.45 4.5 / Q Mbh m s = = =
10m, b and , 45 . 0 With
1
= = m h
From Table 3.1, we have M = 1.77
Solution:
47
3.2.2 Influence of downstream water level
When downstream water level exceeds a certain value, it may influence
the discharge over the weir. There are two conditions:
(1)
, 2 /
1 2
h P H + <
a hydraulic jump will form over a weir.
For free hydraulic jump no downstream influence to Q;
For submerged hydraulic jump Q is influenced by downstream
h
2
48
(2)
2 1
/ 2, H P h > +
upstream water level is elevated. Q (h
1
h
2
)
h
1
in Eq. (9.25) or (9.26) should be replaced by the water level
difference h
1
h
2
shown in the figure.
In both cases, the discharge coef will be reduced. The actual ranges
of various flow patterns over the weirs depends on the shape of the
weir. For one typical weir shape, the ranges of free overfall, free or
submerged hydraulic jump, or subcritical overflow are shown next.
49
Figure 16. Ranges of flow type over weirs
50
Example 7
A broadcrested weir is designed to have a crest height of 5m. The
maximum upstream head over the crest should not exceed 2.185m.
The height of the weir is to be selected such that the downstream water
level does not influence the upstream conditions and therefore does
not retard the flow during critical floods. What is the maximum
allowable downstream water level under these conditions?
Solution:
P = 5m, H
1
= 2.185m H
1
/P = 2.185/5=0.437
From Figure 16, to avoid influence from downstream, corresponding
to H
1
/P = 0.437, we should choose H
2
/P = 0.8
H
2max
= 0.8P = 5m