CH 03

Turbine Blades
(a)
(b)
(c)
FIGURE 3.1 Turbine blades for jet engines, manufactured by three different methods: (a) conventionally cast; (b) directionally solidied, with columnar grains, as can be seen from the vertical streaks; and (c) single crystal. Although more expensive, single-crystal blades have properties at high temperatures that are superior to those of other blades. Source: Courtesy of United Technologies Pratt and Whitney.
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials, 5th ed. Kalpakjian Schmid 2008, Pearson Education ISBN No. 0-13-227271-7
Common Crystal Structures

a a a R a (a) (b) (c) a
FIGURE 3.2 The body-centered cubic (bcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Common bcc metals include chromium, titanium, and tungsten. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
2R
a a
a (a) (b) (c)
FIGURE 3.3 The face-centered cubic (fcc) crystal structure: (a) hard-ball model; (b) unit cell; and (c) single crystal with many unit cells. Common fcc metals include aluminum, copper, gold and silver.Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
FIGURE 3.4 The hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure: (a) unit cell; and (b) single crystal with many unit cells. Common hcp metals include zinc, magnesium and cobalt. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
(b)
(a)
Plastic Deformation in Crystals

b a
Atomic planes Shear stress
Shear stress Twinning plane
Slip plane (a) (b)
FIGURE 3.5 Permanent deformation of a single crystal under a tensile load. The highlighted grid of atoms emphasizes the motion that occurs within the lattice.(a) Deformation by slip. The b/a ratio inuences the magnitude of the shear stress required to cause slip. Note that the slip planes tend to align themselves in the direction of pulling. (b) Deformation by twinning, involving generation of a twin around a line of symmetry subjected to shear. Note that the tensile load results in a shear stress in the plane illustrated.
Shear Stress at Atomic Scale
T T
max 1 2 x a 3 4 5
Shear stress:
2x = max sin b
T
Leads to:
G max = 2
FIGURE 3.6 Variation of shear stress in moving a plane of atoms over another plane.
Slib Bands in a Single Crystal

Single crystal (grain) Grain boundaries
Approximately 1000 atomic diameters Slip band
Slip lines approximately 100 atomic diameters
~10,000 atomic diameters
FIGURE 3.7 Schematic illustration of slip lines and slip bands in a single crystal subjected to a shear stress. A slip band consists of a number of slip planes. The crystal at the center of the upper drawing is an individual grain surrounded by other grains.
She stre ar ss
Normal Stress in a Single Crystal

!
Work:
!max a x " 2 Tensile stress
max Work =
Leads to:
max = E E a 10
Distance between atoms
FIGURE 3.8 Variation of cohesive stress as a function of distance between a row of atoms.
Crystal Defects
Self-interstitial atom Vacancy
Interstitial impurity atom Substitutional impurity atom
FIGURE 3.9 Various defects in a singlecrystal lattice. Source: After W.G. Moffatt.
FIGURE 3.10 (a) Edge dislocation, a linear defect at the edge of an extra plane of atoms. (b) Screw dislocation, a helical defect in a three-dimensional lattice of atoms. Screw dislocations are so named because the atomic planes form a spiral ramp.
Screw dislocation
(a)
(b)
Movement of Edge Dislocation
Slip plane
FIGURE 3.11 Movement of an edge dislocation across the crystal lattice under a shear stress. Dislocations help explain why the actual strength of metals is much lower than that predicted by atomic theory.
Grains During Solidication
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 3.12 Schematic illustration of the various stages during solidication of molten metal. Each small square represents a unit cell. (a) Nucleation of crystals at random sites in the molten metal. Note that the crystallographic orientation of each site is different. (b) and (c) Growth of crystals as solidication continues. (d) Solidied metal, showing individual grains and grain boundaries. Note the different angles at which neighboring grains meet each other. Source: After W. Rosenhain.
Tensile Stress in Polycrystalline Material

Tensile stress
Average stress
FIGURE 3.13 Variation of tensile stress across a plane of polycrystalline metal specimen subjected to tension. Note that the strength exhibited by each grain depends on its orientation.
Stress
Grain Sizes
ASTM No. Grains/mm2 Grains/mm3 -3 1 0.7 0 8 16 3 64 360 5 256 2,900 7 1,024 23,000 9 4,096 185,000 12 32,800 4,200,000
TABLE 3.1 Grain sizes.
ASTM Grain Size Number:
N = 2n1 Y = Yi + kd 1/2
Hall-Petch Equation:
Embrittlement & Plastic Deformation

Unwetted Wetting agent 100% Pb 80% Pb -20% Bi 20% Pb -80% Bi
Stress
100% Bi
Strain
(a)
(b)
FIGURE 3.14 Embrittlement of copper by lead and bismuth at 350C (660F). Embrittlement has important effects on the strength, ductility, and toughness of materials. Source: After W. Rostoker.
FIGURE 3.15 Plastic deformation of idealized (equiaxed) grains in a specimen subjected to compression, such as is done in rolling or forging of metals: (a) before deformation; and (b) after deformation. Note the alignment of grain boundaries along a horizontal direction.
Crack Due to Bulging

Top view Rolling direction
Crack
Sheet
Side view (a) (b)
FIGURE 3.16 (a) Illustration of a crack in sheet metal subjected to bulging, such as by pushing a steel ball against the sheet. Note the orientation of the crack with respect to the rolling direction of the sheet. This material is anisotropic. (b) Aluminum sheet with a crack (vertical dark line at the center) developed in a bulge test. Source: Courtesy of J.S. Kallend, Illinois Institute of Technology.
Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Residual stresses
Strength, hardness, ductility

FIGURE 3.17 Schematic illustration of the effects of recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth on mechanical properties and shape and size of grains. Note the formation of small new grains during recrystallization. Source: After G. Sachs.
Strength
Ductility
Hardness Cold-worked and recovered New grains
Grain size Recovery Recrystallization Temperature Grain growth
Recrystallization
Strength and hardness Strength and hardness Increasing temperature Increasing reduction
Constant reduction Time (a)
Constant temperature Time (b)
FIGURE 3.18 Variation of strength and hardness with recrystallization temperature, time, and prior cold work. Note that the more a metal is cold worked, the less time it takes to recrystallize, because of the higher stored energy from cold working due to increased dislocation density.
0.4
Recrystallized grain size (mm)
0.3
0.2
FIGURE 3.19 The effect of prior cold work on the recrystallized grain size of alpha brass. Below a critical elongation (strain), typically 5%, no recrystallization occurs.
0.1
10 20 30 Elongation (%)
40
Surface Roughness; Homologous Temperature
Process Cold working Warm working Hot working

FIGURE 3.20 Surface roughness on the cylindrical surface of an aluminum specimen subjected to compression. Source: A. Mulc and S. Kalpakjian.
T /Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 > 0.6
TABLE 3.2 Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various Processes.
Failure
Barreling Cracks
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
FIGURE 3.21 Schematic illustration of types of failure in materials: (a) necking and fracture of ductile materials; (b) buckling of ductile materials under a compressive load; (c) fracture of brittle materials in compression; (d) cracking on the barreled surface of ductile materials in compression. (See also Fig. 6.1b)
FIGURE 3.22 Schematic illustration of the types of fracture in tension: (a) brittle fracture in polycrystalline metals; (b) shear fracture in ductile single crystals (see also Fig. 3.5a); (c) ductile cup-and-cone fracture in polycrystalline metals (see also Fig. 2.2); (d) complete ductile fracture in polycrystalline metals, with 100% reduction of area.
Ductile Fracture Surface
FIGURE 3.23 Surface of ductile fracture in low-carbon steel, showing dimples. Fracture is usually initiated at impurities, inclusions, or preexisting voids in the metal. Source: K.H. Habig and D. Klaffke. Photo courtesy of BAM, Berlin, Germany.
Sequence in Necking and Fracture
Shear (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
Fibrous
FIGURE 3.24 Sequence of events in necking and fracture of a tensile-test specimen: (a) early stage of necking; (b) small voids begin to form within the necked region; (c) voids coalesce, producing an internal crack; (d) rest of cross-section begins to fail at the periphery by shearing; (e) nal fracture surfaces, known as cup-(top fracture surface) and-cone (bottom surface) fracture.
Effect of Inclusions
Void Matrix Inclusion Soft inclusion (a) Before deformation Hard inclusion
Voids
Strong direction Weak direction
or Hard inclusion
of deformed metal
(b) After deformation
FIGURE 3.25 Schematic illustration of the deformation of soft and hard inclusions and their effect on void formation in plastic deformation. Note that hard inclusions, because they do not comply with the overall deformation of the ductile matrix, can cause voids.
Transition Temperature & Strain Aging

350 i g h True stress (MPa) 250 b f psi x 103 c 126 hr 50 4 hr 30 min 15 min 40
Ductility, toughness
300
Transition temperature Temperature
200
30
150
20
100 a 0 d 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 True strain, !
FIGURE 3.26 Schematic illustration of transition temperature. Note the narrow temperature range across which the behavior of the metal undergoes a major transition.
FIGURE 3.27 Strain aging and its effect on the shape of the true-stress-true-strain curve for 0.03% C rimmed steel at 60C (140F). Source: A.S. Keh and W.C. Leslie.
Brittle and Intergranular Fracture
FIGURE 3.28 Typical fracture surface of steel that has failed in a brittle manner. The fracture path is transgranular (through the grains). Compare this surface with the ductile fracture surface shown in Fig. 3.23. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.
FIGURE 3.29 Intergranular fracture, at two different magnications. Grains and grain boundaries are clearly visible in this micrograph. The fracture path is along the grain boundaries. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.
Fracture Mode & Surface
Mode I Mode III Mode II
FIGURE 3.30 Three modes of fracture. Mode I has been studied extensively, because it is the most commonly observed in engineering structures and components. Mode II is rare. Mode III is the tearing process; examples include opening a pop-top can, tearing a piece of paper, and cutting materials with a pair of scissors.
FIGURE 3.31 Typical fatigue fracture surface on metals, showing beach marks. Most components in machines and engines fail by fatigue and not by excessive static loading. Source: Courtesy of Packer Engineering.
Fatigue
MPa 500 0 10 800 Fine polishing Polishing Grinding Fine turning
Roug h turnin
1000
1300
Reduction in fatigue strength (%)
483 Stress amplitude, S (MPa) 414 Shot peened 345 276 207 Machined 138 Al 7050-T7651 Ti-6Al-4V
70 60 50 40 30 20 ksi
20 30 40 50 60 70
As c
as
Polished
104 50 100 150 Ultimate tensile strength (psi x 103) (a) 200
105 106 107 Number of cycles to failure, N (b)
108
FIGURE 3.32 Reduction in fatigue strength of cast steels subjected to various surface-nishing operations. (a) Effect of surface roughness. Note that the reduction is greater as the surface roughness and strength of the steel increase. Source: After J.E. Shigley and L.D. Mitchell. (b) Effect of residual stress, as developed by shot peening (see Section 4.5.1). Source: After B.J. Hamrock, S.R. Schmid and B.O. Jacobson.
Physical Properties of Materials

Density (kg/m3 ) METAL Aluminum Aluminum alloys Beryllium Columbium (niobium) Copper Copper alloys Gold Iron Steels Lead Lead alloys Magnesium Magnesium alloys Molybdenum alloys Nickel Nickel alloys Silicon Silver Tantalum alloys Titanium Titanium alloys Tungsten NONMETALLIC Ceramics Glasses Graphite Plastics Wood 2700 2630-2820 1854 8580 8970 7470-8940 19300 7860 6920-9130 11,350 8850-11,350 1745 1770-1780 10,210 8910 7750-8850 2330 10,500 16,600 4510 4430-4700 19,290 2300-5500 2400-2700 1900-2200 900-2000 400-700 Melting Point ( C) 660 476-654 1278 2468 1082 885-1260 1063 1537 1371-1532 327 182-326 650 610-621 2610 1453 1110-1454 1423 961 2996 1668 1549-1649 3410 580-1540 110-330 Specic Heat (J/kg K) 900 880-920 1884 272 385 337-435 129 460 448-502 130 126-188 1025 1046 276 440 381-544 712 235 142 519 502-544 138 750-950 500-850 840 1000-2000 2400-2800 Thermal Conductivity (W/m K) 222 121-239 146 52 393 29-234 317 74 15-52 35 24-46 154 75-138 142 92 12-63 148 429 54 17 8-12 166 10-17 0.6-1.7 5-10 0.1-0.4 0.1-0.4 Coecient of Thermal Expansion (m/m C) 23.6 23.0-23.6 8.5 7.1 16.5 16.5-20 19.3 11.5 11.7-17.3 29.4 27.1-31.1 26.0 26.0 5.1 13.3 12.7-18.4 7.63 19.3 6.5 8.35 8.1-9.5 4.5 5.5-13.5 4.6-70 7.86 72-200 2-60
TABLE 3.3 Physical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature.
Effect of Carbon on Steel Properties

Low carbon 1000 Normalized Annealed 800 Impact energy 600 80 400 Yield strength Tensile strength 100 120 100 140 Medium carbon High carbon
Yield and tensile strength (MPa)
60 40
80 60 40
200
% elongation 20
Izod impact energy (Nm)
Elongation (%)
0.2
0.4 0.6 Carbon (%)
0.8
0 1.0
FIGURE 3.33 Effect of carbon content on the mechanical properties of carbon steel.
Annealed Stainless Steels

AISI (UNS) 303 (S30300) Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 550-620 Yield Strength (MPa) 240-260 Elongation (%) 50-53 Characteristics and Typical Applications Screw-machine products, shafts, valves, bolts, bushings, and nuts; aircraft ttings; rivets; screws; studs. Chemical and food-processing equipment, brewing equipment, cryogenic vessels, gutters, downspouts, and ashings. High corrosion resistance and high creep strength. Chemical and pulp-handling equipment, photographic equipment, brandy vats, fertilizer parts, ketchup-cooking kettles, and yeast tubs. Machine parts, pump shafts, bolts, bushings, coal chutes, cutlery, shing tackle, hardware, jet engine parts, mining machinery, rie barrels, screws, and valves. Aircraft ttings, bolts, nuts, re extinguisher inserts, rivets, and screws.
304 565-620 (S30400) 316 550-590 (S31600)
240-290
55-60
210-290
55-60
410 480-520 (S41000)
240-310
25-35
416 480-520 (S41600)
275
20-30
TABLE 3.4 Room-Temperature Mechanical Properties and Typical Applications of Annealed Stainless
Tool & Die Materials

Type High speed Hot work AISI M (molybdenum base) T (tungsten base) H1 to H19 (chromium base) H20 to H39 (tungsten base) H40 to H59 (molybdenum base) D (high carbon, high chromium) A (medium alloy, air hardening) O (oil hardening) S P1 to P19 (low carbon) P20 to P39 (others) L (low alloy) F (carbon-tungsten) W
Process Die casting Powder metallurgy Punches Dies Molds for plastic and rubber Hot forging Hot extrusion Cold heading Cold extrusion Punches Dies Coining Drawing Wire Shapes Bar and tubing Rolls Rolling Thread rolling Shear spinning Sheet metals Shearing Cold Hot Pressworking Deep drawing Machining Material H13, P20 A2, S7, D2, D3, M2 WC, D2, M2 S1, O1, A2, D2, 6F5, 6F6, P6, P20, P21, H13 6F2, 6G, H11, H12 H11, H12, H13 W1, W2, M1, M2, D2, WC A2, D2, M2, M4 O1, W1, A2, D2 52100, W1, O1, A2, D2, D3, D4, H11, H12, H13 WC, diamond WC, D2, M2 WC, W1, D2 Cast iron, cast steel, forged steel, WC A2, D2, M2 A2, D2, D3
Cold work
Shock resisting Mold steels Special purpose Water hardening
D2, A2, A9, S2, S5, S7 H11, H12, H13 Zinc alloys, 4140 steel, cast iron, epoxy composites, A2, D2, O1 W1, O1, cast iron, A2, D2 Carbides, high-speed steels, ceramics, diamond, cubic boron nitride
TABLE 3.5 Basic Types of Tool and Die Steels.
TABLE 3.5 Typical Tool and Die Materials for Various Processes.
Non-Ferrous Alloys in Aircraft Engine

Ti alloy fan Ti or Al alloy low-pressure compressor Ni alloy Ni alloy high-pressure low-pressure turbine turbine Ni alloy combustion chamber Ti or Ni alloy high-pressure compressor
Turbine blades Ni alloy Accessory section Al alloy or Fe alloy Inlet case Al alloy
Turbine exhaust case Ni alloy
FIGURE 3.34 Cross-section of a jet engine (PW2037) showing various components and the alloys used in making them. Source: Courtesy of United Aircraft Pratt & Whitney.
Aluminum Alloys
Alloy (UNS) 1100 (A91100) 1100 1350 (A91350) 1350 2024 (A92024) 2024 3003 (A93003) 3003 5052 (A95052) 5052 6061 (A96061) 6061 7075 (A97075) 7075 8090 Temper O H14 O H19 O T4 O H14 O H34 O T6 O T6 T8X Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 90 125 85 185 190 470 110 150 190 260 125 310 230 570 480 Yield Strength (MPa) 35 120 30 165 75 325 40 145 90 215 55 275 105 500 400 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 35-45 9-20 23 1.5 20-22 19-20 30-40 8-16 25-30 10-14 25-30 12-17 16-17 11 4-5
TABLE 3.7 Properties of Various Aluminum Alloys at Room Temperature
Wrought Aluminum Alloys

Alloy 1100 2014 3003 Corrosion Resistance A C A Characteristics Machinability D-C C-B D-C Weldability A C-B A Typical Applications Sheet-metal work, spun hollow parts, tinstock. Heavy-duty forgings, plate and extrusions for aircraft structural components, wheels. Cooking utensils, chemical equipment, pressure vessels, sheet-metal work, builders hardware, storage tanks. Welded structures, pressure vessels, tube for marine uses. Trucks, canoes, furniture, structural applications. Extruded structural members, large heat exchangers, tennis racquets, softball bats. Aircraft frames, helicopter structural components.
5054 6061 7005 8090
A B D A-B
D-C D-C B-D B-D
A A B B
From A (excellent) to D (poor).
TABLE 3.8 Manufacturing Properties and Typical Applications of Wrought Aluminum Alloys.
Magnesium Alloys
Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 260 290 380 255 365 Yield Strength (MPa) 200 220 380 255 365 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 15 15 7 8 11
Alloy AZ31B
Composition (%) Al Zn Mn Zr 3.0 1.0 0.2
AZ80A 8.5 0.5 0.2 HK31A 0.7 ZK60A 5.7 0.55 HK31A also contains 3%Th.
Condition F H24 T5 H24 T5
Typical Forms Extrusions Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings Sheet and plates Extrusions and forgings
TABLE 3.9 Properties and Typical Forms of Various Wrought Magnesium Alloys.
Copper & Brass

Type and UNS Number Oxygen-free electronic (C10100) Red brass, (C23000) Low Brass, (C24000) Free-cutting brass (C36000) Naval brass (C46400 to C46700) Nominal Composition (%) 99.99 Cu Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 220-450 Yield Strength (MPa) 70-365 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 55-4 Typical Applications Bus bars, waveguides, hollow conductors, lead in wires, coaxial cables and tubes, microwave tubes, rectiers. Weather stripping, conduit, sockets, fasteners, re extinguishers, condenser and heat-exchanger tubing. Battery caps, bellows, musical instruments, clock dials, exible hose. Gears, pinions, automatic high-speed screw-machine parts Aircraft turnbuckle barrels, balls, bolts, marine hardware, valve stems, condenser plates.
85.0 Cu 15.0 Zn 80.0 Cu 20.0 Zn 61.5 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 35.5 Zn 60.0 Cu, 39.25 Zn, 0.75 Sn
270-72
70-435
55-3
300-850 340-470
80-450 125-310
55-3 53-18
380-610
170-455
50-17
TABLE 3.10 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Wrought Copper and Brasses.
Wrought Bronzes
Type and UNS Number Architectural bronze (C38500) Phosphor bronze, 5% A (C51000) Free-cutting phosphor bronze (C54400) Low-silicon bronze, B (C65100) Nickelsilver, 65-18 (C74500) Nominal Composition (%) 57.0 Cu, 3.0 Pb, 40.0 Zn 95.0 Cu, 5.0 Sn, trace P 88.0 Cu, 4.0 Pb, 4.0 Zn, 4.0 Sn 98.5 Cu, 1.5 Si 65.0 Cu, 17.0 Zn, 18.0 Ni Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 415 325-960 300-520 Yield Strength (MPa) 140 (as extruded) 130-550 130-435 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 30 64-2 50-15
Typical Applications Architectural extrusions, storefronts, thresholds, trim, butts, hinges. Bellows, clutch disks, cotter pins, diaphragms, fasteners, wire brushes, chemical hardware, textile machinery. Bearings, bushings, gears, pinions, shafts, thrust washers, valve parts. Hydraulic pressure lines, bolts, marine hardware, electrical conduits, heatexchanger tubing. Rivets, screws, zippers, camera parts, base for silver plate, nameplates, etching stock.
275-655 390-710
100-475 170-620
55-11 45-3
TABLE 3.11 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Wrought Bronzes.
Nickel Alloys
Alloy (Condition) Nickel 200 (annealed) Duranickel 301 (age hardened) Monel R-405 (hot rolled) Monel K-500 (age hardened) Inconel 600 (annealed) Hastelloy C-4 (solution treated and quenched) Principal Alloying Elements (%) None 4.4 Al, 0.6 Ti 30 Cu 29 Cu, 3Al 15 Cr, 8 Fe 16 Cr, 15 Mo Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 380-550 1300 525 1050 640 785 Yield Strength (MPa) 100-275 900 230 750 210 400 elongation in 50 mm (%) 60-40 28 35 20 48 54
Typical Applications Chemical- and food-processing industry, aerospace equipment, electronic parts. Springs, plastics-extrusion equipment, molds for glass. Screw-machine products, watermeter parts. Pump shafts, valve stems, springs. Gas-turbine parts, heat-treating equipment, electronic parts, nuclear reactors. High-temperature stability, resistance to stress-corrosion cracking.
TABLE 3.12 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel Alloys (All Alloy Names are Trade Names).
Nickel-Base Superalloys
Alloy Astroloy Hastelloy X IN-100 IN-102 Inconel 625 Inconel 718 MAR-M 200 MAR-M 432 Ren e 41 Udimet 700 Waspaloy Condition Wrought Wrought Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought Cast Cast Wrought Wrought Wrought Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 770 255 885 215 285 340 840 730 620 690 525 Yield Strength (MPa) 690 180 695 200 275 330 760 605 550 635 515 Elongation in 50 mm (%) 25 50 6 110 125 88 4 8 19 27 35 Typical Applications Forgings for high-temperature applications. Jet-engine sheet parts. Jet-engine blades and wheels. Superheater and jet-engine parts. Aircraft engines and structures, chemical-processing equipment. Jet-engine and rocket parts. Jet-engine blades. Integrally cast turbine wheels. Jet-engine parts. Jet-engine parts. Jet-engine parts.
TABLE 3.13 Properties and Typical Applications of Various Nickel-Base Superalloys at 870C (1600F) (All Alloy Names Are Trade Names)
Titanium Alloys
Nominal Composition (%) 99.5 Ti 5 Al, 2.5 Sn 6 Al, 4V UNS R50250 R54520 R56400 Condition Annealed Annealed Annealed Temp ( C) 25 300 25 300 25 300 425 550 25 300 25 425 Ultimate Tensile Strength (MPa) 330 150 860 565 1000 725 670 530 1175 980 1275 1100 Yield Strength (MPa) 240 95 810 450 925 650 570 430 1100 900 1210 830 Elongation (%) 30 32 16 18 14 14 18 35 10 10 8 12 Typical Applications Airframes; chemical, desalination, and marine parts; plate-type heat exchangers. Aircraft-engine compressor blades and ducting; steam-turbine blades. Rocket motor cases; blades and disks for aircraft turbines and compressors; orthopedic implants; structural forgings; fasteners. High-strength fasteners; aerospace components; honeycomb panels.
13 V, 11 Cr, 3Al
R58010
Solution + age Solution + age
TABLE 3.14 Properties and Typical Applications of Wrought Titanium Alloys.

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Turbine Blades

Common Crystal Structures

a (a) (b) (c)

Plastic Deformation in Crystals

Atomic planes Shear stress

Shear stress Twinning plane

Slip plane (a) (b)

Shear Stress at Atomic Scale

Slib Bands in a Single Crystal

Approximately 1000 atomic diameters Slip band

Slip lines approximately 100 atomic diameters

~10,000 atomic diameters

Normal Stress in a Single Crystal

Distance between atoms

Interstitial impurity atom Substitutional impurity atom

Movement of Edge Dislocation

Grains During Solidication

Tensile Stress in Polycrystalline Material

ASTM Grain Size Number:

Embrittlement & Plastic Deformation

Crack Due to Bulging

Side view (a) (b)

Recovery, Recrystallization and Grain Growth

Strength, hardness, ductility

Hardness Cold-worked and recovered New grains

Grain size Recovery Recrystallization Temperature Grain growth

Constant reduction Time (a)

Constant temperature Time (b)

Surface Roughness; Homologous Temperature

Process Cold working Warm working Hot working

T /Tm < 0.3 0.3 to 0.5 > 0.6

TABLE 3.2 Homologous Temperature Ranges for Various Processes.

Ductile Fracture Surface

Sequence in Necking and Fracture

Shear (a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

Strong direction Weak direction

(b) After deformation

Transition Temperature & Strain Aging

Transition temperature Temperature

Brittle and Intergranular Fracture

Fracture Mode & Surface

Mode I Mode III Mode II

Reduction in fatigue strength (%)

105 106 107 Number of cycles to failure, N (b)

Physical Properties of Materials

TABLE 3.3 Physical Properties of Various Materials at Room Temperature.

Effect of Carbon on Steel Properties

Yield and tensile strength (MPa)

Izod impact energy (Nm)

0.4 0.6 Carbon (%)

Annealed Stainless Steels

304 565-620 (S30400) 316 550-590 (S31600)

410 480-520 (S41000)

416 480-520 (S41600)

Tool & Die Materials

Shock resisting Mold steels Special purpose Water hardening

TABLE 3.5 Basic Types of Tool and Die Steels.

Non-Ferrous Alloys in Aircraft Engine

Turbine exhaust case Ni alloy

TABLE 3.7 Properties of Various Aluminum Alloys at Room Temperature

Wrought Aluminum Alloys

5054 6061 7005 8090

D-C D-C B-D B-D