A ServoControlled Axial Fatigue Machine with Strain Rate Feedback for Testing Polymers and Composites

C. K. H. Dharan and A. D. Colvin Citation: Rev. Sci. Instrum. 44, 326 (1973); doi: 10.1063/1.1686120 View online: http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.1686120 View Table of Contents: http://rsi.aip.org/resource/1/RSINAK/v44/i3 Published by the American Institute of Physics.

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THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

VOLUME 44, NUMBER 3

MARCH 1973

A Servo-ControUed Axial Fatigue Machine with Strain Rate Feedback for Testing Polymers and Composites
C. K. H. Dharan and A. D. Colvin
Ford Motor Company, Scientific Research Staff, Dearborn, Michigan 48121 (Received 28 August 1972; and in fma1 form, 24 October 1972)
An inexpensive servo-controlled electrohydraulic fatigue machine, capable of a maximum load of 22.2 kN (5000 IbO and a maximum servo-controlled strain rate of 0.2 sec-I, is described. Its primary capability is to perform load and strain-range controlled fatigue tests conducted at constant strain rate feedback. In addition, the machine is capable of performing constant strain rate tensile tests and closed loop stress relaxation tests. The results of some initial fatigue tests are presented.

I. INTRODUCTION An investigation into the fatigue behavior of polymers and composites whose deformation and failure characteristics are significantly different from those of metals requires a test system which is capable of varying and controlling a wide range of test variables. It is well known, for example, that fatigue tests on polymeric materials at high frequencies ('" lS Hz) generally produce quite different results from those conducted at low frequencies. The high-frequency fatigue failure is usually a function of the dissipative heating experienced by the viscoelastic polymeric material rather than being governed by fatigue crack growth processes as seen in metals. Cessna et al. have demonstrated this effect in constant-stroke flexural fatigue tests of glass-reinforced and unfilled thermoplastic conducted at 20 Hz.l An infra-red sensor used to monitor specimen surface temperatures during testing revealed temperature rises as high as SOc. It is becoming evident therefore, that data obtained from fatigue tests conducted on the high-speed testing machines (20-30 Hz) usually employed for testing metals may be misleading. Another factor to be considered in the design of a suitable fatigue test system concerns its adaptability to fracture mechanics. For this purpose, it should be possible to conduct fracture mechanics tests at constant cyclic deformation. For viscoelastic materials, the system would then provide an automatic compensation for any accumulated creep deformation so as to maintain the same initial conditions for fatigue crack propagation. Many commercially available testing machines are generally capable of cycling only between either fixed load limits or fixed strain limits. When creep occurs during cycling between zero and a fixed tensile strain, such machines will tend to impose a compressive stress on the specimen to achieve the lower strain limit, thus altering the stress field seen by a fatigue crack. Andrews has described one iesign of a fatigue machine which automatically detects and compensates for creep.2 This is done by means of a mechanical over-ride device which may, however, be limited in the minimum creep strain it can detect. The above factors were considered when an investigation

into the fatigue behavior of composites was undertaken. The following specifications were set for the proposed test system: (1) To be able to apply axial tension or compression loads with a maximum load capacity of 22.2 kN (SOOO lbf); (2) to carry out fatigue tests under strain-rate control in which either load or strain-range limits the cycle amplitude; (3) to operate at servo-controlled cross-head speeds up to a maximum of 8.SXlO-3 m/sec (20 in./min); (4) to be able to also perform tension and compression tests at constant strain rates (up to 0.2 secl ). The requirement for constant strain rate feedback was included because of the well-known sensitivity to strain rate that polymers and polymer-based composites exhibit. It is usual in other similar axial testing machines for the cycling frequency to be kept constant while load or strain feedback is employed to establish the cycle limits.3 When load-limit cycling is done in such a syst~m, any change in the total strain results in a change in the cyclic strain rate since frequency is kept constant. However, it is strain rate that is the more fundamental parameter to be controlled and not frequency. While this effect may be small for metals it can be significant for polymers and composites. The requirement for constant strain-range or strain difference rather than strain limits during strain cycling also ensures that automatic compensation is provided for the accumulated creep deformation of such materials. This paper describes the details of the machine that was constructed and its operating characteristics. II. DESCRIPTION OF TEST SYSTEM A. Load Frame and Hydraulic System The machine consists essentially of a rigid four-pillar loading frame with a hydraulic servo-actuator mounted at the top. Figure 1 shows the setup. The over-all size of the machine (1.09 m high) is small enough to permit it to be table mounted as shown. It is also possible to mount the frame in a horizontal position on the table if so desired for convenience in microscopic observation of the specimen during testing. The calculated over-all stiffness of the frame is approximately 3.SX108 N/m (2X10 6 lbf/in.).

326

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AXIAL

FATIGUE

MACHINE

327

The servo-actuator used was designed by Moog, Inc. (Model 1725 H) and was originally meant for use in a missile system. As a surplus item it was inexpensive and yet its specifications made it quite suitable for use in this application: 20.7 X 10 6 N/m2 (3000 Ibf/in. 2 ) Maximum oil pressure 44.5 kN (10000 lbf) Load capacity Maximum piston velocity 0.38 m/sec 0.076 m Maximum stroke 0.43 m Over-all length A pressure transducer and a potentiometric displacement transducer, both of which may be used for feedback control, are built into the servo-actuator. However, because of the higher accuracy and stability that was desired in this application, these transducers were not used. A Vickers hydraulic power package provides oil at a maximum pressure of 13.8X106 N/m2 (2000 Ibf/in2.) and maximum flow rate of 1.26XlO-4 m 3/sec (2 gpm). An accumulator is used to reduce line pressure fluctuations. Both grips that are attached to the servo-actuator and the load cell are self-aligning. In addition, the mid-span support (Fig. 1) can be adjusted to align the piston with the load axis. Using sheet specimens of materials that are birefringent, it is easy to check for any misalignment by viewing the specimen through a polarizer in polarized light. B. Instrumentation and Control System Load measurement is done by a Lebow load cell (model No. 3132-5K) which has a maximum load capacity of

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FIG. 1. Schematic and block diagram of the test system.

22.2 kN (5000 lbf). The load cell is attached to the bottom of the frame by a threaded adapter and can be used for both tension and compression tests. Its output is 3.0 mV/V at rated capacity with a nonlinearity less than 0.1% of rated capacity. The strain is measured by a very light weight straingauged clip gauge extensometer that was constructed for this purpose. Its low inertia permits it to measure strains at frequencies up to 20 Hz. It has a strain range of 6%. An additional displacement transducer, an LVDT with a displacement range of 0.0254 m (Schaevitz 3000 HR) may also be mounted on the servo-actuator and used to measure piston (cross-head) displacement in large amplitude cycling. Figure 2 shows the open-loop response of the servoactuator. An input sinusoidal voltage signal was provided by a function generator and the output displacement in inches was measured by an L VDT displacement transducer. The gain in decibels and the phase lag as a function of the frequency are plotted in Fig. 2, which shows that above 1 Hz the phase shift must be compensated for or reduced by using feedback through an appropriate control circuit. The block diagram of the test system is included in Fig. 1. In Fig. 3 the circuit of the control system is shown. In order to achieve constant strain rate operation, a desired dc level (the demand signal) obtained from a saturated operational amplifier (No.2) is compared with the differentiated displacement signal (the feedback signal). The differentiation is accomplished by capacitor coupling the displacement signal (from the extensometer) to the input of the control amplifier 8 which amplifies the difference between the desired strain rate and the actula feedback strain rate signal. The circuit shown in Fig. 3 also includes the signal conditioning circuitry for the load cell and the extensom-

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328
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eter which are integrated with the control circuitry in one package. 4 Altogether eight operational amplifiers are employed. Amplifier 1 amplifies the load signal for display and for use as low and high load limits to reverse the hydraulic ram. The feedback load resistor is chosen to calibrate the load cell at 2220 N/V (500 Ibf/V). Calibration is done by plotting the voltage output against calibrated weights suspended from the load cell mounted in a fixture or by using a shunt calibration resistor. Amplifier 2, which acts as a comparator, has a square wave output whose polarity changes when a limit is reached. When the ram is pulling (in zero to tension cycling) the limit may be a load or a displacement; when relaxing, it is some minimum load. The displacement signal from the clip gauge extensometer or the L VDT is
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amplified by amplifiers 3 and 4. The low level output of the clip gauge requires both amplifiers while the high output of the LVDT requires only amplifier 4. Calibration is varied by the 14k n variable feedback resistor. Clip gauge calibration is done by using an rnstron calibrating micrometer. Amplifier 5 is an inverter used to give the negative of the displacement signal which is used as an input for amplifier 7. The last minimum displacement signal is remembered by amplifier 6 which is set up as a peak detector. Amplifier 7 sums the displacement signal at any time and the negative of the minimum displacement (as noted above). The result is the output of amplifier 7 and represents the strain of the sample during the last cycle. Amplifier 8 (Analog Devices PsOlB) is the servo-valve control amplifier. Its low leakage current, 10 pA, allows

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FIG. 5. System frequency response. The slope adjustment setting is in arbitrary units proportional to the desired strain rate.

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AXIAL

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MACHINE

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very low strain rates to be achieved. It compares the timederivative of the strain signal with the constant (square wave) output of amplifier 2 and drives the coil of the servovalve. The diodes on the input to amplifier 2 choose the larger of the stress or strain signal as the proper limit for reversing the load. Varying the displacement gain determines which limit is used. A low displacement gain insures that the load limit will prevail while a high displacement gain makes displacement the limit. A portion of the square wave output of amplifier 2 is used to determine the step size of the load or displacement desired.

the average apparent modulus can be monitored continuously in this manner by recording displacements. The X - Y plotter and the storage oscilloscope may be used for recording hysteresis loops and stress-strain curves. The number of elapsed cycles are recorded by an electromechanical counter which is driven by a counting signal that is taken from the 12 V square wave output of amplifier 2 and amplified in current. The counting system performs satisfactorily at frequencies up to 25 Hz. D. Performance System response is best evaluated by determining the motion of the system as a function of the desired strain rate which is directly proportional to the setting of the slope potentiometer shown in Fig. 3. This forms part of the input circuit to amplifier 8. In Fig. 5, the response of the system in terms of the measured strain rate is shown as a function of the slope potentiometer adjustment setting (in arbitrary units proportional to the desired strain rate). The measurements show that the system has a maximum usable crosshead velocity of about 8.S X 10-3 m/sec (corresponding to a maximum strain rate of 0.2 sect) beyond which the response is nonlinear. Figure 5 is the equivalent of a frequency response study. Display of the frequency response in the conventional manner of plotting an amplitude ratio vs frequency is meaningless here since the frequency response depends upon the cyclic amplitude chosen. The measurements as plotted in Fig. 5, however, illustrate the response of the system independent of amplitude and in terms of the feedback control variable, viz., strain rate. The lowest setting of the slope potentiometer corresponds to zero strain rate, i.e., a fixed position of the crosshead. This setting may be used for closed-loop stress relaxation experiments in which the strain is kept at a certain fixed level and the stress monitored. Figure 6 illustrates the results of some low-cycle fatigue tests conducted on a unidirectional glass fiber-epoxy composite.

c.

Data Recording

Depending upon the nature of the test being performed, an X-V plotter (Hewlett-Packard 7035 B), a two-pen strip-chart recorder (Hewlett-Packard 7100 B), and a dual beam storage oscilloscope (Tektronix 5031) are used to record the stress and the strain. A peak storage circuit (Fig. 4) was constructed to enable the use of the lowresponse strip-chart recorder for continuously recording the progress of high-cycle (and therefore high-frequency) fatigue tests of long duration. The circuit consists of separate charging circuits for the maximum and minimum cyclic peaks and a variable shunting resistor which serves to control the recovery between successive peaks. By setting a low chart speed on the recorder and using the peak storage circuit, a complete history of the maximum and minimum loads or displacements is obtained from the traces of the two pens. In the load limit mode, for example,
TABLE

I. Approximate cost of machine components (costs for designing and debugging the control circuit are not included).

Cost Load frame Grips Servo-actuator (Moog, Inc.-model 1725H) Hydraulic power package and fittings (Vickers Division, Sperry Rand Corp.) Extensometers Load cell Control circuit (including transducer conditioning circuits, peak storage circuit, and counter)

$1000.00 300.00 400.00 1300.00 400.00 500.00 600.00

E. Cost
The costs of building the machine using the components described above are very low when compared with a similar commercial electrohydraulic system (Table I).

$4500.00

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330

C.

K.

H.

DHARAN

AND

A.

D.

COLVIN

Read-out devices have not been included in the cost since requirements usually vary with the investigator. The costs include all assembly labor costs but do not include costs for designing and debugging the control circuit.

lL. C. Cessna, J. A. Levens, and J. B. Thomson, Polym. Eng. Sci. 9, 339 (1969). 2E. H. Andrews, in Fatigue in Polymers, edited by W. E. Brown, (Interscience, New York, 1968), Vol. 4, p. 237. 3K. Jerram, J. Phys. E 3, 477 (1970). "The LM 201 operational amplifiers are manufactured by National Semiconductor Corp., Santa Clara, Calif.

THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS

VOLUME 44. NUMBER 3

MARCH 1973

Optical Fiber Breaking Stress Distributions Obtained by a Cantilever Method

M. J. Saunders
Bell Laboratories, Norcross, Georgia 30071 (Received 27 October 1972; and in final form, 20 November 1972)
A description is given of a cantilever apparatus to determine the mechanical strength and elastic modulus of optical fibers. This test method overcomes the problem of fiber breakage in the jaws of tensile machines. Young's modulus, the breaking stress distribution, and values of the breaking radius of curvature and strain are presented for fused quartz fibers.

INTRODUCTION

There is currently an increased interest in fiber optics communication systems. Aside from questions of fiber losses, splicing techniques, pulse spreading and the availability of devices, the mechanical strength of the individual fibers is an important consideration. It is well known that the breaking stress of a particular fiber depends on a number of variables such as temperature, humidity, glass composition, and most importantly, the state of the fiber surface. Consequentiy, the mechanical strength of a particular type of fiber must be characterized by a breaking stress distribution function. This paper describes a cantilever apparatus to obtain, relatively quickly, the breaking stress statistics of glass fibers. Young's modulus and the radius of curvature at which the fiber breaks are obtained, and the breaking stress is calculated from these two quantities and the fiber diameter. This method of testing overcomes the problem of fiber breakage in the jaws of the standard tensile testing machines. Approximately 10 breaking stress determinations can be made on a fiber of 7.5 cm length. Breaking stress distributions are presented for fused quartz fibers made at Bell Laboratories. Values of Young's modulus and the radius of curvature and strain at which the fiber breaks are also presented. Methods other than tensile exist for the determination of the breaking stress of glass fibers, and these should be mentioned. Reinkober1 described a method in which a fiber, clamped across two knife edges, supports a small container. Water is slowly poured into the container until the fiber breaks. Joffe and Walther wrapped a fiber, in helical fashion, around a tapered cylinder until the fiber broke. The breaking radius of curvature of the fiber could

be determined by noting the position of the fiber on the cylinder. The breaking stress could then be determined if Young's modulus were known. Lastly, Piggott3 described a three point bend testing apparatus in which a fiber is laid across a span about 0.1 cm in length and a blade deflects the middle of the fiber until breakage occurs. A measurement of the depression of the fiber when it breaks permits one to calculate the radius of curvature at the center of the fiber, from which the breaking stress can be obtained if Young's modulus is known. In this apparatus, the results are dependent upon the coefficients of friction between the fiber and the supports although, for fiber deflection to span length ratios less than about 0.4, the radius of curvature is independent of the friction coefficient. The effective gauge length for this apparatus is about 0.01 cm and is the smallest of all the methods examined. 4 As such, the intrinsic strength of glass fibers (the strength in the absence of surface flaws) can be closely approximated by the use of this equipment.
I. THEORY OF THE HORIZONTAL CANTILEVER METHOD

The fiber to be tested is clamped over a knife edge and vertically acting loads are applied to the end of the fiber until breakage occurs. The maximum stress in the fiber occurs at the knife edge and, under the assumption of pure bending, the tensile stress at which the fiber breaks is given by (1) u=Ed/2R, where E is Young's modulus, d is the diameter of the fiber, and R is the radius of curvature at the knife edge. At any fiber cross section, the lower part is in compression, the upper part is in tension, and the maximum tensile stress

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