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PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT IN INFANCY

Chapter Outline
The Meaning of Relationships 142 Characteristics of the Developing Relationship 142 How Do Children Develop Relationships? 143 The Role of Reciprocal Interactions 144 Parental Roles: Expectations for a Relationship 145 Attachment 147 Bowlbys Work 147 Attachment Research 148 Fathers and Attachment 151 Differences in Mother/Father Behavior 151 Temperament 152 The Origins of Temperament 152 The Dimensions of Temperament 153 Early Emotional Development 155 Defining Emotion 156 Role of Emotions in Development 156 Emotion Regulation 157 Analyzing Emotional Expression 158 Conclusion & Summary 159 Key Terms 160 What Do You Think? 160 Chapter Review Test 160

Chapter Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to answer the following questions.

What is the role of relationships in psychosocial development? How do children develop and control their emotions? How would you assess the importance of attachment in psychosocial development? How does temperament affect the relationship between parents and their children?

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J
The reciprocal interactions between parents and their children are at the heart of the attachment process. What aspects of development is this mother encouraging?

ohn Bowlby knew. Bowlby, the founder of attachment theory, from his theorizing and research, came to realize how important an infants relationships are to satisfactory and healthy psychosocial development. His work for the World Health Organization following World War ll alerted him to the problems that arise when a child is separated from a mother figure. Indeed, we held the view that the responses of protest, despair, and detachment that typically occur when a young child aged over 6 months is separated from the mother and in the care of a stranger are due mainly to loss of maternal care at this highly dependent, highly vulnerable stage of development. (Bowlby, 1969, p. X111) Mary Salter Ainsworth knew. A former worker in Bowlbys lab in London, she was intrigued by his ideas and eventually devised a means of assessing the emotional bond between mother and child. As she looked back on her work, she summarized the importance of attachment in an infants life as follows. The implication is that the way in which the infant organizes his or her behavior toward the mother affects the way in which he or she organizes behavior toward other aspects of the environment, both animate and inanimate. The organization provides a core of continuity in development despite changes that come with developmental acquisitions, both cognitive and socioemotional. (Ainsworth, 1979, p. 936) Indeed, the roots of attachment theory have burrowed deeply into the terrain of modern psychology: But whatever the lingering controversies over attachment theory, its now charting new directions for both mental-health practice and policy. New research in the neurobiology of bonding has put the theory on ever-stronger empirical footing. (Kendall, 2003, pp. 3, 5) Children learn what to expect from others because, as we have seen, their rapid brain and cognitive development enables them to take in and interpret information, and some of this information is about how others, especially parents, treat them. Although they may not grasp everything thats going on around them, children understand the quality of their treatment: caring/cold, loving/ hostile. These initial relationships, then, are the foundation for a childs social development. These are the years that Erikson believed resulted in a sense of trust or mistrust. Infants develop the feeling that

Beginning at about 6 months of age, infants show signs of distress when approached by a stranger. How do you explain this babys fear of a stranger?

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the world is a safe and secure haven or a place where a sense of confidence is never acquired, producing uncertainty about self and others. To help us untangle this important network, we first discuss the meaning and the importance of relationships (such as the active role that infants play in their own development). Next, well explore the special relationshipattachmentthat has attracted so much attention these past few years. Well then examine how the temperaments of children and their parents structure the kind of relationships they form. Finally, well see how these forces interact to affect emotional development. Lets begin by looking at several basic ideas about relationships.

THE MEANING OF RELATIONSHIPS

Infancy implies beginnings, the early formation of characteristics, skills, and dispositions that may last a lifetime. Ross Thompson

Research into the role of relationships in development has increased substantially since the previous edition of this book, not only with regard to parent-child relationships but also with regard to other family members (Eisenberg, 2006). This explosion of interest has carried over from academic pursuits to a public fascination seen in popular magazines and numerous trade books (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006). To start us on our analysis, think of a relationship as a pattern of intermittent interactions between two people involving interchanges over an extended period of time (Hinde, 1993). A childs relationships incorporate many aspects of development: physical aspects such as walking, running, and playing with a peer; language aspects, which enable youngsters to share their lives; cognitive aspects, which allow them to understand one another; emotional aspects, which permit them to make a commitment to another person; and social aspects, which reflect both socialization and individuation. In other words, a relationship is a superb example of the influence of biopsychosocial interactions. Infants are ready to respond to social stimulation, but its not just a matter of responding passively. Infants in their own way initiate social contacts. Many of their actions (such as turning toward their mothers or gesturing in their direction) are forms of communication. Hinde (1993), too, noted that the interchange between infants and their environments is an active one. Those around infants try to attract their attention, but the babies actively select from these adult actions. In other words, infants begin to structure their own relationships according to their individual temperaments. They do this within the family context. The interactions occurring among the other family membersparent-parent, parent-other children, sibling-siblingproduce a ripple effect that colors the parent-child relationship. Marital conflict, for example, inevitably spills over into the relationship between parents and their children and may produce unexpected results such as physical illness or tension in the child (and may even affect his or her peer relations; Eisenberg, 2006). Consequently, the nature of the relationship between parents and their children emerges from the temperament and characteristics of each, and the interactions that occur (Rubin, Bukowski, & Parker, 2006).
For most people, relationships with other people are the most important part of their lives. Robert Hinde

Characteristics of the Developing Relationship

In their classic statement on the earliest relationship (parent-infant), Brazelton and Cramer (1990) list several characteristics that identify the emergence of a successful relationship:

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synchrony Ability of parents to adjust their behavior to that of an infant.

symmetry Infants capacity for attention; style of responding influences interactions.

entrainment Term used to describe the rhythm that is established between a parents and an infants behavior.

autonomy Infants realization that they have a share in controlling their interactions with others.

1. First is synchrony, which refers to the ability of parents to adjust their behavior to that of an infant. Immediately after birth, infants are mostly occupied by their efforts to regulate such systems as breathing and heart rate, which demand most of their energy and attention. Once parents recognize these effortsthe babys language (Brazelton & Cramer, 1990)they can use their own behaviortalking softly, strokingto help their infants adapt to environmental stimuli. This mutual regulation of behavior defines synchrony. 2. A second characteristic is symmetry, which means that an infants capacity for attention and style of responding influence any interactions. In other words, how children interact with their parents reflects their temperaments. As Brazelton and Cramer (1990, p. 122) note, in a symmetric dialogue parents recognize an infants thresholds, that is, what and how much stimuli an infant can tolerate. 3. A third characteristic is entrainment, which identifies the rhythm that is established between a parents and an infants behavior. For example, when the infant reaches toward the mother, the mother says something like Oh, yes, Timmy. The sequence involved in entrainment leads to playing games, such as the mother making a face at the baby and the infant trying to respond similarly. 4. Finally, once infants realize that they have a share in controlling the interactions (about 6 months of age), they begin to develop a sense of autonomy. With these interactions, infants are beginning to form relationships and learn about themselves. We turn now to the manner in which infants begin to develop their relationships.

How Do Children Develop Relationships?

Infants quickly focus on their mothers as they recognize them as sources of relief and satisfaction. Mothers, in turn, rapidly discriminate their infants cries: for hunger, attention, or fright. Thus infants learn to direct their attention to their mothers, and a pattern of interactions is established. How do we explain this development? Three motives seem to be at work:
Infants immediately begin to take in information from their environment, and mothers are an important source of this information. From mothers, infants begin to develop a sense of how the world will treat them. Can you identify the multiple stimuli this mother is using?

Bodily needsfood, for examplelead to a series of interactions that soon become a need for social interaction. Psychological needs can cause infants to interrupt one of their most important functions, such as feeding. Children, from birth, seem to seek novelty; they require increasingly challenging stimulation. For infants, adults become the source of information as much as the source of bodily need satisfaction. Adult response needs. Adults satisfy needs, provide stimulation, and initiate communication, thus establishing the basis for future social interactions.

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How do these three influencesat work during the infants early daysaffect the development of relationships?

The Developmental Sequence

Bodily need satisfaction, a search for novelty, and adult responses to the infants overtures form a basis for the appearance of social interactions similar to the following sequence.

T. B. Brazelton and B. Cramer (1990). You should enjoy reading The Earliest Relationship. (Reading, MA: AddisonWesley), an excellent, readable account of how relationships develop, presented from both a pediatric and a psychoanalytic perspective.

During the first three weeks of life, infants are not affected much by an adults appearance. The only exception, as noted, is during feeding periods. From about the beginning of the fourth week, infants begin to direct actions toward adults. Emotional reactions also appear at this time, with obvious signs of pleasure at the sight and sound of adults, especially females. During the second month, more complex and sensitive reactions emerge, such as smiling and vocalizations directed at the mother, plus animated behavior during interactions. By 3 months of age, the infant has formed a need for social interactions. This need continues to grow and be nourished by adults until the end of the second or beginning of the third year, when a need for peer interactions develops (Hinde, 1987, 1992).

Guided Review
1. A relationship is a pattern of intermittent 2. Infants quickly begin to 3. their relatonships. is an important influence on developing relationships. of the partners. interactions. .

4. The nature of a relationship emerges from the 5. A relationship is an excellent example of

We can usually label relationships, using adjectives such as warm, cold, rejecting, and hostile. But we must be cautious. Any relationship may be marked by apparently contradictory interactions. A mother may have a warm relationship with her child as evidenced by hugging and kissing, but she may also scold when scolding is needed for the childs protection. To understand the relationship, we must understand the interactions.

The Role of Reciprocal Interactions

We realize today that children are not born as passive sponges; they immediately seek stimulation from their environment and instantly interpret, and react to, how they are being treated, a process called reciprocal interactions. Think of it this way: You react to me in a particular manner and I change. As a result of the changes that occur in me, you change. Back-and-forth, on-and-on it goes, constantly changing

reciprocal interactions Interactions that result in mutual changes

Answers

1. interactions 2. structure 3. Family context 4. characteristics 5. biopsychosocial

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the relationship. Consequently, we can now examine an infants psychosocial development from a totally new and exciting perspective. Not only do infants attempt to make sense of their world as they develop cognitively, they also tune into the social and emotional atmosphere surrounding them and immediately begin to shape their relationships with others. Thinking about the type of interactions parents have with their children helps you to appreciate how the relationship has developed. For example, consider the kinds of things parents do with their children and the way they do themall involving interactions. They play. They discipline. They explain. They provide correction and feedback. They answer questions. In other words, theyre exercising their parental role in all these interactions with their children. Analyzing these interactions helps you to realize that parents change as a result of their childs behavior, and their children change in turn because of their parents reactions. These reciprocal interactions demonstrate continuity over time and are a powerful force in the development of relationships (Freitag et al., 1996). But infants also exercise some control over the interactions. We, as adults, respond to infants partly because of the way that they respond to us. An infants staring, cooing, smiling, and kicking can all be employed to maintain the interactions. Thus these early interactions establish the nature of the relationship between parent and child, giving it a particular tone or style. To understand the developing relationship between parents and infants, remember that infants tune into their environment from birth. Thus they react to far more than their parents behavior; they react to the way their parents handle them, the tone of voice a parent uses, and the playful nature of interactions. Consequently, the quality of the interactions instantly begins to establish the nature of the relationship (Thompson, 2006).

Parental Roles: Expectations for a Relationship

Finally, parents bring basic preconceived ideas about the role they should play in their relationships with their children. Technically, role usually refers to behavior, or certain expectancies about behavior, associated with a particular position in society. Mothers and fathers have certain expectations about how parents should act. How they exercise that power and how their children react to their suggestions and encouragements, their demands and commands, ultimately determine the success of the relationship. In an ideal world, their ideas, their expectations, and their sense of their role as a parent should mesh perfectly with their childs personality and abilities (Chess & Thomas, 1999).

Ghosts in the Nursery

Lets pause for a moment and consider one source of their expectations about their parental role. Selma Fraiberg, a well-known child psychiatrist, has referred to the presence of ghosts in the nursery, which can have many consequences (1987). Do parents feel their own parents looking over their shoulder, telling them how to bring up their child, ideas that they may well have rejected or even rebelled against? Does their child remind them of someone from their past, and they begin to react as they did to that other person? Do they tend to imitate a friend whom they admire? Or have they been impressed by the ideas of some expert they have read about or have seen on television? When parents are aware that ghosts from their past may influence them, they usually attempt to overcome these relics and move on to positive relations with their children. Many qualities, however, affect the nature of the relationship, such

Parents own experiences and their expectations of their childrens behavior help to shape the relationships they develop with their children. Can you summarize the experiences and the expectations that shape parental behavior?

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F I G U R E 6.1
The origin and development of relationships.
A. Origin of interactions 1. Organic needs 2. Need for stimulation 3. Social interactions (adult) 4. Adult interactions: the basis for peer interactions C. Developmental changes in need content 1. Infancy: attention and care 2. Toddlers (24): cooperation 3. Early preschool (45): respect, acceptance 4. End preschool (56): understanding, sympathy 5. Middle childhood: peer acceptance E. Needs become motives 1. Maslows hierarchy 2. Lisinas motives B. Need for interactions: criteria 1. Attention to adult 2. Emotional display to adult 3. Actions toward adult 4. Evaluation of adult reactions D. Developmental characteristics 1. Physical 2. Cognitive 3. Social 4. Emotional (ages and stages)

F. Specific interaction content 1. Content 2. Diversity 3. Quality 4. Relative frequency and patterning of interactions 5. Reciprocity versus complementarity 6. Intimacy 7. Interpersonal perception 8. Commitment

G. Emerging relationships 1. Ages and stages

as warmth, consistency, cultural traditions, and so on. Figure 6.1 illustrates the sequence by which the first interactions, combined with developmental changes, gradually lead to specific relationships. As the interactions between mother and child increase and become more complex, lets now examine the attachment that develops between the two.

A S O C I O C U LT U R A L V I E W

Different Cultures, Different Interactions

As we have noted in our discussions of the effect of culture on development, from birth children are exposed to and shaped by the culture surrounding them. Their cultural context includes everything from sleeping arrangements and feeding practices to the childs value systems, school experiences, and interpersonal interactions. But the way in which childrens needs are met within their culture varies tremendously (Saarni et al., 2006). Parents from a particular culture share a common system of beliefs, values, practices, and behaviors that differ from those of parents in other cultures. These beliefs, in turn, lead to a determination of the kinds of events children should experience. For example, research has clearly demonstrated that infants in northern Germany are exposed to avoidant patterns of attachment. As one instance shows, these German infants are frequently left alone outside a shop while the mother briefly goes inside. In Japan, however, mothers remain in close proximity to their infants. Japanese infants are rarely separated from their mothers. Cultures also differ in

their reaction to eye contact. In most Western societies, looking into a babys eyes is seen as looking into a babys soul. In some African societies, however, eye contact is discouraged. These different parental practices commence immediately following birth. But merely identifying specific differences in raising children in different cultures limits our perspective on development. As Garcia Coll and others (1996) have noted: In addition, studies of children of color need to move from conceptualizing developmental outcome as either negative or positive to a more balanced conceptualization that reflects both the strengths and weaknesses in developmental processes and competencies of these children (Garcia Coll et al., 1996, p. 1895). (For a detailed and comprehensive examination of this subject, we recommend Special Issue on Race, Ethnicity, and Culture in Child Development, Child Development, 77(5), September/ October, 2006.)

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Guided Review
6. Infants interactions with their mothers are motivated by three categories of needs: , , . 7. infant. 8. The need for social interactions appears at about months of age. 9. Infants capacity for attention and style of responding that influences their inter. actions is called 10. The rhythm that develops between a parents and infants behavior is called . is the ability of parents to adjust their behavior to that of an

ATTACHMENT
Because the roots of future relationships are formed during the first days of life, we may well ask: How significant is the mother-infant relationship in those first days and weeks after birth? Infants who develop a secure attachment to their mothers have the willingness and confidence to seek out future relationships. As Thompson (2006) notes, attachment figures are secure bases that encourage infants to explore their environments but remain reliable retreats when stress and uncertainty appear. Among the first researchers to recognize the significance of relationships in an infants life were John Bowlby and Mary Salter Ainsworth. (For an excellent discussion of the history and background of the attachment movement, see Robert Karen [1994]. Becoming Attached. New York: Warner Books.)

attachment Behavior intended to keep a child (or adult) in close proximity to a significant other. ethology Study of behavior in natural settings.

Bowlbys Work
John Bowlby was a man not easily forgotten. With his shock of unruly white hair, confident manner, and brilliant mind, he was a commanding presence in the initial days of the attachment battles. Early in his professional career, Bowlby had been affected by the plight of children suffering from negative family experiences early in life (such as prolonged separation from their mothers). Using concepts from psychology and ethology (the study of behavior in natural settings; Hinde, 1993), Bowlby formulated his basic premise: A warm, intimate relationship between mother and infant is essential to mental health, because a childs need for its mothers presence is as great as its need for food. A mothers continued absence can generate a sense of loss and feelings of anger. (In his 1969 classic, Attachment, Bowlby states quite clearly that an infants principal attachment figure can be someone other than the natural mother.)

Background of Attachment Theory

Both parent and child bring their own characteristics to the relationship (facial expressions, movements, vocalizations), and as they do, the interactions between the two become more complex and an attachment slowly develops between the two. Can you discuss the many parental behaviors that help to produce attachment?

Bowlby and his colleagues, especially James Robertson, initiated a series of studies in which children aged 15 to 30 were separated from their parents. (They had been placed either in hospitals or residential nurseries.) A predictable sequence of behaviors followed. Protest, the first phase, may begin immediately and persist for about one week. Loud crying, extreme restlessness, and rejection of all adult figures mark

Answers

6. bodily, psychological, adult response 7. Synchrony 8. 3 9. symmetry 10. entrainment

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J. Bowlby (1969). Attachment. New York: Basic Books. This is Bowlbys classic statement about attachment. Its very readable and is a reference with which you should be familiar.

an infants distress. Despair, the second phase, follows. The infants behavior suggests a growing hopelessness: monotonous crying, inactivity, and steady withdrawal. Detachment, the final phase, appears when an infant displays renewed interest in its surroundingsbut a remote, distant kind of interest. Bowlby describes the behavior of this final phase as apathetic, even if the mother reappears. From observation of many similar cases, Bowlby defined attachment as follows: Attachment behavior is any form of behavior that results in a person attaining or maintaining proximity to some other clearly identified individual who is conceived as better able to cope with the world. It is most obvious when the person is frightened, fatigued, or sick, and is assuaged by comforting and care-giving. At other times the behavior is less in evidence. (1982, p. 668) Bowlby also believed that although attachment is most obvious in infancy and early childhood, it can be observed throughout the life cycle (Hamilton, 2000; Kerns et al., 2000; Waters et al., 2000). Table 6.1 presents a chronology of attachment behavior.

Attachment Research
A childs behaviors indicate attachment only when they are specifically directed at one or a few persons rather than to others. When infants first direct their attention to their mothers, they are attempting to initiate and maintain interactions with their mothers. Children also attempt to avoid separation from an attachment figure, particularly if faced with a frightening situation (Thompson, 2006; Waters & Cummings, 2000). Attachment theorists believe that a mothers (or some other adults) sensitivity helps to determine the degree and quality of an infants security. But, as we have seen in our discussion of reciprocal interactions, the child also contributes to the relationship.

T A B L E 6.1

Chronology of Attachment Development

Age 4 months 9 months 23 years 34 years

Characteristics Perceptual discrimination; visual tracking of mother Separation anxiety; stranger anxiety Intensity and frequency of attachment behavior remains constant Growing confidence; tendency to feel secure in a strange place with subordinate attachment figures (relatives) Less intense attachment behavior, but still strong Weakening attachment to parents; peers and other adults become important Attachment bond still discernible

Behavior Smiles and vocalizes more with mother than anyone else; shows distress at separation Cries when mother leaves; clings at appearance of strangers (mother is primary object) Notices impending departure, indicating a better understanding of surrounding world Begins to accept mothers temporary absence; plays with other children May hold parents hand while walking; anything unexpected causes child to turn to parent Becomes attached to groups and group members In troubled times, adults turn to trusted friends; elderly direct attention to younger generation

410 years Adolescence Adult

Source: From John Bowlby, Attachment and Loss: Retrospect and Prospect in American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 52: 664678. Reprinted with permission from the American Journal of Orthopsychiatry. Copyright 1982 by the American Orthopsychiatry Association, Inc.

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The Strange Situation Technique

strange situation Measure designed to assess the quality of attachment.

To assess the quality of attachment, a student of Bowlbys, Mary Salter Ainsworth, devised the strange situation. Ainsworth (1973, 1979; Ainsworth & Bowlby, 1991), who accepted Bowlbys theoretical interpretation of attachment, devised the strange situation technique to study attachment experimentally. Ainsworth had a mother and infant taken to an observation room. The child was placed on the floor and allowed to play with toys. A stranger (female) then entered the room and began to talk to the mother. Observers watched to see how the infant reacted to the stranger and to what extent the child used the mother as a secure base. The mother then left the child alone in the room with the stranger; observers then noted how distressed the child became. The mother returned and the quality of the childs reaction to the mothers return was assessed. Next the infant was left completely alone, followed by the strangers entrance, and then that of the mother. These behaviors have been used to classify children as follows:

Securely attached children, who use their mothers as a base from which to explore. Separation intensifies their attachment behavior; they exhibit considerable distress, cease their explorations, and at reunion seek contact with their mothers. Avoidantly attached children, who rarely cry during separation and avoid their mothers at reunion. The mothers of these babies seem to dislike or are indifferent to physical contact. Ambivalently attached children, who manifest anxiety before separation and who are intensely distressed by the separation. Yet on reunion they display ambivalent behavior toward their mothers; they seek contact but simultaneously seem to resist it. Disorganized/disoriented children, who show a kind of confused behavior at reunion. For example, they may look at the mother and then look away, showing little emotion (Main, 1996).

Ainsworth also believed that attachment knows no geographic boundaries. Reporting on her studies of infant-mother attachment in Uganda, Ainsworth (1973) noted that of 28 infants she observed, 23 showed signs of attachment. She was impressed by the babies initiative in attempting to establish attachment with their mothers and noted that the babies demonstrated this initiative even when no threat of separation or any condition that could cause anxiety existed. In tracing the developing pattern of attachment behavior, Ainsworth (1973) stated: The baby did not first become attached and then show it by proximitypromoting behavior . . . rather . . . these are the patterns of behavior through which attachment grows. (p. 35) Ainsworth reported other studies, conducted in Baltimore, Washington, and Scotland, indicating that cultural influences may affect the ways in which different attachment behaviors develop. Nevertheless, although these studies used quite different subjects for their studies, all reported attachment behavior developing in a similar manner.

Continuing Attachment Research

Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) Evaluates adults responses to questions about attachment.

An added tool in attachment research has been the development of the Adult Attachment Interview (AAI), which examines the responses of parents to determine if they maintain a coherent, relevant discussion of their early attachments (Main, 1996). Their answers are then linked to the quality of their childrens attachment. Based on their responses, adults are classified as follows.

Autonomous. These individuals value relationships, believe that their attachments help their development, and give consistent and coherent answers.

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Dismissing. These individuals denied the influence of attachments on their lives and showed memory lapses, and their positive expressions about their parents were inconsistent and contradictory. Preoccupied. These individuals speak of their parents in an angry, incoherent manner. Unresolved/disorganized. These individuals reflected a sense of unresolved loss in their answers.

Differences in responses to the questions of the AAI (that is, how truthful, clear, and orderly are the responses) predict the attachment categories of their infants (secure, insecure, and so on), both when the questions are asked before and after birth (Main, 1996). Recent research (Adam, Gunnar, & Tanaka, 2004) into the relationship between adult attachment and parenting behavior offers several interesting conclusions. For example, a link was seen between adult attachment and maternal emotional wellbeing and parenting behavior. Continued research into the application of the AAI has focused on asking respondents to look back on their own childhood attachment. During a one-hour interview, people are asked to support their memories by supplying evidence. For example, they are asked to furnish five adjectives describing their relationship to each parent. Later during the interview, theyre questioned about specific incidents supporting their earlier answers. Parental responses have been coded into categories that relate to the quality of their infants attachment (see Table 6.2). Attachment researchers are also examining representational processes; that is, theyre focusing on the relationship between early attachment and a childs drawings and stories in middle childhood. For example, when presented with instances of children who were separated from their mothers, secure 6-year-olds made up positive, constructive responses about the child in the story. But disorganized children gave frightened responses: The mother is going to die, The girl will kill herself. Continued studies (Lewis, Feiring, & Rosenthal, 2000; Weinfield, Sroufe, & Egeland, 2000) indicate that in high-risk samples (divorce, desertion, abuse, maternal depression) stability of attachment from the early years to adulthood was lacking. Finally, researchers are placing greater emphasis on the cultural impact on attachment. Theorists have long held that culture influences specific behaviors and that there is a substantial core of attachment that is immune from cultural influence. Consequently, the more universal aspects of the theory are receiving closer scrutiny.

T A B L E 6.2 The Adult Attachment Interview

Adult Attachment Interview Secure/Autonomous: Coherent, values attachment, accepts any unpleasant, earlier experiences Dismissing: Positive statements are unsupported or contradicted; they claim earlier unpleasant experiences have no effect Preoccupied: Seems angry, confused, passive, or fearful; some responses irrelevant Unfocused/Disorganized: Loses train of thought during discussion of loss or abuse; lapses in reasoning (speaks of dead people as alive)

Strange Situation Response Secure Avoidant

Resistant/Ambivalent Disorganized/Disoriented

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AN INFORMED VIEW

Attachment and Childrens Literature

has retold and illustrated many familiar folktales through the years, such as The Three Billy Goats Gruff, The Elves and the Shoemaker, The Three Little Pigs, The Little Red Hen, The Gingerbread Boy, and The Teeny-Tiny Woman. Fortunately, many of these enduring folktales have been reissued recently, so they continue to bring pleasure to a new generation of children. His characters are easily identifiable and nonthreatening. Most have pleasant, smiling faceseven his animals smile. When reading books like these to children in late infancy, caregivers provide them with a zone of comfortable security whether the wolf is destroying the pigs house or the gingerbread boy is running away from home. If you would like to have a more informed view on this issue, you may want to read Barbara Travers and John F. Travers (2009), Childrens Literature: A Developmental Perspective. New York: John Wiley. You may also wish to learn more about it by going to our website at www.mhhe.com/dacey7.

As we have seen in our discussion of infancy in Chapters 5 and 6, certain developmental features lend themselves to desirable childcare practices. For example, we know that:

The human brain is programmed to learn even before birth. Children of these years prefer certain kinds of objects, colors, forms, and so on. They continue to develop object permanence. They require definite signs of comfort and security from their parents.

When infants, in times of stress and uncertainty, feel that they lack a secure base to depend on, they develop feelings of doubt, lack of confidence, and so forth, reflecting Mains disorganized/ disoriented category. To help these children, adults often turn to stories in childrens literature. As one example, children in later infancy enjoy listening to the stories of Paul Galdone. Galdone

We have focused on the attachment between mothers and their children because most of the research has examined this relationship. What can we say about the attachment between fathers and their infants?

Fathers and Attachment

Commenting on the attachment between father and child, Bowlby (1988) noted that the patterns closely resembled those between mothers and their children. A finding that intrigued Bowlby was that there was no correlation between the attachment patterns for each parent; that is, an infant may have a secure attachment with the mother but not necessarily with the father, or with the father but not necessarily the mother. We can summarize these findings by stating that fathers contribute substantially to the financial, social, and emotional healthy development of their children, but not by physical presence alone. The effect of a fathers role in his childs life, especially a nurturing, caring father to whom the child is attached, cannot be overlooked. As Hetherington and Kelly noted (2002), a child doesnt become psychologically well-adjusted just because Dad is there. To instill stability and competence in a child requires active, engaged fathering over a period of time.

Differences in Mother/Father Behavior

The interactions between a father and his child tend to be more physical than those between a mother and her child. The qualitatively different types of stimulation a child receives from each parent would seem to suggest implications for the staffing of day-care centers and preschool facilities. Can you expand on the notion of active, engaged fathering?

Research has also focused on demonstrating the differences between mothers and fathers behavior (nurturant versus playful), the similarity between parental behaviors (both exhibit considerable sensitivity), and the amount of involvement in the infants care. Mothers are more verbal, tend to offer toys, and play more conventional games. In a relaxed setting, both parents seem to have equal attractions as attachment figures. When infants are hungry or sick, however, they turn more to their mothers. Fathers, however, provide more unpredictable, less rhythmic, and more exciting stimulation than mothers do. As you can tell from this brief summary, more research is needed to help us understand the dynamics of the interaction between fathers and their infants

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(Parke, 2002). Although probably thousands of studies have been done about the mother-child relationship, to date only 17 known studies have compared the childs attachment to his father (Lewis, 1997). To conclude this section, we turn to Lewis statement (1997) that the presence of an adult male, usually the father, is quite important for childrens development. (For an excellent discussion of the fathers role in development in our modern society, see Cabrera et al., 2000.) Since we know that both adults and children contribute to the quality of attachment, lets turn now to the role that temperament plays in this process.

Guided Review
11. An early researcher into the significant relationships in an infants life was . 12. Following separation from their mothers, Bowlby found a predictable sequence , , . of behaviors: 13. Attachment characterized by separation or stranger anxiety usually begins at the age of months. 14. Adults memories of their early attachments are assessed by the . 15. is known for the strange situation technique.

TEMPERAMENT
temperament A childs basic personality; technically refers to constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation.

One of the most important dynamics in parents relationship with their children is temperament. Temperament technically refers to constitutionally based individual differences in emotional, motor, and attentional reactivity and self-regulation (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Simply put, a childs temperament refers to a unique and stable style of behaving (Thompson, 1999). Each child is different at birth and must be treated differently. Thus temperament is a critical personality trait, especially in the first days and weeks after birth, a trait that is both stable and fairly persistent. As a mother of 10-year-old identical twins said: Even from birth, I could tell them apart by the differences in their reactions to things around them like faces, voices, and colors. In other words, their temperaments provided the clues to their identity.

The Origins of Temperament

Temperament appears to have a constitutional component that is observable, at least partially, during the first few days of life. Studies that used the same measure of temperamentBayleys Infant Behavior Record (IBR)all found significant genetic influences on temperament (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). For example, results of the Colorado Adoption Project, which compared matched adopted and nonadopted children, showed a clear genetic influence on temperament (Plomin et al., 1997). The ongoing MacArthur Longitudinal Twin Study, designed to study more than 330 same-sex twin pairs, has initially reported genetic influences on individual differences at 14 months of age; for example, behavioral inhibition and observed shyness showed a significant genetic influence (Emde et al., 1992). (For an excellent discussion of this topic, see Caspi, 1998).
11. Bowlby 12. protest, despair, detachment 13. 9 14. Adult Attachment Interview 15. Ainsworth

Answers

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Yet recent research (Rothbart & Bates, 2006) also testifies to changes in the expression of temperament over time. A childs family, the social environment, socioeconomic status, and cultural influences together weave a network of external forces that contribute to the shaping of temperament over the years. Examining this developmentally interactive process, Thompson (1999) reached the following conclusions.

A childs temperament may mesh well or poorly with the demands of the social setting. As well see, this goodness-of-fit between temperament and environment has a major impact on personality and adjustment. But keep in mind also that a childs environment changes dramatically through the years, and these changes have powerful effects on development and adjustment (Putnam, Sanson, & Rothbart, 2002). Temperament influences how a child selects and responds to different aspects of the environment (individuals, settings, and so on). This in turn affects how people respond to the child. (Reciprocal interactions at work!) Temperament colors how a child perceives and thinks about the environment. Temperament may interact with environmental influences in a way we simply dont understand.

Thus temperament is a biologically based but developmentally evolving feature of behavior (Thompson, 1999).

The Dimensions of Temperament

To understand how researchers reached these conclusions, we turn to a description of the dimensions of temperament.

The Work of Mary Rothbart

As Kagan and Fox (2006) note, Mary Rothbarts ideas are currently dominating discussions of temperament. In a frequently quoted analysis of the structure of temperament, Rothbart (Rothbart & Bates, 2006) has identified several dimensions of temperament in infancy. These include:

Negative emotionality, which refers to feelings of fear and sadness. Surgency/extraversion, which ranges from a positive approach to others to high-intensity pleasure. Orienting/regulation, which refers to such behaviors as low-intensity pleasure, cuddliness, and soothability

Examining these dimensions leads to clues for parenting children based on the childrens temperamental characteristics: When do they need help to maintain selfcontrol, require support, or need encouragement to approach novel activities?

Kagans Biological Interpretation

In a different interpretation, Kagan (Kagan & Fox, 2006; Kagan & Snidman, 2004) describes temperament as an inherited physiology that is preferentially linked to an envelope of emotions and behaviors (though the nature of that link is still poorly understood) (Kagan & Snidman, p. 5). For example, Kagan has noted that 4-monthold infants who show a tendency to become upset at unfamiliar stimuli are more likely to become fearful and subdued during early childhood, a condition that Kagan has called inhibition to the unfamiliar (Kagan & Fox, p. 198). (An extension of Kagans work by Putnam and Stifter [2005] examines not only a childs negative reactions but also positive expressions of behavior, called approach tendencies.) Kagan has continued to develop his thesis that biology, especially the brain, is a major contributor to temperament. As he stated (Kagan, 2004, p. 40), most

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temperamental biases are due to heritable variations in neurochemistry or anatomy, although some may be due to unknown prenatal events. And yet, since our work is based on the critical role of reciprocal interactions, we cant overlook the interactions between biology and the environment.

Chess and Thomass Goodness of Fit

Finally, we turn our attention to the work of two child psychiatrists, Stella Chess and Alexander Thomas (1987, 1999). These researchers were struck by the individuality of their own children in the days immediately following birth, differences that could not be attributed solely to the environment. Intrigued, they devised the New York City Longitudinal Study of 141 children. Chess and Thomas discovered that even with children as young as 2 or 3 months of age, they could identify and categorize three types of temperament:

New York Longitudinal Study Long-term study by Chess and Thomas of the personality characteristics of children. easy children Calm, relaxed children; term associated with Chess and Thomas. difficult children Restless, irritable children; term associated with Chess and Thomas. slow-to-warmup children Children with low intensity of reactions; may be rather negative when encountering anything new; term associated with Chess and Thomas. goodness of fit Compatibility between parental and child behavior; how well parents and their children get along.

Easy children, characterized by regularity of bodily functions, low or moderate intensity of reactions, and acceptance of, rather than withdrawal from, new situations (40% of the children). Difficult children, characterized by irregularity in bodily functions, intense reactions, and withdrawal from new stimuli (10% of the children). Slow-to-warm-up children, characterized by a low intensity of reactions and a somewhat negative mood (15% of the children).

They were able to classify 65% of the infants, leaving the others with a mixture of traits that defied neat categorization. Table 6.3 summarizes their classification scheme. If parents recognize similar characteristics in their childrenthe need for sleep at a certain time; a unique manner of reacting to strangers or the unknown; the intensity of concentration on a taskthey can use their knowledge of such characteristics to build a goodness-of-fit relationship. At different age periods, a childs psychological developmenteither goodness of fit or poorness of fitmay be consistent. But if circumstances change (either in the child or in the environment), goodness of fit could become poorness of fit. As Chess and Thomas state (1999, p. 4), the consistency or change of

T A B L E 6.3 Categories of Temperament

Behaviors Activity level Rhythmicity (Regularity) Approach or withdrawal Adaptability Sensory threshold (level of stimulation necessary to produce a response) Quality of mood Intensity of reactions Distractibility Persistence and attention span

Easy Children Varies Very regular Positive approach Very adaptable High or low

Difficult Children Low to moderate Irregular Withdrawal Slowly adaptable Tends to be low

Slow-to-Warm-Up Children Varies Varies Initial withdrawal Adaptable High or low

Positive Low or mild Varies High or low

Negative Intense Varies High or low

Slightly negative Moderate Varies High or low

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sensitive responsiveness Refers to the ability to recognize the meaning of a childs behavior.

goodness/poorness of fit over time is determined by the constancy versus the variability in the individual and his or her environment. Poorness of fit exists when parental demands and expectations are excessive and not compatible with a childs temperament, abilities, and other characteristics. Poorness of fit produces stress and is often marked by developmental problems (Chess & Thomas, 1987, 1999). A simple way of phrasing this concept is to ask parents and their children how they get along together. (For additional discussion of this important topic, see Putnam, Sanson, & Rothbart, 2002). Finally, the importance of parents and childrens temperaments in establishing a goodness-of-fit relationship (parents react differently to different children), has again demonstrated the significance of the concept of sensitive responsiveness. For example, as we have seen, babies are temperamentally different at birth. An example of sensitive responsiveness would be that although most infants like to be held, some dislike physical contact. How will a mother react to an infant who stiffens and pulls away, especially if previous children liked being held? Infants instantly tune in to their environment. They give clues to their personalities so that a mothers and fathers responses to their childs signals must be appropriate for that child; that is, greater parental sensitivity produces more responsive infants.

Guided Review
16. An influential analysis of Temperament has been offered by . 17. Study. 18. environment. 19. Compatibility between parental and child behavior is known as . 20. Kagans explanation of temperament depends on a analysis. refers to an individuals behavioral style in interacting with the and are identified with the New York Longitudinal

EARLY EMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT

While we were working on this section of the book, one of us (JFT) tried to relax by watching a hockey game on television. Bad choice. With a few seconds left in the game one of the players savagely swung his stick at the head of a member of the other team who immediately dropped to the ice, severely injured. Needless to say, there had been a history of bad blood between the two players, and the repercussions of this violent encounter are still being played out. Still, it dramatically illustrated the powerful role that emotions play in our lives. What was there in the emotional development of this player that would cause him to act so brutally? Does the answer lie in brain functioning? Or do we turn to the environment for answers? Or, once again, do we search for the interactions between the two for an explanation of this fascinating aspect of human nature? For example, current views of emotion consider not only the brains role in emotional development but also the contributions of the body and the environment. Emotion is not the conveniently isolated brain function once thought. Rather, its messy, complicated, primitive, and undefined because its all over the place, intertwined with cognition and physiology (Ratey, 2001, p. 223).

Answers

16. Mary Rothbart 17. Chess, Thomas 18. Temperament 19. goodness of fit 20. biological

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Lise Eliot (2000, p. 291) captured the enigmatic nature of emotion when she commented: Each child is born with his or her own unique emotional makeup, what we often refer to as temperament. But this innate bent is then acted upon by the unique environment in which children are rearedby parents, siblings, peers, and other caregivers . . . and by the forms of emotional display and social interactions they see modeled by those around them. From this mix of genes and experience comes a one-of-a-kind individual with a unique emotional disposition.

Defining Emotion
But what do we mean by emotion? Although philosophers and psychologists have trembled at the thought of defining emotion for almost as long as attempts have been made, the following definition hints at what underlies this emotional (!) term. For our purpose, well define emotion as follows: Emotion is a feeling(s) and its distinctive thoughts, psychological and biological states, and range of propensities to act. (Goleman, 1995, p. 289) Goleman then goes on to ask the controversial question: Is it possible to classify the basic emotions? Answering his own question, he proposes several fundamental families of emotion, together with representative members of each family.

Anger: fury, resentment, animosity. Sadness: grief, sorrow, gloom, melancholy. Fear: nervousness, apprehension, dread, fright. Enjoyment: happiness, joy, bliss, delight. Love: acceptance, trust, devotion, adoration. Surprise: shock, astonishment, amazement, wonder. Shame: guilt, embarassment, mortification, humiliation.

Although you may disagree with Golemanwhat about blends such as jealousy? efforts such as these undoubtedly will continue since Paul Ekmans discovery that specific facial expressions for fear, anger, sadness, and enjoyment are recognized by people of all cultures around the world, thus suggesting their universality (Ekman & Davidson, 1994). Once Ekman stated that emotions evolved for their adaptive value in dealing with fundamental life tasks and identified four of these emotions, the stage was set and the task was identified: Link these fundamental tasks with basic emotions.

Role of Emotions in Development

As you read about the impact of attachment and early relationships on psychosocial development, you can understand how a childs emotional life is also affected. For example, considering the path of early emotional development, Emde (1998) identifies several reasons that testify to the importance of emotions

Healthy emotional development helps children to define their personal individuality. For example, in the goodness-of-fit work we examined, Chess and Thomas (1999) constantly returned to the theme of consistency. When consistencyeither of environment or individualis lacking, there exists a real possibility that goodness of fit may shift to poorness of fit. Emde states that positive emotions produce the consistency that helps to establish those boundaries for sensitivity and responsiveness that help children to feel right about their relations with the world. During the infancy years, emotions generate adaptive functions that help to define the meaning of a childs experiences. For example, infants emotions

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motivate them to either approach or withdraw from situations and to communicate their needs to those around them. When others respond, infants learn about social exchanges, which furthers their social development. These emotional interchanges help to explain why emotions are often referred to as the language of infancy (Emde, 1998). Research has shown that from the first days after birth infants are sensitive to the quality and the discernible features of an emotional signal. To understand these early behaviors, we must carefully consider cultural differences in any attempt to interpret emotional communication. Appropriate emotions and behavior are heavily weighted with cultural values. For example, in a study of Asian and American children, Cole, Bruschi, and Tamang (2002) found appreciable differences in emotional expression. As one illustration, children from the United States expressed their anger more openly than did the children from the other cultures. The Asian children understood that one can feel differently than one reveals. Lets now attempt to discover how emotions develop. In examining the manifestation of the various emotions, we must remember that different responses may be made to any one emotion. A smile, for example, may signal joy, scorn, a social greeting or some other emotion (Saarni, Mumme, & Campos, 1998). Also, dfferent theorists may suggest slightly different schedules for the appearance of the various emotions, but the basic explanation of how they develop is identical. Emotional development occurs as the result of an infants dispositional tendencies combined with a complex interaction between growing cognitive skills and social interactions. Table 6.4 illustrates the timing of several emotions.

You would enjoy reading Daniel Golemans remarkably clear analysis of emotions, Emotional Intelligence (1995). New York: Bantam.

Emotion Regulation
But we also know that as humans we are able to exercise considerable emotion regulation in our lives. In the first year of life, infants gradually develop the ability to inhibit or minimize the duration and intensity of emotional reactions. Two phenomena seem to be involved: a set of processes related to the appearance of emotions, and a second set of processes involving the management or mismanagement of the generated emotions (Campos, Frankel, & Camras, 2004, p. 377). The topic of emotion regulation has recently attracted considerable attention both theoretical and researchin the psychological literature (see Eisenberg, 2006;

T A B L E 6.4

Timetable of Emotional Development

Age (Months) Birth3 36 69 912 1218 1824

Emotion Pleasure, distress, disgust Delight, wariness, anger Fear, anxiety, shyness, pleasure Stranger anxiety, separation anxiety Elation, security Shame, defiance

Features A range of emerging emotions from happiness to anger More specific responses to specific stimulation Emotions slowly becoming differentiated with increasing cognitive development Concentrated focus on main caregiver Feelings of security and well-being encourage exploration of environment Integration of emotional and cognitive features

Source: Izard, 1994; Kopp, 1993; Luby, 2000; Sroufe, 1979; Thies & Travers, 2001.

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Saarni et al., 2006). With renewed interest in the emotions themselves and their development, the concept of emotion regulation attempts to explain how and why emotions organize and facilitate other psychological processes (attention, problem solving, and so on) and also why they can exercise detrimental effects (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004, p. 317). As the authors cited above note, any psychological explanation of child development is suspect without recognizing the importance of emotions as motivators. One of the main problems in unraveling the complexity of emotion regulation is that of definition: What is an emotion? What is emotion regulation? Defined as biologically prepared capabilities that evolved and endured in humans because of their extraordinary value for survival (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004, p. 317), emotions can help us analyze situations and prepare ourselves to act. Emotion regulation, however, refers to changes associated with activated emotionsfor example, children control their anger (Cole, Martin, & Dennis, 2004). Two types of emotion regulation are possible: first, emotion as regulating, such as a child reducing anger by distraction or a childs obvious anxiety, which lessens parental punishment. The second type of emotion regulation involves recognizing that emotion can be regulated, such as reducing stress through self-soothing. (We urge you to review Child Development, 75[2], pp. 315394, for an excellent discussion of this topic.)

Analyzing Emotional Expressions

As children grow, the circumstances that elicit their emotions change radically; that is, the emotional experiences at different ages vary drastically. The amusement that a 6-month-old child shows when tickled by her mother is far different from a 16-year-olds amusement at a funny story told by a friend. We may label both amusement, but is the emotion the same? Remember also that complex new emotions appear as children grow. For example, as early as 2 or 3 years of age, children begin to display shame, guilt, and jealousy (Volling, McElwain, & Miller, 2002). These new emotions emerge from a childs increasing cognitive maturity, and, as they do, they have a strong influence on self-esteem (Dunn, 1994). For example, embarassment or shame at giving a wrong answer in school may weaken a childs sense of competence. Childrens emotional competence is a good predictor of later social competence (Denham et al., 2003). As emotions appear, children must grapple with the issue of regulating them. Impulse control (see Chapter 10) becomes an important learning experience early in life, strongly influenced by a childs temperament and how the environment (family, school, peers) reacts to emotional outbursts. We see here once again the importance of recognizing how biopsychosocial interactions affect behavior. Emotional development seems to move from the general (positive versus negative emotions) to the specificgeneral positive states differentiate into such emotions as joy and interest; general negative states differentiate into fear, disgust, or anger. These primary emotions emerge during the first 6 months. Sometime after 18 months of age (recall Piagets explanation of cognitive development), secondary emotions appear that are associated with a childs growing cognitive capacity for self-awareness. For emotions such as embarrassment to appear, children must have developed a sense of self (Rothbart, 1994).

The Smile
One of the first signs of emotion is a babys smile, which most parents immediately interpret as a sign of happiness. Yet, as Sroufe (1995) notes, newborns smiles dont indicate pleasure in the sense that the smiles of older infants do. These smiles are usually designated as false smiles because they lack the emotional warmth of the true smile. By the babys third week, the human female voice elicits a brief, real

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This 3-month-old infant is responding to its mothers face by smiling. In these interactions we see the roots of a childs psychosocial development. How does smiling contribute to psychosocial development?

smile, and by the sixth week the beginnings of the true social smile appear, especially in response to the human face. Two-month-old infants are often described as smilers, whereas frequent and socially significant smiles emerge around 3 months (Kagan & Fox, 2006). Babies smile instinctively at facesreal or drawnand this probably reflects the human tendency to attend to patterns. Infants gradually learn that familiar faces usually mean pleasure, and smiling becomes a key element in securing positive reinforcement from those around the infant. Summarizing, then: Infants smile at any high-contrast stimuli and at the human beings around them, and they discover a relationship between their behavior and events in the external world. When infants smile, they elicit attention from those around them and begin to associate the human face with pleasure. As we conclude this chapter, we would like to emphasize that current research on emotional development reinforces the reciprocal interaction base of this book: Emotional expression appears immediately after birth, acquires definite meaning, and expands rapidly because of the socially interactive nature of emotional communication.

Guided Review
21. Emotions are particularly helpful in generating 23. functions. . 22. Positive emotional developmental helps children to define their own 24. A newborns smiles are not identified as 25. Inhibiting and minimizing emotional reactions is called smiles. . believes that each child is born with a unique emotional makeup.

Answers

CONCLUSION & SUMMARY

The role of relationships in development has achieved a prominent place in our attempts to understand childrens growth. From the initial contacts with the mother to the ever-expanding network of siblings and peers at all ages, childrens relationships exert a powerful and continuing influence on the direction of development. We are slowly acquiring data about the function of relationships. For example, we have seen how important and persistent are the first interactions with parents and how significant are temperament and attachment. The interaction of these forces affects future relationships and the nature of emotional development. Recent research has led to significant findings about the quality of relationships.

What is the role of relationships in psychosocial development?

Relationships involve almost all aspects of development. Infants, as active partners in their development, help to shape their relationships. To understand relationships, we must analyze and understand the reciprocal interactions involved. The development of social interactions seems to follow a definite schedule. Parents role expectations affect their relationships with their children.

21. adaptive 22. individuality 23. Eliot 24. social 25. emotion regulation

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How would you assess the importance of attachment in psychosocial development?

Bowlby and his colleagues, studying the separation of children from their parents, identified attachment as an important part of psychosocial development. Ainsworths strange situation technique is designed to assess the security of an infants attachment. Attachment is a cross-cultural phenomenon that knows no geographic boundary. Attachment develops early in life and offers clues to psychosocial development.

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The Adult Attachment Interview helps to assess the quality of a childs attachment. The issue of attachment to fathers has attracted considerable interest.

How does temperament affect the relationship between parents and their children?
Temperament refers to a childs unique way of interacting with the environment. An infants temperament immediately affects interactions with adults.

The work of Chess and Thomas helps us to understand the concept of goodness of fit. To maintain goodness of fit, parents must constantly adapt their parenting style to match the developmental changes in their children.

How do children develop and control their emotions?

The brain plays a major role in the development and appearance of emotions.

As emotional development occurs, children acquire a necessary degree of emotional regulation. Current research produced a schedule tracing the appearance of the various emotions. One of the first signs of emotional behavior is an infants smile.

KEY TERMS
Adult Attachment Interview (AAI) attachment autonomy difficult children easy children emotion regulation entrainment ethology goodness of fit New York Longitudinal Study reciprocal interactions sensitive responsiveness slow-to-warm-up children strange situation technique symmetry synchrony temperament

WHAT DO YOU THINK?

1. Have you achieved a grasp of the extent of an infants abilities: physical, social, and psychological? Do you think that infants are as we have described them in Chapters 5 and 6, or do you think that we have over or underestimated their competencies? 2. Depending on your answer to question 1, explain how you interpret an infants participation in developing relationships. That is, given an infants ability to smile, coo, and make physical responses, how much control do you believe infants exercise in their interactions with adults? 3. As you read about the resurgence of interest in emotional development, how did you react to the developmental schedules that were presented? Do you think that theorists and researchers possess the skill and knowledge to be able to accurately identify the appearance of specific emotions at specific times? 4. Although Mary Ainsworths research is the basis for our belief in the importance of attachment in social development, criticism has been directed at her studies because of the small number of subjects and the lack of consideration of the subjects temperaments. Do you think these are valid criticisms? Do they raise questions in your mind about the universality of her conclusions?

CHAPTER REVIEW TEST

1. An extended series of interactions doesnt necessarily imply a . a. relationship b. goodness of fit c. friendship d. communication 2. Which of the following statements is not in agreement with an understanding of psychosocial development? a. All children are temperamentally similar at birth. b. Children instantly tune into their environment. c. Children give clues to their personalities. d. Children, from birth, engage in reciprocal interactions.

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3. A true relationship has a. language aspects. b. cognitive aspects. c. physical aspects. d. all of these. 4. More sensitive mothers have infants who are more a. restless. b. nervous. c. detached. d. responsive. 5. Parents and infants both exercise control over the a. siblings. b. interactions. c. labeling. d. temperament. 6. What parents see as their affects parent-child relationships. a. interactions b. function c. background d. role 7. Childrens contribute significantly to their interactions with their environments. a. ages b. gender c. temperaments d. culture 8. Chess and Thomas described a child with a low intensity of reactions and a somewhat negative attitude as a. slow to warm-up. b. difficult. c. easy. d. depressed. 9. Constitutionally based individual differences are known as a. interactions. b. attachments. c. temperament. d. parental signposts.

10. The author of the strange situation test is a. Ainsworth. b. Bowlby. c. Brazelton. d. Kagan. 11. is a characteristic that identifies the rhythm that is established between a parents and an infants behavior. a. Synchrony b. Autonomy c. Entrainment d. Symmetry

a. b. c. d.

attention separation neglect habituation

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16. The true social smile appears at about months. a. 8 b. 6 c. 4 d. 3 17. Which is not a likely explanation of an infants smile? a. Infants smile at human beings around them. b. Infants smile at high-contrast stimuli. c. Infants smile at discovering a relationship between their behavior and external events. d. Infants smile at environmental noise. 18. Inhibiting or minimizing the intensity of emotional reactions is known as emotion a. guidance. b. latitude. c. regulation. d. short-circuiting. 19. Chess and Thomas believe that positive emotions produce a that leads to sensitive responsiveness. a. happiness b. memory c. consistency d. phase 20. One of the great adaptive values of emotions is that they feelings and shared experiences. a. communicate b. sublimate c. actualize d. repress

12. According to Bowlby, behavior is any form of behavior that results in a person attaining or maintaining proximity to some other clearly identified individual who is conceived as better able to cope with the world. a. detachment b. attachment c. protest d. emotional 13. Which statement is true? a. Only mothers have the potential to induce attachment. b. Fathers and mothers act quite differently with their infants. c. There is a sensitive period for parent-infant bonding. d. No sensitive period exists for parent-infant bonding. 14. The study of behavior in natural settings is known as a. ethology. b. physiology. c. anthropology. d. molecular biology. 15. Bowlbys work on attachment began to notice the behavior of infants who experienced from their mothers.

Answers

1. a 2. a 3. d 4. d 5. b 6. d 7. c 8. a 9. c 10. a 11. c 12. b 13. d 14. a 15. b 16. d 17. d 18. c 19. c 20. a