Semiconductor lasers

The active layer still consists of multiple quantum wells. The main difference is that the Bragg reflectors are at the top and bottom. They can be produced by the same techniques as the wells, and they can be made highly reflective. In the realization of Fig. 12.17 , the reflector at the top has a reflection coeffrcient very near to unity, whereas the reflection coefficient of the bottom reflector is somewhat smaller allowing the radiation to come through the transparent substrate. The area of the laser can now be made very small leading to even smaller threshold currents (<< 0. I mA). A further advantage is the ease with which arrays can be made. A two-dimensional array is shown in Fig. 12. 18, where each microlaser may work at the same wavelength (to produce a high output) or may be funed to different wavelengths.

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12.7.4 Quantum cascade lasers Before concluding the story of semiconductor lasers. it may be worth
mentioning a relative. the Quantum Clascade laser that does not quite belong to the family. The familv trait. as repeated many times. is the descent ofthe electron from the conduction band to the valence band and the subsequent emission of a photon, of one single photon. The Quantum Cascade laser. conceived in the early 1970s, is an erceptron. -\ll the things rhat matter happen in the conduction band. The basic principle of operation of the Quanrum Cascade laser is shown in Fig. 12.19. There are nLo semiconducior ntaterials. A and B, rvhich are alternately deposited upon each othcr (sav. one hundred of then'r) by Molecular Beam Epitaxy (Fig. 12.19). A is the active material ivhich has a conducrion band edge much belorv that of serniconductor B. Lasing action takes place betrveen energy levels I and 2. The rvavelength of the emitted light depends on AE, the difference between the two energy levels. There ts also a voltage applied across the whole sandwich. For simplicity let us assume that there is a voltage drop, Vg &crosS each piece of semiconductor B but none across semiconductor A and choose this voltage tcl be eVs. Let's start with an electron. on the left-hand end of Fig. 12.19, just entering from semiconductor B into semiconductorAat the energy level 2. It sees energy level I to be empty. Hence it descends from level 2 to level I by emitting a photon of frequency f : LE /h. But semiconductor B is designed to be thin enough so that electrons can tunnel through it ifthey find a convenient energy

Fig. 12.18
An array of VCSEL lasers.

Fig.12.19
Energy diagram for a Quanflrm Cascade laser.