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4.7. SHALL
Forms: Shall for present tense, all persons, should for past tense, conditional and subjunctive moods, all persons. Functions: Shall +infinitive can be an auxiliary or a modal verb: as an auxiliary, it is used in the 1 st person to indicate simple futurity, unstressed intention or normal expectation, and in the 2nd and 3rd persons to express determination, promise, command, compulsion (whereas will is considered to be used in the opposite way: to express simple futurity in the 2nd and 3rd persons, and one of the above conditions in the 1st person). *Nevertheless, in general usage, the rules are much more relaxed and frequent deviations can be noticed. Will appears to have gained ground at the expense of shall: Tomorrow I shall start working on my doctoral thesis. Next September I shall have been a teacher for 22 years. as a modal verb, it occurs in the epistemic and the deontic meaning. 4.7.1. EPISTEMIC SHALL By expressing simple futurity or prediction (as we have seen it does), with epistemic shall the speaker makes a present inference with a high degree of probability or expresses uncertainty about a potential case in relative clauses: He shall be mad about that. Ann shall be a student next fall. Permission to join the society will be granted only to persons who shall observe its regulations. Epistemically, shall also occurs in hypothetical condition or concession clauses: If you shall ever decide you want to do it, just let me know. Whoever shall come, we have to welcome him. Alternating in use with recurrency will, shall is felt as somehow obsolete: A self-centred, selfish person shall see no reason to worry about the sick and the poor. 4.7.2. DEONTIC SHALL The type of modality called deontic is based on the idea of will; will triggers action which is performed either by the speaker or by others. The latter has 2nd person subjects and is the most productive paradigm. Consequently, a distinction is made between internal volition, presupposing the coincidence of the person who wants something with the syntactic subject of the sentence, and external volition, implying a different person from the one who is the

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subject of the sentence. In its deontic use, shall expresses constraint, necessity or obligation imposed by the speaker. Internal volition, with the speaker as both origin and goal of the constraint, expressing his determination to perform a certain action (1st person resolutions with shall seem to be the result of deliberation or deeply rooted feeling, whereas with will they are sensed to be formed under the impression of the moment): I shall not give up my beliefs, not even for you. You can give him the loan and he shall pay you back in due time (I guarantee that, I make myself responsible for). External volition: with 2nd and 3rd person subjects, shall represents the speaker as determined to bring something about or prevent it: - in the 1st person, interrogative, it points to the interlocutors volition: Lets go now, shall we? What shall we do now? Shall I get you a cup of tea or something? - in the official style (rules, regulations, laws), expressing an intention of punishment: The penalty shall not exceed three years in prison. We shall not hear any of your nonsense. Any one of you who shall break the rule shall be sanctioned accordingly. - a threat in the 2nd/3rd person: He shall face us and shall hear what we have to say. They shall pay dearly for what they did. - a promise or assurance: You shant be sent to another unit. You shall have my full support. - after words expressing request, necessity, determination: Its for them to decide who shall come. We strongly request that no one shall leave the town without letting us know. - a command/commandment: You shall tell the truth! You shall not leave the room unless asked to do so. (prophetic shall) You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart, with all your soul, and with all your mind! (Mathew 22:37) - prohibitions (=must not): You shall not block the negotiations! You shall not talk to anybody! - to express the idea of destiny or an obligation independent of human will: What will be shall/will be. - logical necessity: Who will spend more than he should, shall not spend when he would. We shall take responsibility (=must).

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4.8. SHOULD
To analyse should as the past form of shall is to reduce to a minimum the large variety of shades of meaning and functions that characterizes it. Functions: Should can be an auxiliary or a modal verb: 1. as an auxiliary, should is used to form: a. future in the past and future perfect in the past, 1st person sg./pl.: I knew I should talk to him. We hoped we should have been back by six. b. conditional mood, 1st person sg./pl: I should go visit her if I were you. I should have told him hadnt I been so shy. c. subjunctive equivalent: Its vital that they should know about that. I avoided her eyes lest she should feel embarrassed. If he should make a decision, Ill let you know. That they should have known about it and not utter a word! How should I have imagined you would be so nuts. 2. as a modal verb, should is used with its epistemic or with its deontic meaning. 4.8.1. EPISTEMIC SHOULD With this meaning, it appears in sentences where the speaker expresses an inference, anticipating a probable occurrence, an expectation. This should is weaker than epistemic must. However, there is some contrast in distribution, with should the speaker making a deductive inference, unlike with must, which is apparently based on inductive inference: You must be out of your mind to do something like that /vs/ If they did something like that, then they should be out of their mind. He must be sleeping like a log not to hear the phone ringing /vs/ He should be out if he didnt hear the phone ringing. When compared with inference will, should is felt to be slightly less confident: If we go out on such a rainy weather, we will get wet through. Lets do it tomorrow, when the weather will/should be nicer. Should is used as a past counterpart of both futurity and modal shall. It is used in emotional utterances to state that the situation previously thought about, expected or not expected, has caused an emotional reaction of doubt, uncertainty, disbelief, approval or disapproval: It is unbelievable that he should turn/have turned up again after what he did. Its hardly likely

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that he should leave/have left without a word. I do not expect that he should ever grow up. *Notice that should occurs in the that-clause while the main one contains an emotional predicate which may be expressed by a verb, an adjective or a related noun: surprise, please, annoy, amaze; curious, natural, lucky, strange, improbable, unconceivable, etc. In such subjective that-clauses, should indicates a conflict between reality and what the speaker had believed/expected. In emotional questions, expressing surprise, indignation, joy: (Isnt it) surprising that they should be back so soon from their honeymoon?! (Isnt it) marvelous that everybody should have come to this celebration! How should I know about it? No one told me anything! What should he come here for? Who should that marvelous woman be? Why should she have destroyed the evidence? I opened the envelope and what should I find but her picture? 4.8.2. DEONTIC SHOULD Should can express several deontic nuances, the strong implication of obligation or necessity in shall/must/have to being less forceful. Should is used performatively when the speaker imposes the obligation (sometimes prescribed by the moral code or social norms: duty, civility, propriety, what is thought as good, correct, right, just, sensible, reasonable, etc. and, therefore, advisable) and nonperformatively when he only reports its existence: (I think) you should leave now. They shouldnt allow children to play unsupervised; its too dangerous. Close friends should stand by each other. When followed by the perfect infinitive of the complement verb, should indicates that a past duty or sensible activity was not performed, which causes criticism on the part of the speaker; shouldnt expresses the obligation not to have performed a certain activity: I should have stopped him from doing it. You shouldnt have been so unsympathetic. As a subjunctive equivalent, deontic should occurs in thatclauses after predicates expressing a constraint derived from someones volition, wish, desire; it is used after: Adjectives: imperative, important, necessary, essential, vital, (un)desirable, (un)wise, better, right, etc.; Verbs: desire, propose, suggest, insist, recommend, request, require. Command, urge, etc.; Nouns: wish, desire, etc.

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It is recommended that all applicants should read the instructions before filling in the forms. I insist that we should talk it through before letting them know. It is your fathers last wish that you should marry Jane. He urged that the conference should be held in Romania. *Notice that the American subjunctive is should-less: It is necessary that you be there in time. Should also appears in clauses of consequence introduced by that: Who are you that you should judge another? What has she done that we should treat her like that? Should is sometimes used in purpose clauses (as an alternative of could/would) and in expressions of fear/anxiety after lest/in case: He spoke in a loud voice so that the audience should/could/would hear him. We tiptoed for fear/lest he should hear us. 4.8.3. SHOULD IN INDIRECT SPEECH ACTS Suggestions and hints: Should I warn him about it? Shouldnt you be there already? Offers and invitations: Should I get you something to eat? Should we dine out tonight? Requests for instructions, advice, orders: Should I mix the ingredients now or after they have been kept in the fridge? Should I take the pills between meals? Recommendations, advice (notice that with had better the advice is immediate, whereas with should it is more general): You should give up coffee if you know your blood pressure is too high. Disapproval, reprimand: You shouldnt use such foul words. Expressions of disbelief or surprise: How strange that they should meet again after twenty years. Expressions of doubt, uncertainty, perplexity: Could it be true that she should have been hiding for such a long time?

4.8.4. EXERCISES Meanings and Uses of SHALL/SHOULD 1. Name the various concepts expressed by shall in the following sentences; add your examples: We shall arrive tomorrow by the 3 p.m. train. Shall we be back in time for tea? He said I was not to go, but I certainly shall. He says he wont go, but I say he shall. Shall the boy wait? Ships shall not sail out of the harbour without carrying three lights. Old traditions and
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customs shall not die! Who shall describe their surprise? You shant have any of these! You shall pay for everything you did to her! If he comes I shall speak to him. All the scientific papers shall be completed by the end of the semester. Whatever he shall do, we have to stand by him. You shall love and comfort and cherish him till death tears you apart. Thou shalt not kill; thou shalt not steal. Who will marry in haste shall repent at leisure. This book is sold condition that it shall not be lent, resold or hired out without the publishers consent. What shall I tell him now? 2. Name the various concepts expressed by should in the following sentences; add your examples: I shouldnt have believed it if I hadnt seen it with my own eyes. How about your boyfriend? Shouldnt he be here with you? Why should you be different from the rest of them? How should I know that if no one tells me anything? Its very strange that he should have asked you to move in with him because I know he is married. You should mind your own business instead of sticking your nose where it doesnt belong. The match should be over by now, so I think they will soon be home; we should have dinner after all. Should it be wet, I should stay at home. Who is he that he should order people round? Should I talk to him and explain your situation? Can it be true that she should have left her husband and children for her tennis coach? The guests should be coming any minute now. They shouldnt have phoned because we were expecting them anyway. 3. Translate, do not forget to use the two modals and name the concepts expressed by them: Venim maine cu trenul de 5:30. Ce sa fac ca sa-i fiu pe plac? Sa inteleg ca proiectul nostrum nu te atrage? Iti spun eu ca am sa bat recordul la viteza maine. Are s-o faca daca ii spun eu. Acest regulament ramane in vigoare pana in septembrie. Daca te incapatanezi sa lasi ocaziile sa treaca pe langa tine, vei avea doar de pierdut. Accidentele se intampla. Permisiunea de a parasi cladirea se va acorda doar persoanelor care au buletinul asupra lor. Oricine ar veni in seara asta, spune-i ca nu sunt in dispozitie de oaspeti. O persoana aroganta ca el nu va avea nicicand aproape de inima interesul public. De unde sa stiu eu ce avea el sa faca dupa ce s-a intalnit cu tine? Daca a spus asa ceva, trebuie ca are toate datele. Stiam ca il voi revedea intr-o zi. L-a amenintat ca nu va capata nici o zi libera daca nu munceste cu tragere de inima. De ce-ai fi nemultumit de viata pe care o duci? E de necrezut ca a publicat articolul fara acordul persoanei intervievate. E absolut firesc ca el sa nu nege ce a facut. Daca s-ar intampla sa dau peste articolul de care ai nevoie, am sa te anunt. Nu e minunat ca sunteti impreuna si puteti sa sarbatoriti nunta fiului vostru! Ce-a facut ca sa-l tratezi cum ai facut-o?

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4. Make sentences and use shall and should as part of a subjunctive equivalent. 5. Use shall and should in indirect speech acts.

Modalization