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1) Sewage Characteristics
Sewage is characterized in terms of its physical, chemical and biological composition. The main physical, chemical and biological constituents of domestic sewage may be summarized as follows:
Physical Properties :
Colour, Odor, Solids, Temperature
Chemical Constituents :
Organic - Carbohydrates, Fats, Oil, Grease, Proteins, and Surfactants Inorganic - pH, Chlorides, Citrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur Gases - Hydrogen Culphide, Methane, Oxygen
Treatment methods in which the removal or conversion of pollutants by the addition of chemicals or by chemical reactions are known as Chemical Unit Processes. These include precipitation, adsorption and disinfection.
Oxidation Pond
Sewage Preliminary inflow Treatment screening grit removal grease tank pre-aeration flow measurement flow balancing
effluent discharge
removal of removal of rags, settleable and rubbish, grit, oil, floatable grease materials
biological and biological treatment chemical to remove organic treatment to and suspended remove nutrients solids and pathogens
Table 1 Major Biological Sewage Treatment Processes Aerobic Processes Suspended Growth Activated Sludge - plug flow - complete mix - sequencing batch reactor - extended aeration * - oxidation ditch * - deep shaft * -Aerated Lagoons * Attached Growth Trickling Filters Combines low rate high rate * Rotating Biological Contactors * Submerged Biological Contactors *
Anaerobic Process
Expanded Bed Pond Processes Aerobic Stabilization (Oxidation) Facultative Anaerobic * Systems used in Malaysia. Activated sludge, aerated lagoons, rotating biological contactors and trickling filters are the treatment systems most commonly used.
Table 2: Commonly Used Treatment Systems for Small Communities Individual Septic Tanks Communal Septic Tanks Imhoff Tanks
Primary Treatment
Package (pre fabricated) Plants - activated sludge systems - sequencing batch reactors - contact stabilization - rotating biological contactors Secondary Treatment Individually Designed Plants - activated sludge systems (most popular) - oxidation ponds - sequencing batch reactors - rotating biological contactors - trickling filter - facultation lagoons - aerated lagoons
The use of package plants will be strictly controlled to ensure their long-term viability. In urban
areas Individual Septic Tanks (IST), Communal Septic Tanks (CST) and Imhoff Tanks (IT) will be phased out.
3,635
433,573
The trend will be moving towards "mechanical plants" such as Extended Aeration (EA), Oxidation Ditch (OD), Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC), Sequenced Batch Reactors (SBR) and Trickling Filters. Careful management of this change will ensure the future of Malaysia's public sewerage systems. Domestic sewage treatment is mainly designed to produce an effluent low in solids and organic. However, other treatments, which remove the nutrients alter the pH or disinfect the effluent may be added depending on the receiving environment for the effluent. Standards have been established for the quality of effluent discharged from treatment plants to receiving waters. These take the form of acceptable upper limits for various effluent contaminants. Effluents from treatment plants are regularly sampled and tested in laboratories to ensure that these standards are being met and that treatment plants are being operated correctly.
Effluent from Sewage Treatment Plant (STP) must meet standard A if there is water intake downstream of discharge point. Otherwise, standard B is sufficient. These standard was set by Department of Environment DOE)
Parameter
Unit
Standards A 40 6.0-9.0 20 50 50 0.005 0.01 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 0.20 1.0 1.0 1.0 0.001 1.0 0.50 Not Detectable B 40 5.5-9.0 50 100 100 0.05 0.02 0.05 0.10 0.10 0.5 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 4.0 5.0 1.0 2.0 0.5 10.0
Temperature pH Value BOD5 at 20C COD Suspended Solids Mercury Cadmium Chromium, Hexavalent Arsenic Cyanide Lead Chromium, Trivalent Copper Manganese Nickel Tin Zinc Boron Iron (Fe) Phenol Free Chlorine Sulphide Oil and Grease
C mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l mg/l
The pollutants in sewage are measured in order to better understand and thus facilitate the treatment of sewage as well as to examine the effects of effluent or treated sewage on the environment. Effluent from all public sewage treatment plants is sampled at regular intervals and tested in modern laboratories to ensure that it meets the required standards. Tests are carried out as part of a monitoring programme in keeping with Indah Water's operational license conditions and to ensure the efficient operation of treatment processes. This provides for a cleaner and safer environment that improves the living conditions of Malaysians. The two most important parameters measured are Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Suspended Solids (SS). BOD is a measure of the amount of oxygen that sewage consumes over a given time. High BOD is significant because it means that sewage will rapidly consume all the naturallydissolved oxygen in streams, rivers and lakes, thus killing off all aquatic life, and rendering the water septic and foul-smelling. SS is a measure of the undissolved material in sewage. High SS leads to sludge deposits in the waterways, thus causing significant environmental deterioration. Effluent that is discharged upstream of a water supply intake should meet Standard A, while effluent that is discharged downstream has to meet Standard B. These standards are set by the Environmental Quality Act 1974. Standard A B BOD (mg/L) 20 50 SS (mg/L) 50 100
Type of Establishment Residential Commercial Educational Institutions - Day Schools - Residential Schools Hospitals Hotels Factories Market (Wet Type) Market (Dry Type) Petrol Stations Bus Terminal Taxi Terminal Mosque Church or Temple Stadium Swimming Pool or Sports Complex Public Toilet Airport Airport Laundry Prison Golf Course
0.2 per student 1 per student (residential) 4 per bed 4 per room 0.3 per employee 3 per stall 1 per stall 18 per service bay 4 per bus bay 4 per taxi bay 0.5 per person 0.2 per person 0.2 per person 0.5 per person 16 per WC (water closet) 0.2 per passenger/day 0.3 per employee 10 per machine 1 per person 20 per hole
The PE may be converted to a flow rate using a simple formula such as set out in Malaysian Standards 1228 (MS1228).
Water Cycle ( note the suggested location of WTP and the STP.... Why? )
200-400
200-350
20-100 30-150
50 100
Sewage from the connected premises enters the sedimentation tank where settlement of solids occurs. Heavier solids settle at the bottom of the tank as sludge. Liquid effluent from the sedimentation tank then trickles through a rock filter bed. The sedimentation tank needs to be desludged regularly. Organisms living in the rock filter feed on the sewage, treating it in the process. Treated effluent is collected and discharged into a nearby drain. Usually, the sedimentation process in the upper chamber is followed by percolating effluent over a coarse stone media before discharge to a receiving water. ITs are normally used to service small communities up to a population equivalent (PE) of 1,000. They are relatively cheap to install, operate and maintain. However, ITs, like ISTs, only partially treat sewage. The effluent from these tanks will not meet the environmental requirements of the Department of Environment (DOE). Small package treatment plants have more recently sur-planted ITs as the popular method of servicing small communities. Typical figures for ITs are as follows: (note the BOD of effluent is still so high)
(mg/L) Raw Sewage Effluent DOE B Standard
200-400
200-350
50-150 30-150
50 100
/MECHANICAL
SEWAGE
Commercially available prefabricated treatment plants known as "package plants" are often used to serve small communities up to population equivalent (PE) of 5,000. Package plants require little design work and can be installed quickly although they require the same operational and maintenance care as conventional treatment plants. Claims that package plants produce no sludge is incorrect.Care must be taken in using package plants where large variations in flow (hydraulic shock are experienced), in addition adequate provision must be made for sludge removal, scum and grease removal and the proper control of air supply. The most common types of package plants use Extended Aeration, Contact Stabilisation, BioFilter, Sequenced Batch Reactors and Rotating Biological Contactor processes.
The performance of package plants can be improved by sizing the components conservatively. In general, the careful selection of the right process should lead to an adequate plant for small isolated communities requiring sewage treatment. A plant such as the one using an "Extended Aeration Activated Sludge" process should produce a good effluent quality, have low sludge yield and be easy to operate. There are now a large number of package plants in the market using a variety of equipment. Uncontrolled selection of plants can lead to problems with operational knowledge and supply of spare parts. Hence, some form of regulation for the use of these plants will be employed to ensure overall industry efficiency. Further, market forces have driven the manufactures to make optimistic claims for the treatment capacity of small package plants, leading to plants designed in the high rate activated sludge mode in order to reduce the capital cost of construction. This often leads to high operational, maintenance and operator costs due to the need for high operator involvement to keep the plants running within the design parameters.
Aerated Lagoons are relatively simple plants to operate and maintain. However, they require large land areas and are therefore rarely found in densely populated urban areas. The AL process normally comprises two or three lagoons in a sequence. The first lagoon has surface aerators, which are like large "paddle mixers". The aerators float on the surface of the pond and continuously stir the incoming sewage, serving to maintain oxygen content in the sewage and preventing any solids from settling. Sewage has an average retention in the first pond of five days. During this time, bacteria consumed the oxygen to breaking down the organic material in the sewage. Effluent is passed into the second pond where the degraded organic matter and sediments are settle out to form sludge. The effluent may then pass to a third pond for polishing or be discharged to a receiving waterway. The average retention time in the second pond is one day. Care must be taken in managing the settling pond in warm climates. These ponds can suffer from algal growth and/or odour generated by anaerobic digestion of the sludge at the bottom of the pond. Depending upon their design these ponds must be desludged approximately every 10 years. Typical figures for effluent of ALs are as follows:
(mg/L) Raw Sewage Effluent DOE Standard B
200-400 200-350
20-80 40-100
50 100
Fine Bubble Diffused Air Extended Aeration Systems (FBDAEA) are mechanical secondary treatment systems. FBDAEA systems are robust and can withstand surges in hydraulic or organic load. To breakdown the organic material in sewage, bacteria require oxygen. This may be introduced by agitation (using surface aerators) or by submerged "diffusers". As the name implies FBDAEA systems introduce air in the form of fine bubbles through submerged diffusers. Fine bubbles promote higher oxygen transfer efficiency and are therefore used in preference to coarse bubbles. Sewage entering a plant in passed through primary treatment where coarse material and grit is removed. The sewage then passes to secondary treatment in the form of any aeration tank where it is injected with fine bubbles of air from submerged diffusers. Solids in the sewage are held in suspension by the bubbles and bacteria in the sewage break down organic materials. Sewage is held in the aeration tank between 18-24 hours. The effluent with suspended material is then passed into a "clarifier" (sedimentation tank) where the material settles as a sludge. The sludge is drawn off with some being returned to the aeration tank to ensure enough bacteria are present in the tank to continue the process of breaking down newly introduced sewage. The effluent is then polished and/or discharged to the receiving environment. Typical values for FBDAEA plants are as follows:(note the BOD of effluent is very low)
(mg/L) Raw Sewage Effluent DOE A Standard
200-400
200-350
10-30 15-40
20 50
FBDAEA systems can consistently produce a high quantity effluent. By monitoring the influent and effluent, the activity in the aeration tank can be adjusted to cater for variations in hydraulic or organic load. These plants only require moderate areas of land. There are currently approximately 60 extended aeration systems in Malaysia and this is expected to significantly increase to some 200 plants as older systems are phased out.
The Oxidation Ditch (OD) is a modified form of the activated sludge system. Oxidation ditches are mechanical secondary treatment systems which are tolerant of variations in hydraulic and organic loads. The OD consists of a "ring or oval shaped channel" equipped with mechanical aeration devices. Screened wastewater, which enters the ditch is aerated and circulated. ODs typically have long detention times and are capable of removing between 75% and 95% of the Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD).The proprietary "Orbal System" uses three channels or ditches concentrically placed. Each channel is independently aerated and can be configured to act in parallel or series with the other channels, depending upon the degree of treatment required. After screening and grit removal, sewage enters the outer channel where most of the biological reaction takes place. The second channel is held at a slightly higher dissolved oxygen content for further BOD and nutrient reduction. The innermost channel is used for polishing the effluent before it passes to a clarifier. Typical figures for ODs are as follows:
(mg/L) Raw Sewage Effluent DOE A Standard
200-400
200-350
10-30 15-40
20 50
The ODs can be easily adjusted to meet most combinations of incoming sewage and effluent standards. This system achieves both high BOD reduction and some nutrient removal. ODs require more land than other processes but can be cheaper to construct and operate. There are currently approximately 30 ODs in Malaysia. The new modified ODs in Malaysia are located in Sg. Besi - Kuala Lumpur, Bayan Baru - Penang and Cyberjaya.
Rotating Biological Contactors (RBCs) are mechanical secondary treatment systems, which are robust and capable of withstanding surges in organic load . RBC's were first installed in Germany in 1960 and have since been developed and refined into a reliable operating unit. Sewage entering a plant is passed through primary treatment where coarse material and grit is removed. The sewage then passes through one or more RBC units, which have historically been built in a variety of configurations. An RBC unit comprises a series of closely spaced "circular disks" normally made from a plastic material. The disks are partially submerged in the sewage and are slowly rotated through it. The rotating disks support the growth of bacteria and micro-organisms present in the sewage, which breakdown and stabilise organic pollutants. To be successful, micro-organisms need both oxygen to live and food grow. Oxygen is obtained from the atmosphere as the disks rotate. As the micro-organisms grow, they build up on the media until they are sloughed off due to shear forces provided by the rotating discs in the sewage. Effluent from the RBC is then passed through final clarifiers where the micro-organisms in suspension settle as a sludge. The sludge is withdrawn from the clarifier for further treatment. The Submerged Biological Contactor (SBC) is the modified version of the conventional RBC where the disks are 80% -100% submerged and forced air is introduced. Typical values for RBC's are as follows:
(mg/L) Raw Sewage Effluent DOE A Standard
200-400
200-350
10-30 15-40
20 50
RBC units are suitable where land is restricted. They are quite and consistently produce a high quality effluent. Because they are modular they are also suitable for a staged development. Operations and maintenance costs are lower than for other forms of mechanical treatment. There are currently approximately 40 RBC plants in Malaysia
The first trickling filter was brought into operation in England in 1893. The modern trickling filter comprises a bed of highly permeable medium to which microorganisms are attached. Sewage is percolated or trickled through this media which is made from rocks (2cm to 10cm in size) or specially designed plastic. Rock beds are typically 2 meters deep and are circular. A revolving arm is used to distribute the sewage over the media. Plastic media varies in design with depths ranging from 4 to 12 meters depending upon the organic load. Filters under the media drain the effluent and biological solids, which have become detached from the media. Air is circulated back through the drainage system to the media. The effluent from the drain is settled before discharge to the receiving environment. Some effluent from the drain is recycled to dilute the strength of the incoming sewage and to ensure the media remain moist. As the effluent passes through the media organic material is absorbed onto the biological film or slime layer covering the media. Here is it degraded by aerobic micro-organisms. As the slime layer grows an anaerobic environment is created near the media interface. Eventually the micro-organisms at the media interface loose their ability to cling to the media and the slime is washed off. A slime layer begins to grow again and the cycle is repeated. Filters are classified by hydraulic or organic loading rates. Classifications are low rate, intermediate rate, high rate, super high rate and roughing. Re-circulation of filter effluent permits higher organic loadings in high rate filters. Typical figures for high rate trickling filter are as follows:(mg/L) Raw Sewage Effluent DOE A Standard
200-400
200-350
10-30 15-40
20 50
High rate trickling filters remove between 65% to 85% of the organic load. They are used where there is sufficient land available and where a quiet operation is required. They can sustain some variation is hydraulic or organic load
DEFINITION OF CONFINED SPACE (Department of Workers Safety & Health - JKKP(1) 04/98) A space, which: Is not intended as a regular work place i.e. continuous employee occupancy.
that an employee can bodily enter & perform assigned work and Is at atmospheric pressure during occupancy
contains material (solid or fluid substance) that has potential for engulfing an entrant has an internal configuration such that an entrant could be trapped or asphyxiated by
inwardly converging walls or by a floor, which slopes downwards and tapers to a smaller cross section or contains any other recognized serious safety or health hazards, e.g. rotors
CONFINED SPACES
Some examples of confined spaces are sewers, manholes, chambers, wet and dry wells, sewage and sludge tanks, septic tanks, tanker barrels, air filter houses, chemical storage tanks, tidal storage tanks, underground tanks and reservoirs. Audits and tunnels, pipelines, bore-holes, reaction surge vessels, boilers, road tankers and the like. Nearly all deaths involved in confined spaces are due to : suffocation due to lack of oxygen
poisoning caused by inhalation of toxic gases injuries caused by an explosion due to ignition of flammable gases
11) Ammonia
Ammoniacal Nitrogen (NH3)
It is component of nitrogen referred as ammoniacal nitrogen, which is adopted as an indicator to determine pollution by sewage. Other component of nitrogen includes organic nitrogen, Kjeldahl Nitrogen, Nitrate and Nitrite. It is a natural product of decay of organic nitrogen compounds and one of the many contaminants in water supplies. Ammoniacal Nitrogen is extremely soluble in water, reacting with water to produce ammonium hydroxide and one of the transient constituents in water as it is part of the nitrogen cycle, which is influenced by biological activity. The total nitrogen (TKN) content amounts to about 15% to 20% of the BOD5 in domestic effluent. Appended below is an approximate composition of medium strength domestic wastewater in terms of Nitrogen and its constituents.
Parameter Total Nitrogen Kjeldhal Nitrogen Ammonia Nitrogen Organic Nitrogen Nitrate Nitrite
mg/L 35 35 25 10 0 0
fertilizers for land and agricultural developments uncontrolled landfill leachate and land development untreated sewage from poultry farms, reverine squatters, surface runoff and washouts resulting from rainfall oil, sullage (wastewater) from bathrooms and kitchens municipal sewage treatment plant effluent
septic tanks, factories, makeshift and toilets at construction sites wastewater discharges from domestic, commercial, institutional and similar facilities wastewater and toxic chemicals discharges from different types of industries
Under anaerobic conditions, ammonia is oxidized to nitrite and further oxidized to nitrate through nitrification process. Under anoxic (without oxygen) conditions, nitrate formed is then converted to nitrogen gas with no oxygen present through denitrification. Excessive ammoniacal nitrogen in waterways can cause taste and (pungent) odor problems,
apart from introducing a psychological problem to consumers, who will be under the impression that the water source is contaminated with sewage, even though this is not the case. The self-purification capability of the waterways is an important concept. By understanding this concept, it will be clear as to why permissible limit of pollutants are discharged to the waterways. Otherwise, excessive discharges of pollutants will kill the natural waterways. Some of the methods used for ammoniacal nitrogen removal are air-stripping (volatilization of gaseous ammonia), breakpoint chlorination (adding chlorine to oxidize ammonia) or ion exchange (type of clay clinoptilolite for removal of ammonia). It can also be removed from water sources at the raw water intake point or in a wastewater treatment plant. The rate of removal of ammoniacal nitrogen is dependent on the self purification of the waterways/rivers, requirements of the effluent discharge or state of the art technology adopted by potable water treatment plants. Currently, there is no standard for ammoniacal nitrogen discharge and all existing sewage treatment plants in Malaysia are not designed for the removal of ammoniacal nitrogen. However, on the average, the public sewage treatment facilities comply to the stipulated Standard A and B requirements as follows:
Parameter Temperature (Celcius) pH Value Biological Demand Chemical Demand Suspended Solids Ammoniacal Nitrogen Oxygen Oxygen
The ammoniacal nitrogen in effluent discharged from sewage treatment plants is gradually diluted in the waterways and is reduced to a less toxic compound. One of the most critical sources of pollution is from septic tanks and pour flush lactrines. There are over 1.2 million septic tanks in Malaysia and only 30% are well maintained i.e. sludge is removed regularly from the tank. Many users of this system neglected their responsibility to ensure that the sludge is removed regularly. Hence, accumulated sludge pollutes the waterways.
Domestic Wastewater Treatment In The Ancient World > 3500 Before Common Era (BCE) To 500 Common Era (CE)
During the Neolithic period (10,000 BCE) movement by nomadic tribes addressed the waste created by human activities. This nomadic movement allowed the earth or the soils treat the waste. In the ancient world cultures or societies developed waste treatment technologies. These varied by the skills the various cultures developed. The City of Ur, by 3500 BCE, had an average population of 65,000 people per square mile (a high population density which produced considerable waste). The populace of the city dealt with their waste problem by simply sweeping their wastes into the streets. This caused the street levels to rise and would require, every so often the raising of house doors. These "[practices that were satisfactory in semi-permanent small villages were not necessarily suitable in an urban environment" (Savas, 1977:11). Nor are these practices acceptable today. We can compare this to cities of the Indus Valley (present day Pakistan) from about 2500 to 1500 BCE Some houses had bathrooms with water flushing toilets. They had well-designed drainage systems. Houses had rubbish chutes, and there were rubbish bins placed around the city for refuse disposal. This was a great leap in waste treatment. (Kahn, 2000:119; Savas, 1977:11). Moving back to the Mediterranean cultures, we see developments in waste treatment technologies. In the Egyptian city of Herakopolis (BCE 2100 ), the average person treated their wastes much like those in Ur, they threw the wastes into the streets. However, "in the elite and religious quarters, there was a deliberate effort made to remove all wastes, organic and inorganic to locations outside the living and/or communal areas, which usually meant the rivers." There is also religious teachings that dealt with waste. Mosaic law (BCE 1300) tells "to remove his own refuse and bury it in the earth." Nehemiah tells of rebuilding Jerusalem where there was a refuse gate where the city wastes were to be dumped. And the Talmud called for the streets of Jerusalem to be washed daily (Savas, 1977:12). The Minoan Culture on the Island of Crete between 1500-1700 BCE had a highly developed waste management system. They had very advanced plumbing and designed places to dispose of organic wastes. Knossos, the capital city, had a central courtyard with baths that were filled and emptied using terra-cotta pipes. This piping system is similar to techniques used today . They had flushing toilets, with wooden seats and an overhead reservoir. "Excavations reveal four large separate drainage systems that emptied into large sewers built of stone." The Minoan royals were the last group to use flushing toilets until the re-development of that technology in 1596 (Kahn, 2000: 119-120). The first 'dumps' was developed by the Greeks (Athens) circa 500 BCE In the development of waste management, Athens, in 320 BCE, passed the first known edict banning the disposal of refuse in the streets. In the continued development of waste management, by 300 BCE, one of the responsibilities of the Greek city-state was the removal of waste. "The expenses [for waste removal were] covered by levees on landowners. This system was sufficiently viable to last for eight hundred years, until the general breakdown of civic order"(Savas, 1977:13). In the use of water the early Greeks understood the relationship between water quality and general public health. This concern was passed onto the Romans. The Romans' waste treatment management practices were the most developed of any civilization prior to the nineteenth century. In fact, the Romans' waste management systems were better than those in the middle age. The Romans were very advanced technologically. We see the evidence of this in their buildings, roads, and aqueducts that are still standing and in some cases still in use. The Romans' concern for water is best illustrated in their aqueducts. They developed them to provide water to their cities. The water was used for baths, fountains, public conveniences, and for flushing sewers. The Romans were concerned with locating good water supplies, and they were concerned with obtaining pure water, as stressed by ancient
physicians and engineers (History of Technology Vol. II., 1956: 660-674). The early Roman Republic was concerned with the extension of the city's water supply, as well as the construction of aqueducts. In fact by 125 BCE, the city's water supply had been doubled to meet the rapid expansion (History of Technology Vol. II., 1956:670). The development of these aqueducts required engineering skills. What we must understand, is the aqueduct systems developed by the Romans were vast. In every part of their Empire they built aqueducts, and the majority of the systems were underground. What we see today is just the tip of the iceberg. As we have seen the Romans put the water to many uses. Particularly in Rome, they used the water to flush their sewers. "The Romans employed water-carrying devices to send most of their wastes to nearby the River Tiber via open sewers as early as the 6th century B.C.[E.]. By the 3rd Century, the sewers in Rome were vaulted underground networks called the Cloaca Mixima" (Burks & Minnis, 1994:1). These building projects continued and "by the 4th Century [C.E.], Rome had 11 public baths over 1300 public fountains, and 856 private baths. Not only were there private water-flushed toilets, there were public ones. In [C.E.], 315 Rome had 144 [public water-flushed toilets]" (Kahn, 2000:121). Even with all these advances and waste management, Rome was still an unhealthy city. Disposal of the sewage to the Tiber River and dumping wastes outside the city still caused health concerns (Savas, 1977:14). The fall of Rome, in the fifth century C.E., brought an end to plumbing development (Burks & Minnis, 1994:2). In fact "with the fall of the [Roman] Empire the lack of central authority and consequently of adequate public funds led to the decline of all public services. Their organization was left to private citizens or to municipal authorities. Only in certain large urban centers did even remnants of Roman systems survive" (History of Technology, Vol. II, 1956:689).
Domestic Wastewater Treatment In The Middle Ages > 500 Common Era (CE) To 1500 Common Era (CE)
The fall of the Roman Empire in the west turned an urban society into a rural one. "By 500 [C.E.], 'the taps were being turned off all over Europe; they would not be turned on again for nearly a thousand years: Sanitation technology entered its dark ages'" (Kahn, 2000:121). There was massive depopulation of Rome and most of the western Empire. The deurbanization of the west changed waste treatment. "The reduced population density, therefore, rendered traditional methods of waste disposal (tossing it out of the house) more viable" (Savas, 1974:14). Also, without monitoring the sewers and streets, hygienic conditions fell below the Imperial Roman Standards (History of Technology, Vol. II., 1956:689-690). This demise in sanitation brought back "the outhouse, open trenches, and the chamber pot ... at all levels of society" (Kahn, 2000:122). This loss of knowledge and hygienic practice brought many problems. During the middle ages, "the ages-old practice of separating drinking water and human wastes was largely abandoned, and human wastes could easily migrate from waste pits into wells. Epidemics raged in the cities, but the relationship between excrement and disease was not recognized" (Burks & Minnis, 1994:2). In the middle ages people simply threw their waste into the streets. "Open gutters in the middle of the streets carried refuse, while rain-water pouring from the roofs was not properly drained. The streets, seldom paved, were often mud-pools from which the excreta of pigs and other animals leaked into wells and private plots" (History of Technology Vol. II, 1956:690). The habits of rural life, which might be harmless on the farm, could and did prove to be fatal in the growing towns of Medieval Europe. Over time in the Medieval era, cities began to grow. The size of the city was determined by the walls; this increased the population density, and with people still practicing their rural habits, the potential for disease developed. In this period the rivers of the two major European cities, London and Paris, were open sewers (Savas, 1974:14 and Kahn, 2000:122-124). The sanitary conditions in medieval cities lead to rampant disease and death during the middle ages. The waste and excrement provided food for the rats, thus bringing disease-carrying ticks and fleas into human contact. "[D]iseases directly related to human wastes wiped out many hundreds of thousands of people in the Middle Ages. This included dysentery, typhus (which comes from bad sanitation and is highly contagious), and typhoid fever (from human feces and urine)" (Kahn, 2000:124). The conditions in medieval towns and cities as urbanization developed were very poor. The Greek and Roman concern with safe water was lost in this period. The technology to secure safe water was also lost. As the middle ages went on, changes did occur. Most of the water changes in water issues were speared-head by religious orders. "Near Milan, the Cistercians introduced the use of city refuse and sewer water as fertilizers on their land about 1150 C.E. (History of Technology Vol. II, 1956:681-690). Even during the unwashed period, "many abbeys in Britain had piped water before 1200 [C.E.]. The Christchurch Monastery at Canterbury, for example, had running water, purifying tanks, and wastewater drainage from toilets, and the monastery was spared from the
Black Plague in 1349" (Kahn, 2000:122). By the end of the 12th and the beginning of the 13th centuries, changes began to take place. Following the major plagues of the 12th century, waste management became a priority. In 1372 Edward the Third of England proclaimed that "throwing rushes, dung, refuse and other filth and harmful things into the [Thames] shall no longer be allowed" (Savas, 1974:15). Following this line, in 1388 an act of Parliament "forbade the throwing of filth and garbage into ditches, rivers, and water" And by the late 14th century London had an organized scavenger system (people would go around and pick up dead animals); yet "[u]ltimately , legislation and scavenging tended to be relatively ineffective. This was not, however, because of ignorance but rather because offenders and offended alike were unable to devise adequate alternatives to the available methods of collection and disposal. Moreover, except for those in heavily polluted areas, popular opinion was very much against such measures" (Savas, 1974:15-16, History of Technology Vol. II, 1956:691). During the Renaissance more concern was given to health and water issues. The cesspool was one of the technical developments of the Renaissance. It is a simple pit, which allowed solids to settle and the liquid to seep into the ground. Periodically, the cesspools would have to be cleaned out (Burks & Minnis, 1994:3). As the 15th century came to a close, there were other management changes that impacted sanitation. Henry the VI (England) established a Commission of Sewers, which "provided for severe penalties for the pollution of streams and made special provisions for the disposal of tanner and brewers wastes." Henry the VII outlawed slaughterhouses in cities or towns, because of the danger of disease for the people (Savas, 1974:16). There was a new awareness of the role that human and animal wastes played on human health by the end of the 15th century.