8

THERMAL INSULATION
Protection against external fire with thermal insulation can make the difference between a sustainable loss and a catastrophe. However, corrosion under wet thermal insulation can of ten be a route to a serious accident. Many cryogenic processing units have experienced process piping failures from external corrosion, particularly where the piping was in intermittent use. In 1989, a major chemical company replaced a Type 300 series steel column at a multimillion dollar cost, because of corrosion under wet thermal insulation (Pollack and Steely, 1990). These are but two examples of a phenomenon that is receiving increasing attention from safety review teams. Insulation may be applied to a surface to perform one or more functions such as temperature control (heat conservation or freeze protection), personnel protection, condensation prevention, or sound attenuation. The major process safety issues related to thermal insulation are: fire exposure protection of equipment and piping corrosion under wet insulation spontaneous ignition of insulation wet with flammable or combustible liquids This chapter will discuss how these process safety considerations are affected by the properties of insulation, such as thermal performance, moisture absorption, and fire resistance.

8.1 PROPERTIES OF THERMAL INSULATION

8.1.1 TIiermal Performance Insulation is used to prevent heat loss or gain for process control and it is often necessary for the protected process system to function properly. For example, if a process fluid condenses or freezes or vaporizes in a line, a hazardous condition may exist, such as overpressurization, loss of process control or runaway reaction. For calculating heat transfer rates and determining simple heat loss or gain, guidelines are published (ASTM, Standard C680). Computer programs are available to aid the engineer in selecting the optimum thickness based on a predetermined set of parameters such as energy costs, local usage rates and capital costs. Insulation is also applied to protect workers from injury; however, personnel protection is outside the scope of these Guidelines.

8.1.2 Absorption of Liquids Absorption of moisture or process liquids can lead to a hazardous condition, such as lowered thermal performance, corrosion under wet insulation or a fire if the absorbed liquid is flammable. Corrosion problems created by moisture absorption are so significant that they are discussed separately in Section 8.3. Thermal performance is impaired when the insulation material is wet. Moisture can enter insulation material through a break in the weather barrier, by a leak in steam trace tubing, or by a process leak in the insulated system. When the air spaces in insulation become filled with water or other liquid, the insulation's conductivity approaches that of the liquid. For example, the conductivity of water at 7O0F is 4.1 Btu in/fr hr compared to 0.17 for air. This makes the transmission of heat across each space approximately 24 times greater when saturated with water as when dry (Malloy 1969). While some insulation materials can regain thermal performance after being dried out, in others, such as calcium silicate, the moisture may never be completely driven away. Some insulation materials, such as some expanded perlites, may be treated with water repellents. If the liquid absorbed is a chemical product, it can create more problems than loss of thermal performance. Some chemicals can react with the resins or binders in the insulation to cause degradation. Combustibles and some flammable liquids, such as organic heat transfer fluids and other oils, may be absorbed in porous insulation and self-heat to the point of self-ignition (Britton 1991, Britton and Clem 1991). Test methods have been developed that can be used to determine the minimum spontaneous ignition temperature of liquid/insulation combinations involving isothermal heating of liquid-soaked cubes of insulation. Systems that are heat traced with a heat transfer fluid require additional precautions to prevent the fluid from leaking into the insulation. Generally, oversize insulation covers both piping and tracer. Since the tracing lines are hidden by the insulation, leaks may go undetected. Increased weight of wet insulation systems should be addressed in design of support structures, pipe racks, etc., since some insulation materials can absorb more than twice their dry weight in fluid. 8.1.3 Fire Safety Fire safety is related to three major properties of insulation: combustibility of the insulation itself combustibility of absorbed liquids integrity during fire For maximum safety, insulation should be noncombustible, nonabsorptive, and nonmelting. Insulation materials that increase the facility's combustibility

should be avoided. Avoid using plastic foam insulation materials of the polyisocyanurate type. Some plastic foam insulation materials that emit toxic gases when subjected to fire are prohibited in some locations. Insulation materials are tested according to ASTM E-84 for flame spread and smoke development. Insulation systems can be tested according to ASTM E-119 to determine their resistance to a slowly developing fire. The conditions specified in ASTM E-119 may not truly reflect fire exposure from burning highly flammable/combustible liquids, such as hydrocarbons. Other methods to test fire resistance have been developed (Britton and Clem 1991). Absorption of flammable material creates a fire hazard even when the insulation itself is noncombustible. Spontaneous insulation fires may occur when a combustible liquid leaks into porous insulation and reaches a temperature where runaway self-heating occurs (Britton 1991). The insulation provides a large contact surface for reaction and a lower heat loss environment, where the temperature will rise until autoignition occurs, usually only smoldering. However, sudden influx of air during efforts to remove the smoldering insulation is often the cause of a fire. Green and Dressel (1989) give an excellent introduction to the problem of heat transfer fluid fires. An option is to install nonabsorbing insulation, such as cellular glass for a short distance on both sides of locations (such as flanges) where leaks are likely to occur. Other options are to provide means to carry away leakage, or to eliminate the source of the leakage. The abilities to withstand high temperature exposure, combustion and smoke development are desirable qualities in an insulation system. Fire resistant insulation material will not only be fire safe; it will also provide fire protection for the insulated component. In this role, the insulation minimizes the heat transfer to the protected surface and minimizes the potential for failure of the equipment and subsequent release of fuel or hazardous materials. Fire resistance is an alternative to the use of other protective systems such as sprinklers or physical barriers to protect critical systems in the plant. As used in this chapter, fire protection and fire endurance refer to the ability of the insulation system to protect equipment from an external fire. Fire resistance refers to the ability of the material to resist transfer of heat from a fire to the other side. Resistance is defined by fire resistance ratings (consult NFPA15 and NFPA 251). Insulation used for fire protection is also covered in Chapter 16, Fire Protection. The fire envelope refers to the area where flame impinges on equipment or structures. API RP 520 and 521 define the "fire exposed area/' In addition to "fireproofing" the structure in these areas, it is considered appropriate to use fire resistive insulation systems on critical components in these areas, even though they may not contain flammable liquids. Fire protective insulation of electrical and instrumentation cabling can be important, since loss of power

or control signals can result in disablement of emergency response equipment and controls. Fire resistant thermal insulation may be used to protect vessels, critical equipment, and piping that is subject to exposure to external fire. The insulation serves to: Lower the rate of heat input and boiling of liquid inside piping and equipment. For nonreactive systems, this allows the use of a smaller pressure relief device and reduces the quantity of any hazardous effluent that might have to be handled and disposed of, and it allows additional time to evacuate the contents. Insulate heat-sensitive and/or reactive chemicals from excessive temperature rise. Protect the structural integrity of vessels and piping by limiting the maximum temperature of the outer wall, for example, the vessel wall in the vapor space, or the outer wall of a double-walled insulated vessel.

8.1.4 Fabrication Some insulation materials perform well thermally, but are difficult to fabricate; they do not form well to the substrate or to adjoining insulation sections, or shrink after application and leave gaps in the system. These gaps cause " hot spots" on the jacketing surface or cold spots on hot process temperature systems. Poor insulation fit-up and the resulting problems can be reduced if the chosen insulation material is fabricated to standard dimensions and is tested for linear shrinkage and dimensional stability at the conditions for which it is being specified. In addition, allowances should be made for the differential expansion between the pipe and the insulation. Determination of linear shrinkage and dimensional stability for high temperature insulation may be conducted using methods given in ASTM C356. Other ASTM guidelines address fabrication tolerances both in the manufacturers' shops and at the job site (ASTM C585) and various types and shapes of insulation covers. If the insulation is being fabricated at the job site, a quality assurance program is critical.

8.1.5 Durability If the insulation does not hold up well in service, the thermal performance and ultimately the safety of the whole system can be affected. Insulation that is crushed or torn may allow a heat flow path or expose the equipment or piping surface to outside elements such as fire, moisture or corrosive atmospheres. For example, if insulation is damaged on a high temperature line where

cabling or instrument tubing runs in close proximity, the tubing could become overheated and fail. Insulation is frequently damaged by foot traffic. It is strongly recommended that means of access such as catwalks or manlifts be provided wherever possible to allow maintenance of equipment without damaging the insulation. Excessive vibration affects both the insulation and the substrate. The substrate may also be subjected to wear by some insulation materials. Fiber-type insulation containing short fibers is prone to degradation from excessive vibration. In cellular glass and foam type insulation, wear is controlled by the application of an antiabrasive compound or a layer of fibrous insulation to the inside surface of the foam insulation before it is applied to the substrate. Antiabrasive coatings are available in solvent/resin types (good for low to moderate temperatures) and water-base types for use in higher temperatures.

8.2 SELECTION OF INSULATION SYSTEM MATERIALS

For optimum thermal performance, the selection of material is the key factor. However, the choice is not as simple as selecting the material with the lowest thermal conductivity. After materials engineers and piping designers have made preliminary choices of materials, the process engineer/safety engineer should look at safety issues of the system as a whole. Thermal insulation, usually as blocks orbatts, provides for thermal efficiency as well as fire protection. Cementitious materials, usually applied wet and activated by fire exposure can be used for fire protection when thermal efficiency in normal operations is not important. Wright and Fryer (1981) present a good summary of fire protection materials options. Insulation systems (including jacket, banding, and supports) commonly installed on piping and equipment for reactive chemical service for the purpose of fire protection should incorporate the following features: A noncombustible inorganic insulation material such as calcium silicate or cellular glass Double layer construction with all joints staggered High melting point jacketing Well-secured jacketing, typically by stainless steel bands. High melting point jacketing may be stainless steel or other lower cost jacketing materials developed as alternates. One such material is a sheet steel product with a coating of corrosion-resistant aluminum-zinc alloy applied by a continuous hot dipping process. ASTM C795 identifies requirements for insulation materials acceptable for use over austenitic stainless steel including corrosion testing and chemical analysis.

Insulation containing sodium silicate in high concentrations (relative to chloride ion) may be used to inhibit corrosion.

8.3 CORROSION UNDER WET THERMAL INSULATION

Corrosion under wet thermal insulation is recognized as a major problem. Corrosion is often the initiating event for loss of containment, fire, or explosion. Because the corrosion is hidden, it is usually not discovered until if s too late. Ironically, both the causes and methods of prevention are relatively simple and have been known for years. Selection of thermal insulation has become routine but potential for deficiencies in fabrication and installation still occurs. For example, a serious problem occurred on a multistoried column subjected to monthly testing of the firewater high pressure spray. The metal weather-jacketing system was not designed to be impenetrable to the upward spray of the system (Pollack and Steely 1990). 8.3.1 Contributing Factors Materials of construction for piping and equipment are usually selected based on the internal environment, that is, the process fluids they will contain. Selection of insulation also must consider the external environment, that is, vapors or fluids, such as rainfall, process fluids and corrosive gases, that may be absorbed by the insulation. The combination of physical and chemical factors in the environment will accelerate corrosion. .3.1.2 Service Temperature The primary temperature range for corrosion is probably 60 to 820C (140 to 18O0F). At higher temperatures, the corrosion rate is higher even though water is driven off faster. High temperatures can cause localized, very aggressive corrosion at points of evaporation. Corrosion occurs even at lower temperatures; Therefore, it needs to be considered at all service temperatures. 8.3.1.2 Intermittent and Cyclic Service (Temperature Transition) In high temperature systems when the water is driven from the insulation, salts collect and may result in very aggressive corrosion when the location is rewetted. In low temperature systems, thawing locations exist that typically stay wet, creating localized corrosion. Both thawing and vaporizing transition zones exist on vessel and pipe nozzles, clips, and skirts. Even on the body of a single piece of equipment, the temperature may range from below to above freezing, creating a temperature transition zone. Corrosion problems are intensified by the cyclical nature of process operations. Service cycles cause temperature cycles and temperature transition

zones. Many insulated items spend time in a down cycle, for maintenance or for other reasons. When the equipment cycles down, insulation that typically conserves heat can absorb moisture that corrodes the steel until the unit is again hot and drives the water off. Sometimes the process itself is cyclic, with frequent variations, and consequently the corrosion potential is greater. Since no insulation system can be considered completely waterproof, the surface beneath the insulation can be intermittently wet and dry At localized points of water intrusion or evaporation, the system is subject to severe, localized attack, due to concentration of salt upon evaporation. 8.3.1.3 Equipment Design In the past, equipment design typically assumed that vapor barriers would remain intact; they do not. New designs can include vapor barrier improvements to keep water out, and methods such as drains and vents to let moisture escape. Attachment of nozzles, clips, and insulation must be designed to control moisture into and out of the insulation. Certain designs contribute to especially corrosive situations. The location of vents and drains, along with faulty sealing methods, allow water entry (and often retention). Size reductions in towers create water trap potentials. Corrosion is likely to occur where fluids or salts could accumulate (Figure 8-1) such as: Attachments to piping and process equipment (e.g., support brackets). Piping and instrumentation connections, especially vertical segments. Unsealed or damaged jacketing (or removed for inspection) Low points, especially if jacketing is damaged above the low point. Bottom of absorbent insulation. Dead legs. On vertical equipment where support stiffener rings protrude outside insulation.

System designs must include proximity studies to assure insulation does not interfere with adjacent pipe, equipment, or structures. 8.3.1.4 Materials of Construction of Piping and Equipment Selection of materials, based on process considerations, has become fairly routine, as discussed in Chapters, Materials Selection. Materials known to be susceptible to corrosion are usually treated with appropriate coatings or insulation. However, the process engineer must critically analyze, and communicate to the materials engineer, any ambient conditions that might cause external corrosion. These ambient conditions include atmospheric conditions in the plant as well as the insulation material itself. Austenitic stainless steels are susceptible to stress corrosion cracking (SCC) (see Chapter 5, Material Selection, for more on SCC). This problem is most

PROBABLE CORROSION ZONE HEAD NOZZLES TOP PLATFORM SUPPORTS LIFTING LUGS DAVITS INSPECTION OPENINGS UNPREPARED PLATFORM, LADDER BRACKETS LARGE NOZZLE OR MANWAY INSULATION THICKNESS STIFFENER RING, EXPOSED STIFFENER RING, HIDDEN SUPPORT RING, OFF WALL

SMALLGUSSETTED CONNECTIONS VESSEL SUPPORT BRACKETS TRAPPED WATER

ON VESSEL PIPE BRACKETS, GUIDES

FIREPROOFING, VESSEL SUPPORT TRAPPED WATER PROBABLE CORROSION ZONI

Figure 8-1 Areas where corrosion under insulation is likely to occur.

prominent in process plants located in coastal areas and those producing chloride-containing chemicals. Some commonly used insulation materials contain a small amount of leachable chloride ion that might contribute to this type of corrosion if water is allowed to enter the insulation system. What is more important, chloride ions can enter the insulation system either from rain, water washdown of equipment, fire protection deluge water, or from chloride absorbed from the plant atmosphere. Abrasion-resistant coatings used on cellular glass insulation, labels, and paints are other potential sources of chloride ion that can induce SCC under insulation, as are polyvinyl chloride or other plastics containing chlorides. SCC is more likely to occur if the temperature of the stainless steel is between about 60 and 1210C (140 to 25O0F). Cycling temperature conditions appear to increase the potential for SCC, because water ingress and retention of the chlorides are more likely under these conditions. 8.3.1.5 Climate Proximity to airborne salt is the primary problem; plants on the sea coast are more prone to problems. The facility itself may provide a source of moisture and contaminants (such as cooling tower fallout areas). Olefins plants with

subambient conditions can result in condensation dripping which creates an unfavorable climate, especially when airborne salts can be washed from adjacent equipment into insulation. 8.3.1.6 Material Stress Conditions Residual stresses from fabrication are typically relieved by some sort of thermal stress relief. However, certain fabrication techniques leave steel in as-fabricated conditions. The cold bending of pipe for noncorrosive service (as defined by process material contained) reduces initial fabrication costs significantly for smaller (8 inch and under) diameter pipe, but leaves residual stresses that can cause galvanic attack of the outer diameter of the stressed part. Stainless steels typically have sufficient residual stresses from fabrication so that chlorides will cause severe cracking above 6O0C (14O0F).

8.3.2 Prevention of Corrosion The primary methods of preventing corrosion under wet insulation are preventing the entry of water into the system and protecting the surface of the piping or equipment. Since no insulation system can be presumed to be entirely waterproof, protective coatings are extremely important in preventing corrosion. Methods to reduce corrosion under insulation are also listed in Table 8-1. Additional methods of corrosion prevention are discussed in Chapter 5, Material Selection.

Table 8-1 Design Practices to Reduce Corrosion Under Insulation Incorporate the following corrosion prevention design measures. Avoid primary reliance on mastic seals and caulking as a weather barrier, both of which tend to dry with age and exposure to elevated temperatures. Weather-proofing jacketing should be designed such that natural runoff will occur. Nozzles, manways, ladder and lifting lug clips, platform angle iron mounts, bleeder valves, fittings, valves, etc., should be designed for all connections to be outside the insulation. Use insulating materials which contain low concentrations of chlorides or other contaminants that might induce SCC of stainless steel piping and equipment. Inspection ports which are designed for water-tight construction are available to allow for corrosion inspection of the substrate. To minimize galvanic corrosion, avoid direct contact between dissimilar metals by coating the parts with insulating coatings or petrolatum tape. Most insulating materials contain, or can absorb moisture in storage and installation. If a tight, impermeable weather barrier is installed over such insulation, and then placed in hot service, the moisture should be allowed to evaporate through release vents.

8.3.2.1 Preventing Entry of Water Installing and maintaining flashing and caulking at structural or piping penetrations of the insulation is used to prevent water ingress. The condition of the insulation sealant can determine whether corrosion occurs under the insulation. Hydroscopic insulation must be carefully maintained at joints. Although keeping water out is effective in preventing corrosion, it is very difficult to do consistently (ASTM 880). 5.3.2.2 Protective Coatings Corrosion problems are most prevalent on insulated steel surfaces operating in the temperature range of 60 to 1210C (140 to 25O0F). For this service, the immersion grade epoxy-phenolics and amine-cured coal tar epoxies are frequently used, depending on the operating temperature. Proper preparation of the surface is critical in determining how well the protective coating works. Surface preparation and protective coatings should be used on all stainless steel piping and equipment used in critical systems. For protecting insulated surfaces from 130 to 54O0C (270 to 1,00O0F), a NACE Publication (1989) describes coating systems and tapes that are chemically resistant to humid environments containing chlorides and sulfides. Although corrosion may be reduced at very low temperatures, it can be appreciable at intermediate temperatures in the range of -45 to 20C (-50 to 350F). For these temperatures, NACE provides recommendations for suitable coating materials as well as surface preparation and application methods required for reliable performance. Piping systems that run very hot are often not painted; intermittent service then leads to very high corrosion potential. Field construction welds are often made where the pipe was prepainted; these locations are often omitted when the rest of the system is painted, but corrosion attack at these locations can often be severe.

8.3.3 Inspection Programs Inspection programs to detect corrosion are an important feature of maintenance of insulation materials and the equipment. Dressel et al. (1991) describe nondestructive testing methods to look for corrosion. Design of the process system should facilitate inspection. Unfortunately, removal of insulation to inspect for corrosion may allow moisture to enter the system. To avoid repeated repair, removable and replaceable insulation should be used on items like valves, which require frequent (more than 6 times per year) maintenance (Britton and Clem 1991). The objective is to maintain the integrity of the insulation system to prevent entry of moisture.

Personnel exposure to hazardous components of insulation is a complex issue and beyond the scope of these Guidelines. OSHA and EPA regulations should be consulted.

8.4 REFERENCES 8.4.1 Regulations, Code of Practice, and Industry Standards The editions that were in effect when these Guidelines were written are indicated below. Because standards and codes are subject to revision, users are encouraged to apply only the most recent edition.
API RP 520. Sizing, Selection, and Installation of Pressure-Relieving Devices in Refineries. Part I1 Sizing and Selection, 5th ed. 1990. Part U, Installation, 3rd ed. 1988. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. API RP 521.1990. Guide for Pressure-Relieving and Depressuring Systems, 3rd ed. American Petroleum Institute. Washington, D.C. API Publ. 2218. 1988. Fireproofing Practices in Petroleum and Petrochemical Processing Plants. American Petroleum Institute, Washington, D.C. ASTM 165.1991. Standard Test Methods for Measuring Compressive Properties of Thermal Insulations. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C16.1991. Standard Test Method for Loading Refractory Brick at High Temperatures. Thermal Insulation Committee on Inservice Performance Limitations of Industrial Insulation Materials and Accessories, American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C356.1992. Standard Test Method for Linear Shrinkage of Preformed High-Temperature Thermal Insulation Subjected to Soaking Heat. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C450. 1988. Standard Practice for Prefabrication and Field Fabrication of Thermal Insulating Fitting Covers for NPS Piping, Vessel Lagging, and Dished Head Segments. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C585. 1990. Standard Practice for Inner and Outer Diameters of Rigid Thermal Insulation for Nominal Sizes of Pipe and Tubing (NPS System). American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadephia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C680.1989. Standard Practice for Determination of Heat Gain or Loss and the Surface Temperatures of Insulated Pipe and Equipment Systems by Use of a Computer Program. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTMC692.199Q.StandardTestMethodforEvaluatingtheInfluenceofThermd on the External Stress Corrosion Cracking Tendency ofAustenitic Steel. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C795.1989. Standard Specification for Wicking-Type Thermal Insulation for Use Over Austenitic Stainless Steel. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.

ASTM C871. 1989. Standard Test Methods for Chemical Analysis of Thermal Insulation Materials for Leachable Chloride, Fluoride, Silicate, and Sodium Ions. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C929.1988. Standard Practicefor Handling, Transporting, Shipping, Storage, Receiving and Application of Thermal Insulation Materials to be Used over Austenitic Stainless Steel. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM C1094. 1988. Standard Guide for Removable Insulation Covers. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM E84. 1991. Standard Test Method for Surface Burning Characteristics of Building Materials. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM E119. 1988. Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadephia, Pennsylvania. ASTM Special Technical Publication 789.1983. Thermal Insulations, Materials and Systemsfor Energy Conservation in the Eighties, F. A. Govan. American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. ASTM Special Technical Publication 880.1985. Corrosion of Metals under Thermal Insulation, Pollock, W. I. and J. M. Barnhart (eds.). American Society for Testing and Materials, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 29 CFR 1926.58. Occupational Safety and Health Administration. 40 CFR Part 61, Subparts A and B. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants (NESHAP). NFPA 15.1990. Standard for Water Spray Fixed Systems for Fire Protection. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts. NFPA 30. 1990. Flammable and Combustible Liquid Codes. National Fire Protection Association, Quincy, Massachusetts. NFPA 251. 1990. Standard Method of Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials. National Fire Protection Association. UL-1709. 1991. UL Standard for Safety. Rapid Rise Fire Tests of Protection Materials for Structural Steel, 1st ed. Underwriters Laboratories Inc., Northbrook, Illinois.

8.4.2 Specific References Britton, L. G. 1991. Spontaneous Fires in Insulation. Plant/Operations Progress, Vol. 10, No. 1 (January). Britton, L. G., and H. G. Clem. 1991. Include Safety in Insulation System Selection. Chemical Engineering Progress, Vol. 87, No. 11 (November) pp. 87-91. Dressel, M., G. Heinke, and U. Steinhoff. 1991. "Inspect for Maintenance with NDT Methods." Ammonia Plant and Related Facilities Safety. Vol. 31. (AIChE Technical Manual) American Institute of Chemical Engineering, New York. Green, R. L., and D. E. Dressel. 1989. Heat Transfer Fluid Fires and Their Prevention in Vapor Thermal Liquid Systems. AlChE Spring National Meeting, Paper 9D. American Institute of Chemical Engineering, New York. Malloy, J. F. 1969. Thermal Insulation. Van Nostrand Reinhold Co., New York.

NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers). 1989. A State-of-the-Art Report of Protection Coatings for Carbon Steel andAustenitic Stainless Steel Surfaces Under Thermal Insulation andCementitiousFireproofing. (Publication 6Hl 89) National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Task Groups T-6H-31 and T-5A-30, Houston, Texas. Pollock, W.I., and C.N. Steely, Eds. 1990. CORROSION/89 Symposium: Corrosion Under Wet Thermal Insulation: New Techniques for Solving Old Problems. New Orleans, Louisiana. National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Task Group T-5A-30 and Task Group T-6H-31, Houston, Texas. ISBN 1-877914-14-2. Wright, J.M., and K.C. Fryer. 1981. Alternative Fire Protection Systems for LPG Vessels. GASTECH 81 LNG/LPG Conference. Hamburg, Germany, October 20-23,1981. Gastech Ltd., Rickmansworth, Herts, U. K.

8.4.3 Suggested Reading

Buch, R. R., and D. H. Filsinger. 1985. Fire Hazard Assessment of Fluid-Soaked Thermal Insulation. 19th Annual AIChE Loss Prevention Symposium, p. 176. Houston, Texas, July 1985. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, New York. Harrison, M. 1982. Industrial Energy Conservation Manuals: No. U1 Thermal Insulation, Part II, Heating/Piping/Air Conditioning. MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Johnson, W. D. 1979. The Role of Thermal Insulation in Industrial Fires. Piping and Process Equipment, QuIy) pp.17. NACE (National Association of Corrosion Engineers). Corrosion Under Insulation. (Item #70075, Videotape) National Association of Corrosion Engineers, Houston, Texas.