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Ian Pavey outlines the dangers of static electricity in the pharmaceutical industry
HE pharmaceutical industry is particularly susceptible to electrostatic problems, and there is no doubt that static electricity costs the industry dearly in terms of production rates, yields and downtime across a wide range of operations. But when static leads to damage to plant, injury to personnel or even loss of life, the cost can be immeasurable. This article explains briefly where charge comes from and how it leads to fire and explosion hazards. With understanding comes logical solutions, so the article also explains the basics of a systematic approach to electrostatic-hazard assessment. Finally, there are some real case histories drawn from the pharmaceutical industry.
Process Sieving Pouring Scroll Feed Transfer Grinding Micronising Pneumatic Transfer
Charge:Mass Ratio (C/kg) 10-3 to 10-5 10-1 to 10-3 1 to 10-2 1 to 10-1 102 to 10-1 103 to 10-1
static-charge generation
The two most important ways in which unwanted electrostatic charge is acquired in industrial situations are induction and tribocharging. It is crucial that the principles of each are understood in order to recognise where charge may be produced an essential precursor to preventing it leading to fires and explosions.
tribo-charging
Whenever two different materials contact one another, electrons will cross the interface, making one negatively charged (excess electrons) and the other positively charged. If the two materials are good conductors (such as metals), all the exchanged charge will flow back through the last point of contact when they are separated. However, if at least one of the materials is a poor conductor, this will not happen and the charge that was exchanged during the contact will be retained on separation. It is important at this stage to dispel one very common misunderstanding. Only one of the two contacting materials must be a poor conductor for both to acquire charge.
Even if the good conductor is earthed, charge will still cross the interface and the poor conductor will still carry away charge when separated. The only difference is that the good conductors charge will be lost to earth almost instantly. All too often it is thought that earthing plant solves all electrostatic problems. The reality is that although earthing metal plant is vital, it is not the whole answer. The magnitude of charge acquired by tribo-charging depends on various factors but the more energetic the process, the greater will be the charge generated due to increases in contact area (solids) and separation rate (solids and liquids). Table 1 illustrates this with typical charge levels acquired by powders undergoing common processes1.
induction charging
All but the most insulating of materials can be charged to a greater or lesser degree by induction. When exposed to an electric field such as when in the vicinity of a charged object opposite charges within the material will tend to separate, either being attracted towards, or repelled from, the nearby charge. Any local excess of charge at a point of contact will then be conducted away, leaving a net charge. In order to clarify this point, a typical example of how this may occur in practice is shown in Figure 1. Figure 1(a) illustrates a person (a very good conductor) near a highly charged big bag (FIBC). The separated charges are shown, as is the negative charge lost by conduction via footwear and floor. Figure 1(b) shows the person now moved away from the vicinity of the FIBC, carrying a net charge leading to a discharge to the metal door handle
material assessments
Figure 1: Typical example of induction charging 28 www.tcetoday.com april 2011
Charge on a material is the result of the relative rates of charge generation and
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static discharges
Several types of electrostatic discharge have been identified, each with a characteristic discharge energy. Spark discharges occur between two conductors and dissipate energy, E, given by: E=CV2 where C is the capacitance of the conductor on which charge was stored, and V the voltage to which it was raised. Capacitance is dependent upon geometry and location, but simplistically increases with the size of the object. Assuming a potential of 10 kV (easily attainable) Table 2 shows capacitances and spark energies available from some common objects. Brush discharges occur from insulating surfaces. The energy in a brush discharge is relatively low, often below the limit of human perception. Nevertheless, brush discharges are quite capable of igniting most common flammable vapours and gases. Ignition of a dust cloud with a brush discharge has never been positively confirmed even under laboratory conditions, but it is still often considered prudent to assume it might be possible for the most sensitive of powders. Cone discharges are associated with insulating powders and granules accumulating in containers and silos, and
may be somewhat more energetic than brush discharges. Propagating brush discharges arise from highly charged, thin, insulating layers on a conductive substrate and can be extremely energetic. Corona discharges are low-energy discharges from sharp points, and are unlikely to ignite any but the most sensitive of gases, such as hydrogen.
carried out to determine the MIE of a powder in Chilworth Globals Industrial Explosion Hazards Laboratory.
there is no doubt that static electricity costs the industry dearly in terms of production rates, yields and downtime
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Explosion examples
example one: dust explosion sieving
Operators scooped powder into a sieve unit. The fine particles from the sieve dropped into a large, stainless-steel bin on asymmetric wheels. One day there was an explosion and fire in the bin. Fortunately the operators were unhurt and able to evacuate the room before returning to extinguish the fire. Following a detailed analysis of the incident and measurement of relevant variables an explanation was found. The bin was on insulating wheels. Although an earthing lead was provided it was not used. Simulation experiments demonstrated that the powder would be charged by sieving, leading to charge accumulation on the bin. Measurements also showed that a discharge from the bin would be more than capable of igniting the dust cloud that would have been inside. All the ingredients were there but why did the incident actually occur this time? It turned out that as the bin filled, the centre of gravity moved until it rocked forward about its larger central wheels. When placed in just the right (wrong!) position this caused it to contact the main body of the sieve, leading to a spark. To avoid dust in the room as a whole, the bin had been covered with a plastic sheet. This caused a concentrated dust cloud to escape where the sheet was draped over the sieve outlet exactly where the spark occurred on this one occasion. The solution, of course, was to ensure that the earth lead provided was used every time. the operators. Simulation experiments showed that 10 kV could be attained by the drum during emptying. Given its capacitance this meant that a 10 mJ spark could have been produced from the drum (or indeed from the operator), and it was concluded that one of these was the source of ignition. In this case a number of solutions were possible. The vessel could be inerted and double valves or flap valves used. However, probably the most important recommendations, whether or not the others were implemented, was to provide dissipative footwear and gloves for the operators and an earth clip for the drum.
particularly vulnerable to electrostatic hazards and problems. In the light of the foregoing discussion it is now possible to justify that statement. Plant is often necessarily operated under conditions of low humidity. For many materials this means that they are at their least conductive and, therefore, most susceptible to charge acquisition and retention. Materials are mostly organic, often chemically very active, and frequently milled to very fine particle sizes. Experience in Chilworth Globals test laboratory is that pharmaceutical products are among the most sensitive to ignition. In common with most other processes, ever higher speeds are required to maximise plant capacity and minimise cost. Higher transfer speeds and more energetic processes generally lead to higher levels of charge. The cleanliness and low cost of plastics as containers, liners for containers, liners for plant, or plant items means that their use has been increasing over many years. These, of course, are the very materials that will lead to many of the problems discussed. Floors (and walls) are often finished with materials suitable for washing down but with little thought to their conductivity. People and objects moving around on insulating floors have no means of dissipating charge and will become charged. Many of these problems arise in other industry sectors. However, few others bring them all together in the way the pharmaceutical industry does. The consequences can be graphically illustrated with a few real examples from Chilworth Globals archive of incident investigations. Some of the hazards are so obvious that with hindsight it is difficult to see how they could have been missed yet they were. Others require considerable insight even when the mechanism is explained.
conclusions
The pharmaceutical industry is particularly susceptible to electrostatic problems in general, and hazards in particular. However, a proper understanding of the relevant phenomena and appropriate physical property information allows a systematic approach to defining operational practices and plant design to minimise the risk. tce Ian Pavey (ipavey@chilworth.co.uk) is principal electrostatics specialist with the safety consultancy Chilworth Technology PD CLC/TR 50404:2003, Electrostatics Code of practice for the avoidance of hazards due to static electricity, BSI.
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