Conguration Aerodynamics - 1

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331, 2012

Conguration Variables" Lift"

Effects of shape, angle, and Mach number" Stall"

Description of Aircraft Conguration

Parasitic Drag"
Skin friction" Base drag"
Copyright 2012 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only. ! http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html ! http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html !

A Few Denitions "

Wing Planform Variables "

Aspect Ratio" Taper Ratio"

b AR = c =

rectangular wing bb b = cb S

any wing
Delta Wing"

ctip tip chord = croot root chord

Swept Trapezoidal Wing"

Rectangular Wing"

Republic F-84F"

Mean Aerodynamic Chord and Wing Center of Pressure "

Mean aerodynamic chord (m.a.c.) ~ mean geometric chord"
1 c = c 2 ( y ) dy S b 2 # 2& 1+ + =% ( croot $ 3' 1 +
2 b2

Medium to High Aspect Ratio Congurations "

Cessna 337! DeLaurier Ornithopter!
Vtakeoff = 82 km/h! hcruise = 15 ft! Vcruise = 144 mph! hcruise = 10 kft!

Schweizer 2-32!

[for trapezoidal wing]

Trapezoidal Wing"

Axial location of the wing s subsonic aerodynamic center (a.c.)"

Determine spanwise location of m.a.c." Assume that aerodynamic center is at 25% m.a.c."
Midchord ! line!

Mtypical = 75 mph! hmax = 35 kft! Mcruise = 0.84! hcruise = 35 kft!

Typical for subsonic aircraft"

Elliptical Wing"
from Raymer! from Sunderland!

Boeing 777-300!

Low Aspect Ratio Congurations "

North American A-5A Vigilante"

Variable Aspect Ratio Congurations "

North American B-1! General Dynamics F-111!

Mmax = 2! hceiling = 52 kft! Mmax = 1.25! hceiling = 53 kft!

Typical for supersonic aircraft"

Lockheed F-104 Starghter"

Mcruise = 1.4! hcreiling= 50 kft!

Mmax = 2.5! hceiling = 65 kft!

Mcruise = 0.9! Mmax = 1.25! hcruise = 50 kft!

Aerodynamic efciency at sub- and supersonic speeds"

Sweep Effect on Thickness Ratio "

Reconnaissance Aircraft "

Lockheed U-2 (ER-2)" Lockheed SR-71 Trainer"

Grumman F-14!

Vcruise = 375 kt! hcruise = 70 kft! Mcruise = 3! hcruise = 85 kft!

from Asselin!

Subsonic, high-altitude ight"

Supersonic, high-altitude ight"

Uninhabited Air Vehicles "

Northrop-Grumman/Ryan Global Hawk" General Atomics Predator"

Stealth and Small UAVs "

Lockheed-Martin RQ-170" General Atomics Predator-C (Avenger)"

Northrop-Grumman X-47B"

InSitu/Boeing ScanEagle"

Vcruise = 70-90 kt! hcruise = 25 kft! Vcruise = 310 kt! hcruise = 50 kft!

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stealth_aircraft!

Lifting Body Re-Entry Vehicles "

Northrop HL-10" Martin Marietta X-24A"

Subsonic Biplane "

Compared to monoplane"
Structurally stiff (guy wires)" Twice the wing area for the same span" Lower aspect ratio than a single wing with same area and chord" Mutual interference" Lower maximum lift" Higher drag (interference, wires)"

Northrop M2-F2"

JAXA ALFLEX"

NASA X-38"

Interference effects of two wings"

Gap" Aspect ratio" Relative areas and spans" Stagger"

Martin Marietta X-24B"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K13G1uxNYks! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YCZNW4NrLVY!

Longitudinal Aerodynamic Forces and Moment of the Airplane"

Aerodynamic Lift and Drag

Non-dimensional force coefcients are dimensionalized by "

dynamic pressure, q" reference area, S"

Typical subsonic lift, drag, and pitching moment variations with angle of attack"

Non-dimensional moment coefcients also dimensionalized by "

reference length, c!

Lift = C L q S Drag = C D q S Pitching Moment = Cm q Sc

Circulation of Incompressible Air Flow About a 2-D Airfoil "

Bernoulli s equation (inviscid, incompressible ow)"

pstatic +

1 2 V = constant along streamline = pstagnation 2

What Do We Mean by 2-Dimensional Aerodynamics? "

Finite-span wing > nite aspect ratio"
AR = b rectangular wing c b b b2 = any wing = cb S

Vorticity"

Vupper ( x ) = V + V ( x ) 2 Vlower ( x ) = V V ( x ) 2

2 D (x) =
Circulation"
c

V ( x ) z( x )
Lower pressure on upper surface"

Innite-span wing > innite aspect ratio "

2 D = 2 D ( x ) dx
0

What Do We Mean by 2Dimensional Aerodynamics?"

For Small Angles, Lift is Proportional to Angle of Attack "

Unswept wing, 2-D lift slope coefcient"
Inviscid, incompressible ow" Referenced to chord length, c, rather than wing area"

Assuming constant chord section, the 2-D Lift is the same at any y station of the innite-span wing"
1 2 1 V S = C L3 D V 2 ( bc ) [Rectangular wing] 2 2 1 2 ( Lift 3 D ) = C L3 D V cy 2 1 1 % ( lim ( Lift 3 D ) = lim ' C L3 D V 2 cy* "2-D Lift" = C L2 D V 2 c y 0 y 0 & ) 2 2 Lift 3 D = C L3 D

$ C ' C L2D = & L ) = (C L )2D = ( 2 ) [Lifting-line Theory] % (2D

Swept wing, 2-D lift slope coefcient"
Inviscid, incompressible ow"

C L2 D = C L

( )

2 D

= ( 2 cos )

Classic Airfoil Proles"

NACA 4-digit Proles (e.g., NACA 2412)"
NACA Airfoils! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NACA_airfoil!

Relationship Between Circulation and Lift "

2-D Lift (inviscid, incompressible ow)"

Maximum camber as percentage of chord (2)" Distance of maximum camber from leading edge, (4) = 40%" Maximum thickness as percentage of chord (12)" See NACA Report No. 460, 1935, for lift and drag characteristics of 78 airfoils"

( Lift )2 D = V ( )2 D
1 2 V c ( 2 ) [ thin, symmetric airfoil ] + V ( camber )2 D 2 1 2 V c C L + V ( camber )2 D 2 D 2

( )

Clark Y (1922): Flat lower surface, 11.7% thickness"

GA, WWII aircraft" Clark Y Airfoil! http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clark_Y! Reasonable L/D" Benign computed stall characteristics, but experimental result is more abrupt"
Fluent, Inc, 2007!

Positive camber" Neutral camber"

Gttingen 387!

NACA 0012! Whitcomb! Supercritical!

Talay, NASA SP-367!

Negative camber"

Aerodynamic Strip Theory "

Airfoil section may vary from tip-to-tip"
Chord length" Airfoil thickness" Airfoil prole" Airfoil twist"

Effect of Aspect Ratio on Wing Lift Slope Coefcient (Incompressible Flow) "
Airfoil section lift coefcients and lift slopes near wingtips are lower than their estimated 2-D values"

Lift of a 3-D wing is found by integrating 2-D lift coefcients of airfoil sections across the nite span" Incremental lift along span"

Aero L-39 Albatros!

dL = C L2 D ( y ) c ( y ) qdy
3-D wing lift"
b /2

L3 D =

b /2

C L2 D ( y ) c ( y ) q dy
Talay, NASA SP-367!

Bombardier Dash 8!

Effect of Aspect Ratio on 3-Dimensional Wing Lift Slope Coefcient

(Incompressible Flow) ! High Aspect Ratio (> 5) Wing"

Handley Page HP.115!

Effect of Aspect Ratio on 3-D Wing Lift Slope Coefcient (Incompressible Flow) "
All Aspect Ratios (Helmbold equation)"

# C & # AR & 2 AR C L % L ( = = 2 % ( $ '3D AR + 2 $ AR + 2 '

Low Aspect Ratio (< 2) Wing"

C L =

AR
2, ) AR & . +1 + 1 + # % ( $ 2 ' . + * HL-10!

# AR & AR C L = = 2 % ( $ 4 ' 2
All wings at M = 1!

Q400!

For Small Angles, Lift is Proportional to Angle of Attack "

Lift = C L 1 2 C ( 1 1 2 % V S 'C L0 + L * V 2 S % C L0 + C L ( V S & ) 2 2 2 & ) where C L = lift slope coefficient

At higher angles, "

ow separates" wing loses lift"

Aerodynamic Estimation and Measurement

Flow separation produces stall"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RgUtFm93Jfo!

Handbook Approach to Aerodynamic Estimation !

Build estimates from component effects"
USAF Stability and Control DATCOM (download at http://www.pdas.com/datcomb.html)" USAF Digital DATCOM (see Wikipedia page)" ESDU Data Sheets (see Wikipedia page)"

Wind Tunnel Data !

NASA 30 x 60 Tunnel"
Full-scale aircraft on balance" Sub-scale aircraft on sting" Sub-scale aircraft in free ight" Maximum airspeed = 118 mph" Constructed in 1931 for $37M (~ $500M in today s dollars)" Two 4000-hp electric motors"

Interference Effects Interference Effects Wing Aerodynamics Fuselage Aerodynamics

Sub-Scale Learjet! Tail Aerodynamics

Full-Scale P-38! Interference Effects Sub-Scale F/A-18!

Blended Wing-Body Model in Free Flight! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B7zMkptajMQ!

http://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/30_X_60_Full_Scale_Tunnel!

Wind Tunnel Force and Moment Data !

Three-Strut Mount! Single-Strut Mount!

NACA Free Flight Wind Tunnels "

Test section angle and airspeed adjusted to gliding ight path angle and airspeed"
5-ft Free Flight Wind Tunnel! 12-ft Free Flight Wind Tunnel!

Sting Balance!

High-Angle-of-Attack! Sting Balance !

Model in 12-ft Free-Flight Tunnel!

http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/videogallery/index.html?collection_id=16538&media_id=17245841!

Texas A&M!

http://crgis.ndc.nasa.gov/historic/12-Foot_Low_Speed_Tunnel!

Interpreting Wind Tunnel Data !

Wall corrections, uniformity of the ow, turbulence, ow recirculation, temperature, external winds (open circuit)" Open-throat tunnel equilibrates pressure" Tunnel mounts and balances: struts, wires, stings, magnetic support" Simulating power effects, owthrough effects, aeroelastic deformation, surface distortions" Artices to improve reduced/fullscale correlation, e.g., boundary layer trips and vortex generators"
Sub-Scale ! Supersonic Transport! Full-Scale P-51 Fuselage! Full-Scale F-84!

Computational Fluid Dynamics !

Strip theory"
Sum or integrate 2-D airfoil force and moment estimates over wing and tail spans"

3-D calculations at grid points"

Finite-element or nite-difference modeling" Pressures and ow velocities (or vorticity) at points or over panels of aircraft surface" Euler equations neglect viscosity" Navier-Stokes equations do not"

Aerodynamic Stall, Theory and Experiment "

Flow separation produces stall" Straight rectangular wing, AR = 5.536, NACA 0015" Hysteresis for increasing/decreasing !
Maximum" Lift " Coefcient," CL max!

Maximum Lift of Rectangular Wings "

Schlicting & Truckenbrodt, 1979!

Angle of Attack for CL max !

Anderson et al, 1980!

Aspect Ratio "

: Sweep angle : Thickness ratio

Maximum Lift of Delta Wings with Straight Trailing Edges "

Maximum Lift" ! Coefcient, CL max Angle of Attack ! for CL max

Large Angle Variations in Subsonic Lift Coefcient (0 < < 90) "
Lift = C L
All lift coefcients have at least one maximum (stall condition)" All lift coefcients are essentially Newtonian at high !" Newtonian ow: TBD"

1 2 V S 2

Aspect Ratio "

Aspect Ratio " Schlicting & Truckenbrodt, 1979!

: Taper ratio

Flap Effects on Aerodynamic Lift "

Subsonic Air Compressibility and Sweep Effects on 3-D Wing Lift Slope "
Subsonic 3-D wing, with sweep effect"
C L =

Camber modication" Trailing-edge ap deection shifts CL up and down" Leading-edge ap (slat) deection increases stall " Same effect applies for other control surfaces"
Elevator (horizontal tail)" Ailerons (wing)" Rudder (vertical tail)"

AR 2 + . AR ' -1 + 1 + $ 0 2 & ) 1 M cos ( ) 1 4 & 2 cos ) 0 14 ( % 0 / ,

1 4 = sweep angle of quarter chord

Supersonic Compressibility Effects on Triangular Wing Lift Slope "

Supersonic delta (triangular) wing"
Supersonic leading edge" Subsonic leading edge"

Supersonic Effects on Arbitrary Wing and Wing-Body Lift Slope "

Impinging shock waves" Discrete areas with differing M and local pressure coefcients, cp! Areas change with ! No simple equations for lift slope"

C L =

4 M2 1

C L =

2 2 cot ( + )

where = m 0.38 + 2.26 m 0.86 m 2 m = cot LE cot

LE = sweep angle of leading edge

Schlicting & Truckenbrodt, 1979!

Wing-Fuselage Interference Effects "

Wing lift induces"
Upwash in front of the wing" Downwash behind the wing, having major effect on the tail" Local angles of attack over canard and tail surface are modied, affecting net lift and pitching moment"

Aerodynamic Drag "

Drag = C D % C ' & D0 1 2 2 1 V S C D0 + C L V 2 S 2 2 2 1 + C Lo + C L ( V 2 S * )2

Flow around fuselage induces upwash on the wing, canard, and tail"

from Etkin!

Parasitic Drag "

Reynolds Number and Boundary Layer "

Reynolds Number = Re =

Pressure differential, viscous shear stress, and separation"

Vl Vl =

where = air density V = true airspeed l = characteristic length = absolute (dynamic) viscosity

Parasitic Drag = C D0

1 2 V S 2

= kinematic viscosity

Talay, NASA SP-367!

Reynolds Number, Skin Friction, and Boundary Layer"

Skin friction coefcient for a at plate"

Typical Effect of Reynolds Number on Parasitic Drag "

Flow may stay attached farther at high Re, reducing the drag"

Cf =

Friction Drag qSwet where Swet = wetted area

from Werle*!

Boundary layer thickens in transition, then thins in turbulent ow"

C f 1.33Re 1/2 0.46 ( log10

[laminar flow ] Re ) [turbulent

2.58

flow ]
* See Van Dyke, M., An Album of Fluid Motion, Parabolic Press, Stanford, 1982"

Wetted Area: Total surface area of the wing or aircraft, subject to skin friction"

Effect of Streamlining on Parasitic Drag "

Some Videos "

Flow over a narrow airfoil, with downstream vortices"
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zsO5BQA_CZk!

Flow over transverse at plate, with downstream vortices"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0z_hFZx7qvE!

Laminar vs. turbulent ow"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WG-YCpAGgQQ&feature=related!

Supersonic wind tunnel Schlieren imaging demonstration"

Talay, NASA SP-367!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iNBZBChS2YI!

More Videos "

YF-12A supersonic ight past the sun"
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=atItRcfFwgw&feature=related!

Supersonic ight, sonic booms"

http://www.youtube.com/watch? v=gWGLAAYdbbc&list=LP93BKTqpxbQU&index=1&feature=plcp!

Next Time: Conguration Aerodynamics 2

Reading Flight Dynamics, 84-103 Virtual Textbook, Part 4,5

Smoke ow visualization, wing with ap"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=fvwp&NR=1&v=eBBZF_3DLCU/!

1930s test in NACA wind tunnel"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3_WgkVQWtno&feature=related !