Curves

Curves are required for the alignment

projects such as (Railway, road, pipeline,
canal etc) to provide a smooth change in
the direction of motion.
Curves can be classified into
Horizontal Curves (Curves in Plan)
Vertical Curves (Curves in a vertical section)
Concepts
Alignment is a 3D problem
broken down into two 2D
problems
Horizontal Alignment (plan
view)
Vertical Alignment (profile
view)

Left Hand Curve and
Right Hand Curve


Right Hand Curve
Left Hand Curve
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

A curve may be -
Simple or Circular
Compound
Reverse
Transition or spiral.

Compound and reverse curves are treated as a
combination of two or more simple circular curves,
whereas the transition or spiral curve is based on a varying
radius.
TYPES OF CURVES
R
R
Simple Curve
R
R

Transitional Curve
spiral
spiral
R
r
Compound Curve
R
R
Reverse Curve
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES

Simple
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most
commonly used. The radius of the circle determines the
sharpness or flatness of the curve. The larger the
radius, the flatter the curve.



Compound
Compound curve is often used because of the terrain
profile. This curve normally consists of two simple curves
curving in the same direction and joined together.
TYPES OF HORIZONTAL CURVES
Reverse
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined
together but curving in opposite directions. For safety
reasons, the surveyor should not use this curve unless
absolutely necessary.
Transition or Spiral
The spiral is a curve with varying radius used on
railroads and some modern highways. It provides a
transition from the tangent to a simple curve or
between simple curves in a compound curve.
Stationing (marking distances)
Horizontal Alignment
Vertical Alignment
STATIONING (Chainage)
On route surveys, the surveyor numbers the
stations forward from the beginning of the project.
For example, 0+00 indicates the beginning of the
project. The 15+12.96 would indicate a point
462.96 m from the beginning. A full station is 30
meters, making 15+00 and 16+00 full stations.
A plus station indicates a point between full
stations. (15+12.96 is a plus station.) When using
the metric system, the surveyor does not use the
plus system of numbering stations. The station
number simply becomes the distance from the
beginning of the project.
HORIZONTAL SIMPLE
CIRCULAR CURVES
A simple circular curve can be designated
either by the degree of the curve or by the
radius of curve.
Degree of Curve (D)
The degree of curve defines the sharpness or flatness
of the curve. It is also defined as the angle subtended by a
sector of a circle with a given arc or chord length.
There are two definitions commonly in use for degree of
curve, the arc definition and the chord definition.
In Imperial units the degree of curve, Dc, is the angle
subtended by (a) 100 ft chord (railway definition), or (b)
100 ft arc (highway definition).
The metric degree of curve, Dm, is the central angle
subtended by an arc or chord of 10 metres.
Thus the functions of the 1 metric curve are one-tenth of
the corresponding functions of a 1 imperial curve (in feet)
and the ratio of metric curves to foot curves is (10 m/100
ft) = (32.808/100) = 0.32808.
However, in the metric system a curve is more usually
expressed by its radius, Rm.
Arc definition
The arc definition states that the degree of curve
(D) is the angle formed by two radii drawn from
the center of the circle to the ends of an arc 100
feet or 30.48 meters long. In this definition, the
degree of curve and radius are inversely
proportional using the following formula:

Chord definition
The chord definition states that the degree of curve
is the angle formed by two radii drawn from the
center of the circle to the ends of chord 100 feet
or 30.48 meters long. The radius is computed by
the following formula:

PI
PC
PT
L
PI = Point of Intersection
PC = Point of Curvature
PT = Point of Tangency
L = Length of Curve
LC = Long Chord
Standard Terminology
LC
Horizontal Curve
R
T
PC
PT
PI
M
E
R

/2 /2
/2
L
PI: point of intersection of
tangents
PC: point of curvature
PT: point of tangency
T: tangent distance
LC: long chord
E: external distance
M: middle ordinate
R: radius of circle that forms the
curve
L: length of curve
I (or A): central angle subtended
by L
deflection angle at PI between
tangents
ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE
Point of Intersection (PI) The point of intersection marks
the point where the back and forward tangents intersect. The
surveyor indicates it one of the stations on the preliminary
traverse.
Intersecting Angle (I) The intersecting angle is the
deflection angle at the PI. The surveyor either computes its
value from the preliminary traverse station angles or
measures it in the field.
Radius (R) The radius is the radius of the circle of which the
curve is an arc.
Point of Curvature (PC) The point of curvature is the point
where the circular curve begins. The back tangent is tangent
to the curve at this point.
Point of Tangency (PT) The point of tangency is the end of
the curve. The forward tangent is tangent to the curve at this
point.
ELEMENTS OF A SIMPLE CURVE
Length of Curve (L) The length of curve is the distance from
the the PC to the PT measured along the curve.
Tangent Length or Distance (T) The tangent distance is the
distance along the tangents from the PI to the PC or PT. These
distances are equal on a simple curve.
Central Angle Middle Ordinate (M) The central angle is the
angle formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle
(0) to the PC and PT. The central angle is equal in value to the I
angle.
Long Chord (LC) The long chord is the chord from Pc to PT.
External Distance (E) It is the distance from PI to the midpoint
of the curve. The external distance bisects the interior angle at
the PI.
Mid-Ordinate (M) The middle ordinate is the distance from the
midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the long chord. The
extension of the middle ordinate bisects the central angle.
Horizontal Curve - Relationship
R
T
PC
PT
PI
M
E
R

/2 /2
/2
R R
D
t
t 000 , 18
180
100
=
|

\
|
=
2
tan
A
= R T
D
R L
A
= A =
100
180
t
L
Horizontal Curve Fundamentals
|
|

\
|

A
= 1
2 cos
1
R E
|

\
|
A
=
2
cos 1 R M
R
T
PC
PT
PI
M
E
R

/2 /2
/2
L
Layout of Circular Curves
Once designed and computed, the curve must be
staked out on the ground
Use angle-distance technique where the angles are
deflection angles at the PC from the tangent
(deflection angle technique)
TRANSITION CURVES OR SPIRAL CURVES
In engineering construction, the surveyor
often inserts a transition curve, also known
as a spiral curve, between a circular curve
and the tangent to that curve.
It is a curve of varying radius used to
increase the curvature of a road or railroad.
Spiral curves are used primarily to reduce
skidding and steering difficulties by
gradual transition between straight-line
TRANSITION CURVES OR SPIRAL CURVES
It also provides a smooth turning motion, and/or to
provide a method for adequately superelevating curves.
The spiral curve is designed to provide for a gradual
superelevation of the outer pavement edge of the road to
counteract the centrifugal force of vehicles as they pass.
The best spiral curve is one in which the superelevation
increases uniformly with the length of the spiral from the
TS or the point where the spiral curve leaves the tangent.
The curvature of the spiral must increase uniformly from
its beginning to its end. At the beginning, where it leaves
the tangent, its curvature is zero; at the end, where it joins
the circular curve, it has the same degree of curvature as
the circular curve it intercepts.
Superelevation
cp f p
F F W = +
o o o o cos sin cos sin
2 2
v v
s
gR
WV
gR
WV
W f W =
|
|

\
|
+ +

F
c
W 1 ft
e

R
v

Transition Curve
A transition curve is usually inserted
between the straight section and the circle (for
fluent passing)
A clothoid (Eulers spiral) is the transition
curve for roads and a cubic parabola is the
transition curve for railways.

Vertical Curves
When two grade lines intersect, there is a
vertical change of direction.
To insure safe and comfortable travel, the
surveyor rounds off the intersection by
inserting a vertical parabolic curve.
The parabolic curve provides a gradual
direction change from one grade to the next.

A vertical curve connecting a descending grade with an ascending grade, or with
one descending less sharply, is called a sag curve. An ascending grade followed by
a descending grade, or one ascending less sharply, is joined by a summit curve.

Vertical Curves
Curve a: Crest Vertical Curve (concave downward)
Curve b: Sag Vertical Curve (concave upward)
Tangents: Constant Grade (Slope)
BVC
EVC
Xp
Yp
L/2
L/2
L = curve length
Y
X
Vertical Curve Geometry
V
Terms:
BVC: Beginning of Vertical Curve aka PVC
V: Vertex aka PVI
EVC: End of Vertical Curve aka PVT
g
1
: percent grade of back tangent
g
2
: percent grade of forward tangent
L: curve length (horizontal distance) in feet or stations
x: horizontal distance from any point on the curve to the BVC
r: rate of change of grade

Equations:
r = (g
2
g
1
)/L
where:
g
2
& g
1
- in percent (%)
L in stations
and
Y = Y
BVC
+ g
1
x + (r/2)x
2
where:
Y
BVC
elevation of the BVC in feet

Sight Distance on Curves
Safety requires certain lengths of unobstructed
sight to assure a reasonable chance of stopping to
avoid an object in the road
These distances are termed minimum stopping
sight distances (SSDs)
Standards for minimum SSDs on wet pavement at
certain speeds set by American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO)
Example: car going 60 mph needs SSD of 475 ft.
Sight Distance
Defined as the distance required, for a given
design speed to safely stop a vehicle thus avoiding
a collision with an unexpected stationary object in
the roadway ahead
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