15: Politics and Ideologies

How political power is translated into authority

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By Oct. 2009 3 elections within 5 years Politics in the last few years have been aimed at dividing Canadians rather than uniting them The state is the institutional mechanism that collects and spends the taxes of citizens, makes their laws, and ultimately controls their lives? It is illegal in Canada to discriminate someone based on their political views

Ways of Looking at Politics p.425 Macro-sociological vs. Micro-sociological Functionalist vs. Critical Theory Examples from Classical Sociology: Barrington Moore, Talcott Parsons, Seymour Martin Lipset, George Homans Talcot Parsons: Leading functionalist of the mid twentieth century, The Social System: focused on politics as a key process in different kinds of social systems that include: families, small groups, large organizations, empires and so on Asks questions such as: Under what conditions might a goal-attainment system function democratically? Argues that all theses social systems have goal attainment function: a political process that is necessary for the survival of the system o This political function or role, is necessary for the survival of the system o Not imposed, not sinister o Not so much committed to control and oppression (Marxist) as to management, administration, and the promotion of citizen engagement Criticized for being more philosophical and anecdotal than historical; more qualitative than quantitative Provides a picture/metaphor of the political system: politics as social management *idea that politics is everywhere, not confined to the state

Seymour Martin Lipset: Political Man Based on quantitative data from political and public opinion polling Central functionalist questions such as: What social conditions and social processes promote democracy? Canadian pollster and social critis, Michael Adams is similar to Lipset They both want to connect political ideas to historical events and cultural values Like Lipset, Adams believes that clusters of demographic and psychographic (or value) features will shape the political functioning of a society *Societys politics is deeply rooted in peoples beliefs and needs as well as histories* Believes in the value of public awareness and public engagement in the political process

George Homans: The Human Group Functionalist who focuses on the microstructure of politics In his book develops the social exchange theory Draws data from a variety of case studies: small groups mainly rule themselves through process if informal control, which we might label small group politics o Small group politics inclue, ridiculing or excluding people who violate the groups productivity norms, i.e. producing too much or too little Functionalist, therefore believes that groups develop and protect stable patterns Unlike Parsons, Homans looks for the payoff; the practical reasons why people value such self government in groups Studies micro politics of small groups therefore can be compared to Erving Goffman (symbolic interactionist, Asylums, equilibriam)

Barrington Moore: Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy: Lord and Peasant in the Making of the Modern World Analyzes class relations and their effects on politics (to some extent with the traditions laid our by Marx and Weber)

During the process of modernization, matters whether the dominant class is the middle, peasant, or the traditional ruling class (landowning aristocracy, supported by the military and church) Middle class leads to Democracy The second to Communism The third to Fascism

Classic Studies: The First New Nation By: Seymour Martin Lipset How American society is different, exceptional, to other societies and the role of politics in that difference Canada-US comparison, i.e. Socialist NDP movement in Saskatchewan vs. non socialist movement in North Dakota Key features that make the U.S. different from Canada, Australia, UK (rooted in English political and cultural history) o Revolutionary war and commitment to two somewhat conflicting values: Equality and Achievement o Two contradictory values, both grounded in American identity and national development o Both are the basis for institutions such as: the American Family, School, Political Party, and Trade Union both values born in American Revolution, which symbolizes the birth of a new nation, and freedom of Englands school Religious independence stirred concern with morality making the US very religious Trade and labour union stimulated class consciousness and drive for equal opportunity Differences between U.S. and Canada: Canada: o Less emphasis on equality of opportunity because of their more elitist values o Portrayed as a nation in caught in between UK and US in central values More egalitarian than Britain, but less than the US and Australia Less concerned with achievement and opportunities for achievement than the US

The US was born in blood through a revolutionary war against England, Canada was founded in peace, largely by pro-English Loyalists fleeing the American Revolution No civil war (closest was Battle of Quebec) Lipsets study is rooted in the humanist tradition of Max Weber, using historical and comparative methods to tease out societal differences o Sheds light on problems and prospects of newly emerging nations in Africa and South America Looks for systematic differences between nations that did have revolution and those that didnt Critics: McCormack: Criticizes Lipstets conclusions about elitist emphasis in Canadian development asserting that Canada may be more ascriptive in its status system, more diffuse and more particularistic than the US but no less stable Marcus Cunliffe: wonders to what extent, the American character was formed before the revolution A third Critic: Wonders how central equality is to American identity, as compared to other values like liberty and freedom

Political Science and Political Sociology Political Science: deals mainly with machinery of government and public administration elections, public opinion polling, pressure groups. Political parties o Does more library research, more textual analysis of documents and debates, examination of laws, rules and procedure o Work is often more philosophical and historiacal Political Sociology: more concerned with the relations between politics and social institutions i.e. families, churches, workplaces, ethnic groups and social classes as well as ideologies and culture o Study political processes within institutions and how power is distributed in different social relationships o Do more survey research, interview people, observe groups o Typically more quantitative and spend more time with living people

Political Authority Max Weber was the first and most influential to support authority Identified 3 types of authority: o Traditional Authority The power holder is supported by ancient traditions and can expect obedience as long as he or she upholds these traditions (i.e. Priest) Often Inherited; Often said to descend directly from God (most secure) Typical in Pre-industrial societies: Basis of rule by monarchs Louis XIV of France 72 years on the throne, holds the longest ruling monarch in history o Charismatic Authority Based on power holders exceptional qualitiesespecially force of his/her personality May provide solutions to pressing problems and promote new social values Often as followers to turn backs on tradition and embrace new practice though God is also invoked it is in some sense the opposite of traditional authority o Rational Legal Authority Most common form of authority in modern societies today Based on formally established rules and procedures based on persons formal position not traditional According to Weber: the basis of bureaucratic organization (to command other people who are designated subordinated, according to specific written rules) Weber: Modern states run on the rule of law, which is what distinguishes them from societies that run on tradition, charm and personal relationships Rule of law main reason modern states must follow strict rules to secure and preserve public legitimacy o Gives peoplein authority the legitimate power over life and death in society i.e. right to call out military, impose death penalty o Authority if incompetent or corrupt can be removed from office

The State Three different types of states Authoritarian o Forbid public opposition, use force to ensure compliance with written laws o Leaders force citizens to display public support of the state to prove their loyalty o Dictator exercises complete control over the country with cooperation of the military, state church, and/or foreign multinational corporations Totalitarian o More extreme and often more stable versions of authoritarian states o Intervenes in both public and private life o Nazi Germany and Stalinist Soviet Union are the best examples: both used main cultural institutions (incl. schools and media) to promote state ideology Pried into the personal lives and histories of their citizens, got people to spy on one another Killed or exiled their opponents o Various social and cultural factors contributed to rise of totalitarianism (Hitler and others we charismatic, promised and delivered) Liberal-Democratic o Ideally ruled by citizens o Do not monitor every action nor suppress speech o First type of democracy: direct democracy: all citizens discussed and voted on all issues of importance Citizenry had to be small women children peasants etc. did not get a vote o Canada: Representative Democracy: people express their views periodically when they elect representatives to the federal Parliament of provincial legislature o Also a Constitutional Monarchy: head of state (the Queen) has inherited her position for life and is controlled by Parliament

o In contrast, the states or France is a Republic: the head of state (the president) is elected and replaced periodically o Methods of voting also vary: Canada is divided into constituencies or ridings in each of which citizens elect a representative (each election consists of hundreds of mini elections) The candidate getting the most votes in a constituency is the winner; first-past-the-post method o Tends to exclude smaller parties from representation o To solve this problem some countries has a Proportianal Representation system: 10% of popular vote = 10% of seats o Ensures more parties and more political views are represented, this in turn also means that minority governments will be common, increase of multi-party alliances for support Citizens also form interest and lobby groups to advance particular causes Political participation can be predicted sociologically by a specific demographic, social and psychological variables i.e. formal education is a predictor According to pluralism all citizens have a chance to voice their views and pursue their interests, state: neutral referee

Gender and the State According to McIntosh: the state encourages employers to take advantage of womens free services in the household to maintain low wages in the workplace State policies promote womens subordination, esp when they ignore womens needs and interests Leading concern: significant under representation of women in positions of political power today women make up 22.1% of all members of parliament (MPs) with 68 women sitting as MPs Bashevkin notes that where voter turnout is high, or where proportional representation is practiced, more women are elected to office.

Women are less likely to join politics because they suffer from financial constraints, limited access to helpful informal networks, and opposition within political party networks to their membership Compared with the rest of the developed world, Canada is significantly behind in the proportion of female politicians: 45th on the list that ranks women in legislatures Sweden is an example of a country that has achieved gender parity in politics

Politics in Canada: A Primer Federal-Provincial relations tend to dominate Canadian Political discussions Up to 2010 on Conservatives and Liberals have ever governed federally 1944, NDP first socialist government in North America If proportional representation were enacted, the NDP would be the prime beneficiary Canadian politics far less representative of popular views that it might be far fewer that 50% of eligible voters cast a ballot Constituencies or ridings send one representative to Parliament, but ridings vary in size o Some have twice the population of others o Not always the party with the most votes that wins the election but the party with most seats bias for those who appeal to less populated constituencies Voter turnout has steadily decreased to 60% - People of younger age groups least likely to vote However, young adults are 15% more likely to participate; i.e. sign petitions or attend a public meeting on political issues

Classic Studies: Discipline and Punish: The Birth of the Prison By: Michael Foucault Growing bureaucratization has in part lead to increased surveillance and control over the citizenry Social surveillance historically began with the goal of punishment Critics argued that punishment was supposed to deter crime, not incite unrest, public punishment did just the opposite. Punishment was

supposed to match the office ensure repeat of the crime did not occue, however it was worse and did not prevent. o Therefore in the late 18th Century, torture was largely eliminated and imprisonment became the standard punishment for most crimes o Prison administrators came to see their work as correctional not punitive Discipline of the body was an important part of the reformation process o Was also employed in the military (how to stand, walk hold a weapon) o Soon extended to schools (how to hold a pen, sit, eat speak etc.) This bodily discipline was enforced by a focus on micro actions, through the continual correction of slight slips and through continued testing, recording and examination Record-keeping became important for control and punishment The rise of knowledgeincluding the social sciencesaccompanied the rise of centralized power o Contrary to beliefs of the Enlightenment, knowledge was used to control and disempower people Another technique is surveillance o Panopticon: a prison where guards can see prisoners but prisoners cannot see the guardsuncertainty which leads to self-regulation Contrary to Marxs claim that we are all isolated and estranged from one another by the alienation associated with Capitalism, Foucault asserts that we are all engaged with one another, as guards and prisoners Through conviction and imprisonment, crime becomes de-politicized we think of criminals as deviant or pathological: the problem to be solved is the delinquents behavior, not the governments behavior Criticism of Discipline and Punishment: o Unsupported by evidence, in some cases evidence is ethnocentric and mostly if French theory although the theory purports to describe all modern societies According to David Garland his idea of power as positive and productive has made it easier to develop political analyses of the various agencies of health, insurance, social security, education, psychiatry, etc. that increasingly regulate our lives

Foucault can be considered the logical successor to Max Weber (who also located power in state institutions, more than in social classes)

The Political Role of Ideology Capitalism also maintains control over ideologies: By controlling a hegemonic culture, the values of the bourgeoisie becomes common sense to all (Antonio Gramsci) Bourgeoisie set standards for normality and morality Culture develops in which working class people identify their own good with the good of the bourgeoisie and therefore help maintain the status quo rather than overthrowing it In order to change this the working class must develop their own culture with ideas of natural or normal values o This would attract the oppressed and intellectual classes to the cause of the proletariat o This cultural project must precede the attainment of power, cannot happen after the revolution o ** Any class that seeks to achieve control over its own domain would have to move beyond its own narrow economic and local interests, showing moral leadership in a variety of ways ** We consider an ideology dominant if the most powerful or socially dominant groups in society sponsor it and if it supports the interests of those groups i.e. ideology of winners and losers: empower the strong disempower the weak this ideology dominates us American culture places high value on heroism and war making it easy for American politicians to mobilize public sentiment for war The dominant liberal ideology encourages people to blame themselves and support the status quo Ideologies explain how society is organized: i.e. Darwins survival of the fittest or the Calvinist theory of work ethic

Ideologies and Publics Any given public is an unstructured set of people who hold certain interests in, views on, or concerns about a particular issue

Ideologies help to structure this publics participation in society

Ideologies and Action Reformist ideologies call for minor changes to the degree of inequality without challenging the basic ground rules Policies providing Medicare, welfare, unemployment insurance were all based on reformist ideologies Critics argue these reforms provide temporary and superficial changes (i.e. unemployment insurance does not change the loss of jobs) Radical ideologies call for reshaping of society, challenging its very foundation CCF/NDP adopting the Regina Manifesto: No CCF government will rest content until it has wiped out capitalism and put into operation the co-operative commonwealth Both reform and radical ideologies can be considered counter ideologies challenge the bases of dominant ideologies They often develop out of peoples experiences to unequal treatment According to Marx: dominant ideologies create false consciousness

Jurgen Habermas Criticizes present-day Western societies for their misuse of power, including their use of rationality to increase domination through bureaucracy and other means Followed Marxian thinking, but though Marx as too narrow in his focus on economic progress as a measure of human development For Habermas, rationality (the ability to use logic and analysis) must go beyond the strategic calculation of resources for achieving a chosen goal o Should also seek creation of community through communicative action that strives for agreement between groups mutually perceived as other only such a goal is truly rational in a society Suggests that in a deliberative democracy citizens would thoughtfully debate governmental policy and law Muller-Doohm notes that Habermas focuses his attention on the changing significance of the nation-state through European integration, of a deliberative democracy, and the controversial issue of taming world capitalism

** Rational reconstruction produces empirical hypotheses, though these cannot always be tested by empirical means ** Roth (2009): truth is generally thought of as the goal of inquiry; definition of truth is troublesome; concludes that sociological inquiry should not aim for truth, but rather for understanding. Heath (2009): the social science that underpins Marx is obsolete sees Habermas as an analytical Marxist but later departed from any form of Marxism as did Foucault Keat (2008): Habermas has made a significant contribution to the effort to relate ethics to politics. Accuses Habermas of failing to show how political ethics can truly be the subject of rational discussion, independent of other moral and practical concerns. Hall (2009):

Key Terms
Chapter 15: Politics and Ideologies

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Politics: The processes by which individuals and groups act to promote their interests Citizens: People who belong to a state. Citizenship developed out of the relative freedom of city life, granting equal treatment for all residents State: The set of institutions with authority to make the rules that govern a society. Weber wrote that the state claims a monopoly of the legitimate use of physical force within a given territory Ideologies: Coherent sets of interrelated beliefs about the nature of the world that imply or demand certain courses of political, social or economic action Power: According to Weber, the ability of persons or groups to achieve their objectives, even when opposed. Said in another way, power is the capacity to compel people to act in certain ways and politics is the process by which people gain and exercise this power Authority: Power that is considered legitimate by the people who are subject to it Propaganda: Mass communication whose purpose is to influence peoples political opinions and actions Civil Liberties: Freedoms that protect the individual against the government. These include freedom of speech, assembly, and movement, and freedom of the press Civil Rights: Rights we consider all people deserve under as circumstances, without regard t race, ethnicity, age, sex, or other personal qualities

Section 14 States and Government

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Chapter 55: Counting, Caste, and Confusion during Census Enumeration in Colonial India Introduction When British colonial censuses were first taken in 1821, caste data could not be compiled on a national list because many castes were only in one or two parts of India Caste data were read with an eye to creating a national social hierarchy, but that this often contradicted the local and regional character of the caste Hacking looks at how censuses have no innate qualities but become powerful ways to categorize people Caste was not created by the census, but attempts at redefining caste were made during the process Article looks at how classifications that seem natural today were made in the past

Caste and the Indian Colonial Censuses Caste: Hereditary social status in society, which is often linked with ideas of spiritual purity and socio-economic stratification. In Hindu Indian society, movement and marriage between castes are not acceptable. British rule was exercised through the East India company. A quasigovernmental commercial company operating in India In 1806 court of directors wanted a statistical survey of the country carried out The company lost its trade monopoly in 1813 Indias first census was prefaced by provincial pilot tests, but there was no consistency across the provinces concerning the category of caste Categories were borrowed from regional census efforts, or from other knowledge sources Administrators recognized the lack of consistency but because there were no efforts to come up with an alternative, local enumerators had to improvise, which resulted in irreconcilable caste schedules

The least objectionable schedule recommended by the London Statistical Society was designed by W.C. Plowden, who served as the 1871 census commissioner for the northwestern provinces 1871 census questions were open-ended, many questions had no fixed response categories Inconsistency: many provinces adapted the census procedures to suit local conditions; other provinces were only asked a portion of Plowdens recommended items Local provincials patterned their own categorization on pre-existing caste, which were not nationally consistent Administrators wanted to prevent a repeat of the 1871 debacle As long as many categories remained local, national level statistics were not useful o Administrative solution was to abstract caste from its locality and project it to aggregate India o The Indian census officials detached caste from its indigenous meaning and used it to reinforce their own ideas about India o Nearly 2,000 castes were listed in 1881, yet only 207 were identified Some enumerators were introducing caste names to people when those caste names had no prior usage in those communities o In Panjab, an indigenous tribe known as the Syals was labeled as Rajputs, although not one man in a hundred of the Syals was aware he was a Rajput Plowden and Baines suggested caste be removed from Indian census because it did not map onto Indian reality

Making People up through Anthropometry Anthropometry: The measurement of the sizes and proportions of the human body Ethnography: A branch of anthropology dealing with the scientific description of individual cultures H.H. Risley had an understanding for Caste that used anthropometric measures Thought could learn about groups of people by measuring skulls, and noses with calipers and other instruments

Argued that non-scientific theories of caste were insufficient, understanding of caste with anthropometric measures was required Introduced a deeper connection between race and caste in the census For Risley this was a matter of racial science as well as politics Argued that having statistical knowledge of India was a question of governance and who to include in the polity Risley was concerned that indiscriminate democracy would give Indians power over British, therefore statistical information was needed to help discriminate between citizens who should and shouldnt be represented by the government Despite criticism, a total agreement on how to categorize caste never emerged. The enormous complexity of the caste system makes it impossible to combine large groups of the population on the basis of caste.

Conclusion Counting is hungry for categories many of the categories we now use to describe people are by-products of the needs enumeration India evolved as one of the great statistical bureaucracies Confusion was the rule not the exception

Chapter 56: Canadas Rights Revolution: Social Movements and Social Change, 1937-1982 / Dominique Clement Moratorium: A temporary prohibition of an activity Movement: Movements are typically defined by the beliefs they propagate and the ability to mobilize collective action around those beliefs Interest Group: Assumes a clear distinction between civil society and the state and focuses its efforts on promoting the interests of its members Welfare: A system whereby the state undertakes to protect the health and well-being of its citizensespecially those in financial needby means of grants, pensions, etc. Breadwinner: The main wage earner in a household. Traditionally, this was considered to be the man, but increasingly women are becoming the primary earners and households are relying on dual or multiple earners

(multiple breadwinners) to provide the standar of living they need (or want) The Raging Grannies joined an anti-uranium rally because the BC government wanted to prohibit uranium mining All movements are composed of the people who struggle to articulate and apply, sometimes imperfectly, those beliefs The Grannies, seek to promote the principles the peace movement (makes it different from an interest group because it challenges publicprivate divisions) For them, promoting social change has become a way of life a way for its members to find a role for themselves in society where the elderly particularly women are expected to sit on the sidelines Case of Lal Jamilla (raped, sent to her tripe and killed for bringing shame to her tribe) human rights violation, yet there are questions of whether human rights is a Western idea. First Objective: o Human rights violations in Canadian history (denominational. Education, domestic terrorism, criminalization of narcotics, civilian review of the police etc.) Controversies that highlight how people struggled to apply vague human rights principles to concrete issues. Human rights movement in Canada was ideologically divided: i.e. women receiving welfare would lose it if a man was living with her, but not the other way around In order to receive welfare, women had to appear chaste as possible Human rights groups argued that individuals had a right to economic security civil libertarian counterparts considered these questions as matters of public policy, not rights. Civil Liberties Organizations fight for access to welfare while Human Rights Organizations fight for amount of welfare Second Objective: o To study professional social movement organizations Argues that the evolution of human rights has been intimately linked with the rise of the modern state

H.R. activists recognize that economic/gender inequalities lead to rights violations but assume that correlative duties that emerge from moral human rights rely on the state The book was about asking a more fundamental question: To what degree can rights discourse promote social change? Legal scholars and political scientists have long dominated the study of human rights therefore studies tend to focus on courts and governments as if the state alone were responsible for human rights innovations One of the reasons he wrote Canadas Rights Revolution as a series of case studies was to link the English and French Experiences in Canada Since 1983, only one French-language book has won the John Porter Prize Author states that we need to engage in literature and sources in boht languages because experiences across the country are increasingly comparable and can inform each other

Chapter 57: The Economy and Public Opinion on Welfare Spending in Canada / Robert Andersen and Josh Curtis Public Opinion: The approval or disapproval of publicly observable positions and behavior, as expressed by a defined section of a society and unusually measured through opinion polls Inequality: A condition in which rewards or opportunities for different individuals within a group or group in a society are unequal Welfare State: A form of capitalist society in which the state takes responsibility for a range of measures intended to ensure the well-being of its members, through providing education for children, access to health care, financial support for period out of the labour market and so on. Unemployment: The state of not working. Generally, individuals in this state are willing to work at a prevailing wage rate yet they are unable to find a paying job.

Introduction Examines the relationship between economic and political conditions and public opinion on welfare spending in Canada from 1980 and 2005

Economic Conditions, Political Climate and Public Opinion Some research indicates that national differences in public opinion are negatively related to level of economic development, welfare state development, and presence of a Soviet-communist past Other research suggests that attitudes toward redistribution are influenced by the type of political regime that people experience: o Social democratic countries are characterized by strong public support from welfare state intervention and income equality o Countries with more liberal economies tend to show very little public support for government redistribution and income distribution Public opinion tends to be more favorable toward redistribution in times of economic recession

Research Questions Assess the relationship between public opinion on welfare spending on one hand and political conditions on the other, in Canada during the period from 1980 to 2001 (bc of rightward shift in Canadian politics and rise of inequality) o Was there a relationship between public opinion and political context? (did public opinion follow the political regime) o Did the public opinion follow trends in the economy? Methods: Public opinion data collected by the commercial polling firm Environics between 1980 and 2001 Findings: 1994 was a critical turning point in the extent of public spending in Canada When policy increases, the preference for more policy decreases (viceversa) some evidence that the preference for spending among the Canadian population increased during times of declining spending

When the economy is performing poorly, people tend to be less likely to support increases in spending on welfare, and vice versa. When people have money they want to spend more on welfare. Possibly due to two reasons: o Those with higher income feel morally obligated; o Those with lower income benefit from welfare. Public opinion appears to have changed very little with changes in government

Conclusions People of higher income feel morally obligated to eradicate inequality Those at the bottom become increasingly aware of their own position and become more likely to support social spending in hopes that it will help their situation Chapter 58: Social Europe and Eastern Europe: Post-Socialist Scholars Grapple with New Models of Social Policy / Ivanka Knezevic Capitalist Economy, Market, and Social Policy European Union (EU): An economic and political association of certain European countries as a unit with an agreement for internal free tradeand common external tariffs Capitalist Economy: An economic system based on private legal ownership of the major means of production and primary use of hired workers to make and sell commodities in competitive market to generate profits for owners Labour: The portion of the workforce working for wages Social Policy: Guidelines and interventions for the creation, changing, and maintenance of living conditions that are conductive to human welfare, thus social policy is that part of public policy that has to do with social issues Acceptance of the Social Europe project (common standard for social citizenship) is a condition of joining the EU

Capitalist economy cannot be maintained without social policy (a point many neo-liberal commentators neglect) Availability of labour is especially important for a capitalist economy o Workers must have stable non-economic conditions to reproduce their physical and mental labour power, and to produce and bring up a new generation of workers o Public services such as health care and education serve the purpose of making sure employees need for shelter, feed, and rest does not rest solely on what they earn in the labour maker (essential of capitalist economy) Recommodification of Labour: increasing influence of corporate interest, cash strapped governments and neo liberal ideologies have decreased the scope of these non-market means of survival Important decisions about social policy is whether it should apply to all citizens or a targeted group o Universalistic Policies: benefits that are meant to improve social citizenship for all o Targeted Policies: targeted measures to ensure that previously excluded groups (i.e. women, visible minorities) catch up to the already existing level of social citizenship The EU favours targeted policies, implying that social citizenship in the EU is satisfactory and only identifiable excluded populations need to catch up with it Neo-liberal ideology: firm belief that an absence of market regulation can solve all economic and social problems This has led to market-complementary policies (accept any work rather than remain unemployed) Labour laws in Europe has been changing, allowing non-standard part time employment EU does not see this as a problem but as a flexibilization of the labour market

The European Union: An Empire, Its Social Project, and Its Institutions

Hayden defines empires as sets of mechanisms to bring separate nations, and usually separate polities, into one cooperative framework for generating, collecting and centralizing wealth Members must follow EU policies even before joining contingent on policy changes that supposedly bring EU candidates closer to EU values of democracy, freedom, human rights, rule of law, and protection of minorities The author refers to their ideology that the EU is a union founded on values as a smug ideology Many observers connect the Social Europe Project to the European Social Model (ESM) which Max Weber defines as a useful tool to analyze social policy systems of various countries Two Problems o The term is used in public debates regarding the EU asocial policies but does not appear in any legal document o The use of this term masks the fact that EU social policies have long since shifted toward a more restricted Anglo-American model Procedural means to implement the EU social project: o hard (binding) policy tools: o social funds from which resouces are transferred to member states for social-policy purposes o and soft binding policy tools o although targeted policies such as education, health care, pensions are park of hard EY decision making, they are regulated to the soft policy making process called the open coordination method EU social policy decision making is dominated by actors who represent corporate and neo-liberal interests (no interest in promoting decommodifying policies Because EU parliamentarians and officials are not elected by popular vote, they are not motivated to promote universalistic issues

Post-Socialist Discussions of Social Policy Neo-liberal social policies: dominates political debates Traditional social democratic policies: used in most research on the topic

Discussions of social policy in candidate and possible candidate countries are either completely neo-liberal , or carefully non-judgmental toward EU policies Proposals for reforms or labour policies in Croatia shows complete trust in the market to solve problems of poverty and long-term unemployment o Solved by twin strategies of flexibilization of the labour market long-term unemployed find non-standard works and take themselves off social service registers Concept of social exclusionauthor does not mention that hard EU social policies are polar (divides society into sharply defined interest groups) No critique for EUs preference for privatization of social services and its basis in the fiction that capitalism can ever provide full employment

Concluding Remarks Social policies implemented by EU are targeted at excluded poulations and non-universal Post materialist: belief that all members has sufficient material resources for comfortable living, therefore focus on things like discrimination, identity, and social exclusion Authors arguments: o Full social citizenship for all is a goal that should not be abandoned and cannot be achieved by targeted social policies (they are inefficient) o Suggests a need for reorientation to universalist social justice o Both universalistic and targeted policies are necessary for development of meaningful social citizenship

Section 16: Media

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Chapter 64: Fallen Women and Rescued Girls: Social Stigma and Media Narratives of the Sex Industry in Victoria, BC, from 1980 to 2005/ Helga Kristin Hallgrimsdottir, Rachel Phillips, and Cecilia Benoit Elitism: The restriction of an activity to a privileged group or the belief that participation in key social institutions ought in principle, always and everywhere be confined to the elitea minority that possesses a disproportionate share of resources or power within a group or society Diversity: The variety and tolerance of different social groups (or social types) in a particular locale Democracy: A form of government in which people choose their legislators and executive leaders. Rule of the people, as opposed to rule by one (autocracy) of a few (oligarchy)

Compares media portrayals of people who work in the sex industry with there workers self reports of their personal background and experiences of what they do for a living Aims to gauge media depictions and lived reality, and so understand how the media contributes constructing, reproducing and deepening social stigmas with working in the sex industry Compares media narratives with self-reported experiences of sex-industry workers in the same city over a comparable time period Add s to the concept of stigma by understanding stigma as when elements of labeling, separation, stereotyping, status loss and discrimination co-occur o Links meaning-making activity of media authors with the material consequences associated with labeling and social exclusion Felt Stigma: fear of experiencing discrimination and interpretation of the self with dominant cultural scripts Adds growing literature to structural mediation of stigma: whore stigmas Using open-coding technique, developed 7 narrative categories: o Vectors of Contagion o Population at risk or endangered

o Sexual slavery o Moral culpability o Predatory pimps o Criminal culpability o Community failure o Other 1) Sex industry workers are portrayed as vectors of contagion. moral pollutants sources of disease 2) Sex industry portrayed as an acute and social problem 3) Media narratives focus almost exclusively on outdoor sex work 4) Dominant media motif is strongly gendered: focus on women as workers, men as clients/pimps/law enforcers There are three notable shifts in these themes of the study period o Discourses on criminal culpability to sex industry workers disappear after late 1980s, moral culpability within individuals also declines and they are replaced with discussions that the responsibility is placed upon others, i.e. clients, pimps and the global sex trade o Decline in discussion that community support systems such as religious organizations, schools, families are responsible for the sex industry problem In general, media authors in Victoria focused on, contagion, culpability and risk when narrating sex industry stories

Risk: Entrapment and Slavery as Routes to the Sex Industry Prominence of stories around culpability diminishes in the 90s, sex workers appear to be morally incapacitated and unable to make reasonable choices Victim/hood/risk stories are often racialized and highlight vulnerability of youth and women involved references to gloval trafficking Majority of all TC stories appearing after mid 90s concern child and juvenile prostitution The author turns to presenting primary datain-person interviews of those who work in the sex industry to reveal how omissions and punctuations in the media that represent sex industry workers create theories of contagion, victimization and criminality

* A sizable minority 18% of men were interviewed -- showing that media omits the experience of males, a gap (in the sex industry) Also missing: stories of the workers everyday circumstances 25% of respondents stated they live in unstable or very unstable circumstances, many were recipients of income assistance, disability income assistance evidence of the lower socio-economic status of this population 28% of females and 14% of males were caring for children not commonly noted in media depictions * persons involved in the sex industry represent populations that face barriers to mainstream employment, and are more likely to belong to discriminated identities and come from current and historical background of economic and social hardship * The media narratives of entrance to the sex industry were always entrapment, yet respondents described a variety of circumstances that led them in Over one quarter explained: economic duressunable to find a job, on welfare with small children, on living on the streets with no income, or simply having bills to payin many cases, economic need overlapped with opportunity Most people sold sex not for drugs but for mundane costs such as rent, food and clothing.

Discussion and Conclusion Media narratives follow relatively rigid and standardized cultural scripts paradox of attention: Media attention is paid to the titillating and illicit aspects of trading sex for money, while its less glamorous ordinary reality is ignored Dominating focus: a public display of womens sexuality suggests that sex work stigmas are a key disciplinary site of womens sexuality in general Chapter 65: Feminist Activists Online: A Study of the PAR-L Research Network / Michele Ollivier, Wendy Robbins, Diane Beauregard, Jennifer Brayton, and Genevieve Sauve

PAR-L, a bilingual electronic network of individuals and organizations interested in feminist action and research on policy issues in Canada, was founded as an e-mail list in Canada in March 1995 One of Canadas first and longest-lived, and most successful feminist discussion lists PAR-L is identified as a life-line a key resource and even a national treasure by survey respondents 2002 survey had two main objectives: o To assess the effectiveness of PAR-L as a tool for feminist activism o To get feedback from subscribers Report is based on data collected from questionnaires posted to the list in the spring and fall of 2002 Analysis of the socio-demographic characteristics of respondents to the survey suggests that the PAR-L membership is far from being representative of the Canadian population Other research suggests that PAR-L contributes to bridging the gap between women from different age groups, geographical locations and professional situations In the authors views, PAR-Ls abilities to bring together women working in universities, community groups and other settings remains in their view one of its main strengths and accounts for its originality Perceived as a valuable source of information on political and scholarly events, employment opportunities, political campaigns and more Sometimes described as an alternative to mainstream media by those seeking information on issues of interest to feminists in Canada Strengths: Selective focus on womens issues, up-to-the minute topically, contacts, job postings, usefulness for graduate academic work, helpful to discussions of current events, model and key resource that helps and influences them in their online work, inspiration for new projects, influences taking action, helps people articulate positions on feminist issues There is expression of competing views among feminist researchers alternative to mainstream media Often praised as a good list because while it allows for healthy debates, it is moderated so that there are relevant and respectful exchanges

Problems: Technical problems, and sheer volume of messages; dissatisfaction with communication polices and the conduct of some participants on the list; on nature and tone of expressions o Messages where subject line does not indicate nature of posting, inconsistent enforcement of list policies by list moderatorsNo clear answer as to where to draw the line (several issues not specifically feminist are bound to also affect women i.e. water management in Toronto), this situation contributes to the feeling of alienation o Some where highly critical of the tone of some exchanges o Several respondents referred to the list as elitist due to the fact the PAR-L exchanges sometimes appear to be favouring academic/intellectual type of feminism; second, in which older or mainstream feminists react strongly to some postings and usr their authority to suppress discussions The study concludes that technology in and of itself foes not eliminate power differentials and problems of external and internal exclusion

Chapter 66: Keeping Young Minds Sharp: Childrens Cognitive Stimulation and the Rise of Parenting Magazines, 1959-2003 / Linda Quirke Parenting: The raising of a child by its parents, focusing on types of parental practices that are more or less likely to produce socially valuable outcomes Study on the changing culture of parenting based on examination of parenting magazines and articles Argues that substantial growth of parenting magazines in a number of English-speaking industrialized countries is indicative of a larger issue Over time, Canadian parenting articles increasingsly emphasize schooling and childrens academic skills They are mainly directed to the middle class even though the middle class is likely to turn to professionals for child-rearing advice They are an approximation of the dominant cultural model of raising children

Vast majority of articles were short and conveyed one theme, only talked about other themes in the passingArticles were simple and formulaic in their attempt to present one main point of information; authors rarelt shifted from a primary focus 3 Trends with the analysis of parenting magazines: o Growth of parenting magazines outstripped overall growth in periodicals and magazines o Increasingly catering to niche markets o Trend toward publication that emphasize parent role in fostering their childrens academic and cognitive development Magazines were also segmented according to geography

Inside Canadian Parenting Articles In the mid 1970s and early 1980s more than half of parenting articles focused on childrens health and safety, or fun activities to keep children occupied During that time focus on schooling or cognitive development was minimal; 5% Increasingly focus is placed on childrens brains; Through 1980s articles emerge encouraging parents to set up home libraries, with academic resources etc. Parent role in childrens education is increasingly presented in terms of intervention rather than passivity (i.e. How to prevent math anxiety) Articles dealing with childrens cognitive development and schooling flourish in 1990s Since 1975, the proportion of articles dealing with such traditional topic such as health and keeping children occupied has diminished Currently, more than one quarter of parenting articles emphasize cognition or schooling Overall, interest in childrens schooling and cognitive development has increased steadily, while emphasis on simply amusing children has diminished

Discussion The expansion of parenting magazines can be understood as an indicator or measure of public interest in childrearing

Parents are encouraged to think of their children as unique and particularized, rather than generic or ordinary (magazines are focused to types or parents and children) This research suggests that the social context of childrearing in Canada is one of heightened concern for childrens academic changes Wrigley (1989) suggests that parents concern for childrens cognitive development has grown as childrens life chances are increasingly influenced by their performance in school Nationally, 88% of Canadian parents expect their children to attend either college or university Wall (2006) argues that educational materials urge parents to see their children as opportunities for investment; parental behaviour in the early years of a child is now cast as a crucial element in securing childrens eventual intellectual potential and material success Parents are actively encouraged to foster their childrens cognitive development with the aim of enhancing and maximizing their childrens chances for academic success

Chapter 67: Packaging Protest: Media Coverage of Indigenous Peoples Collective Action / Rima Wilkes, Catherine Corrigall-Brown, and Daniel J. Myers Mobilization: The process by which a group goes from being a passive collection of individuals to a collection of active participants in public life Media Packaging: The style or format in which media present news items, for the purposes of influencing public perception of the issue Despite Indigenous people comprising 4% of the Canadian population, they have engaged in widespread mobilization This article focuses on media interest on these protests There is a general agreement that the single most effective way for a story to garner attention is through front-page placement The media follow a set of news routines which lead them to select and feature certain types of stories The media seeks to present stories that are dramatic and sensational, providing high news value

News routines are day to day organizational and structural aspects of news production Events occurring before slow news days (usually Mondays) are more likely to be included on the newspaper than those occurring on busier news days A beat reporter signals an issues perceived importance Newswire reports are not often featured as prominently as those written by in-house staff An article written by a beat reporter should receive more prominent packaging than should one written by an in-house reporter (as opposed to a wire) o In terms of the day of publication, indigenous peoples collective action events that appear in the Monday edition of the paper should be given more prominent packaging than those that appear in stories on other days of the week A story is said to have news value if is has: relevance, immediacy, novely/innovation, and drama Events that involve more people will appear as more relevant and important to a broader spectrum of readers than events involving a small group Immediacy refers to newness or timeliness of a story )recent episodes are more newsworthy than ongoing issues) Novelty refers to anything that is seen to depart from the usual Events are perceived as dramatic if they involve violence, death and or destruction if it bleeds it leads Indigenous people have tailored their protest in ways that facilitate bold headlines and front page placement BC place where most protests by Indigenous people occur in Canada

Discussion Only disruptive tactics are more likely to appear on the front page The advent of online news media has dramatically changed the nature of news production The size and length of the event may have very little association with coverage Being contentious or unusual is not a guarantee of high-profile packaging

The difference in packaging across events, like academic citations patterns or salaries is exponential rather than linear

Part 6: Education

23/04/2013 12:46:00 PM

Chapter 22: The Rise of the Research University: Gendered Outcomes / Maureen Baker Gender Gap: A late-twentieth century concept used to describe the contemporary result of the historic legacy of the sexual division of labour. The industrialized society and economic nineteenth-century North America designated gender-specific political and economic arenas and activities for women and men. The result of such gender-based segregation of work reinforced the notion of women working outside the home as remaining fundamentally unpaid family workers inside the home, thus obstructing womens achievement of individual economic freedom in the workplace Gender: A socially determined set of qualities and behaviours expected from males and females Introduction This paper investigates the impact of university restructuring on the academic gender gap Argues that the current focus is research, internationalization, and entrepreneurship perpetuates the gap, which has recently diminished Gender differences are most notable at senior academic ranks

The Rise of the Research University Universities shift their priorities to accommodate enrolments and costs, student/staff diversity, and state/public expectations Historically, governments based university funding mainly on enrolments but are now capping enrolments and providing grants for research productivity Generally, state transfers have not kept pace with increasing enrolments or operating costs Non-academic managers have gained more control over strategic goals and their implementation leading to concerns about hyper-bureaucracy and diminishing academic freedom Some universities always valorized research but more are hiring research chairs and temporary teachers, widening the teaching/research dichotomy

Most universities now expect new academics to arrive with a doctorate, teaching experience and publications How university quality has always been compared internationally: o Times Higher Education QS University Rankings System QS based largely on peer reviews but also on citations and international staff/students o Shanghai Jiao Tong University Ranking System favours research in Science and Engineering (which fewer women work) Schemas which provide different scores for the same school, promoting debate: High-scoring academics argue for greater recognition and managers use institutional scores for marketing and individual scores to raise productivity, promote the growth of competition and managerialism

Restructuring and Gender Promotion decisions often favour research > teaching and service, and display hierarchy of publication venues: i.e. peer reviewed articles in high impact journals and scholarly books more important than textbooks and edited collections Women tend to occupy lower ranks in institutions/disciplines focusing on teaching and service; publish fewer peer-reviewed articles, win fewer scholarly prizes display less academic confidence, and work shorter hours Feb 2009: (CAN) 83.5% of Tier 1 research chairs (for full professors) and 68.8% of Tier 2 research chairs (for intermediate scholars) were awarded to men Curtis (2005) argues that feminized fields have been disproportionately retrenched. Redundancies are often voluntary but more women accept part time work and early retirement

Participant Reactions to Restructuring: Growing Bureaucracy changing too fast unreasonable research exoectation and newcomers gaining faster promotion Love of scholarship being destroyed by a hyper bureaucracy Early retirement due to excessive monitoring

 hyper bureaucracy Family Friendly Policies? Most mothers reported little support from managers or colleagues, and some received little family assistance Claims to have family friendly policies but its being nibbled away at the edges Women choosing to have only one child because its too hard Working Long Hours Can be particularly isolating if academics believe their research is undervalued or feel excluded from networks Many academics report that they are working harder without getting ahead Women seemed to object more than men to the long working hours Participant that went on stress leave: it wasnt the job that was the problem, it was the management and structures Half of the mothers but none of the fathers were parenting alone Internationalization Many participants came from overseas, but men in particular acknowledged their partners support in relocating; women did not feel the same way Several men doubted they would not get their spouses approval for relocating While many men used this tactic, many women seemed unaware that job offers could become bargaining chips and most disapproved of this tactic Some women believed men would put their work on a pedestal when it wasnt that great Author finally says: success within the current entrepreneurial and international environment relies on confidence and peer esteem

Conclusion Although universities have made notable inroads in employment equity, they continue to reward academics who publish widely and remain fully employed until retirement which more men do New priorities to deal with socio-political changes tend to increase the gender gap

Interview participants lamented the growth of hyper-bureaucracy and heightened research expectations More men accepted the long-hours culture and values inherent in the promotion system Favouring of masculine behaviour that is competitive and sometimes confrontational suggest that the gender gap will persist even as more women rise through the ranks

Chapter 23: Education, Ethnonationalism, and Non-violence in Quebec / Matthew Lange Separatist: The advocacy of a state if cultural, ethnic, tribal, religious, racial, governmental, or gender separation from the larger group, often with demands for freater political autonomy and even for full political secession and the formation of a new state Front de liberation de Quebec (FLQ): A left-wing ethnic nationalist and ethnic socialist paramilitary group in Quebec, active between 1963 and 1970, which is widely regarded throughout Canada as a terrorist organization War Measures Act: A Canadian statue that allowed the government to assume sweeping emergency powers in the event of war invasion or insurrection, real or apprehended The October Crisis of 1970 raised The author finds that a countrys level of education is positively related to its level of ethnic violence; except in wealthy countries Looks at the role of Quebecs separatist movement to support this Next, it investigates factors that prevented the movement from turning violent

Education and the Quebec Independence Movement The Quebec nationalist movement has been dominated by the educated elite Educated members of the intelligentsia and provincial public service have played among the most influential roles in the movement

The movement became a powerful force in Quebec only after the educational system expanded dramatically and produced an increasingly large number of educated individuals Independence was often more in the economic, political and social interests of the educated The public sector has been very active in promoting state economic management in an effort to modernize Quebec and improve the economic position of francophone Quebeckers they saw independence as a means of giving themselves full control to do just this Educated francophones experience a greater gap in income than lesseducated francophones The educated were more likely to believe that linguistic inequalities are real and that francophones face disadvantages in the labour market

The Impediments of Ethnonationalist Violence in Quebec Grievances and interests pushed many educated individuals to organize and support the Quebec separatist movement Political and economic environment increased the costs of radicalism, diminished the benefits of radicalism and helped reduce frustration Relatively deprived position of the francophone community in comparison to the Anglophone community improved after WWII another factor explaining the limited violence of the separatist movement There was wavering support from university students for the FLQ however, once the War Measures Act clamped down on students, student support dried up almost instantly The eventual death of Quebec minister of labour Pierre Laporte at the hands of his FLQ captors repulsed students showing that their grievances were not powerful enough for them to support violent militantism Second, continued support for the FLQ posed potential dangers to the students because the government was arresting those involved with the FLQ Effective democratic government, which is strongly related to national wealth, limited ethnonationalist violence in several ways The Canadian state did not use physical violence against the separatist movement

Neither the Canadian not the Quebec government has formally discriminated against the francophone Canadians post WWII Most francophones desiring formal change have sought to pursue it peacefully through formal politics not violence

Chapter 24: From International Universities to Diverse Local Communities? International Students in Halifax and Beyond / Sinziana Chira Human Capital: The economic value that is derived from the actual application of knowledge, collaboration and process management Introduction: Highly skilled migrants are often construed as populations to be attracted by competing developmed nations The points system as the basis for immigrants selection has, in effect empowered governments in the Global North to shape migration flows, giving rise to designer immigrants National governments no longer hold the monopoly or attracting, selecting or bearing the costs for integrating skilled migrants Increasingly, non-governmental actors such as transnationals have taken up roles to ensure they hold competitive advantage when it comes to benefiting from the inflow of bright foreign minds

Study Methodology Relies on data that emerged from 14 semi-structured interviews conducted in Halifax in 2009 Interviews were designed to parallel a study conducting in oncton, New Brunsquick To address the implications of international students rising numbers for the regions demographic challenges

Demographics in Halifax and Nova Scotia Atlantic Canada is a region traditionally associated with out-migration of youth and low immigration attraction and retention rates This has led to an aging population and a diminishing labour force

Currently, Nova Scotia ranks are the 5th most populat destination for international students Canada wide, hosting just under 7,000 foreigners

Discussion and Conclusions Private sector involvement was seen as a response-solution to the lack of support from governmental branches Canadas national brand for higher education only came out in 2008 In 2008, the Canadian Experience Class stream was launched, which offers permanent residence to international graduates with relevant work experience in Canada In effect, universities took on direct involvement in the administration of off-campus work permits This speaks to a growing literature on the ideal immigrant in the Atlantic Canadian context In this context, international students theoretically fit the bill of the ideal immigrant better than other immigration system One in two international students intend to stay in Canada after graduation However, in the Halifax case, international students adaptation to Canadain life has not been smooth; incoming students are visible and audible minorities, standing out in the homogeneous academic and social environments of Halifax The most cited impediment was the graduates lack of ties to the community Socially shaped characteristics such as race and class in turn reconstruct the success of the ideal immigrant In Halifax, spaces of negotiation continue to shape the success of international graduates in becoming Canadian citizens

Chapter 25: Segregation versus Self-Determination: A Black and White Debate on Canadas First Africentric School / Shawn Chen Africentric: An emphasis among African-descended people worldwide on shared African origins, taking pride in these and having an interest in African history and culture

Racism: A form of prejudice based on the belief that certain racial groups are inherently superior to others. Racist discourse generally attributes such characteristics to biology, although cultural and historical arguments may also come intro play. Critical Race Theory: A movement that studies and attempts to transform the relationship between race and power by examining the role of race and racism within the foundations of modern culture Equality: The state of being equal, especially in status, rights or opportunities Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms: A piece of Canadian legislation that seeks to protect individual rights and freedoms. The Charter expresses fundamental laws that help build the kind of community Canadians would like to enjoy Liberalism: An ideology that attempts to ensure that individuals and groups can resist and authoritarian demands, in practice, this have most commonly meant a split between a public world and a private world where rights are defined, the most common of which are to private property, as well as the free exercise of religion, speech and association. On January 29, 2008 the TDSB held a special meeting to consider the first ever Africentric school The author notes that schooling has largely failed in its promise to promote a more egalitarian society The education of black students must therefore be understood in the context of social practices that maintain or reinforce racial hierarchy

Exploring Lived Experiences The Critical Race Theory suggests there is a collective voice spoken by people of colour from racialized experiences Academics have used this theory in educational research not to determine whether racism exists but to determine the manner in which racial meaning and identities provide the basis for action, that being educational decision making for students of colour Study identified struggles faced by black students: negative stereotypes, colour-blindness, and prevailing school images and curriculum that served the interests of those in power

Black Canadian students have been disengaged to the point of leaving school in part because of the absence of Africentricity o a world view embraced in opposition of non-White peoples by Eurocentrism

Analyzing the Debate Three main themes in favour of the debate: o Presence of racism in mainstream school system o Self Determination o Equity Three main themes against the debate: o Absence of racism in the mainstream school system o Segregation o Formal equality The ordering of these themes is deliberate as they are in direct contrast/contradiction with one another:

Presence of Racism vs. Absence of Racism Those for the school state: o Discipline is disproportionately faced by black students who also face low expectations from educators o Overall disengagement and alienation experienced by black students o Lack of diverse educators (all white teachers) Those against: o Discrimination insignificant/simply does not exist o Race is irrelevant because student success is only possible when parents are fully involved o because Canada is a society that upholds the ideals of a liberal democracy it could not possibly be racist Self Determination vs. Segregation Those for: o Its not about segregation its about self-determination

o No one claims that Catholic schools or Greek schools are the second coming of apartheid; why would black schools be any more deleterious? Those opposing: o The Africentric school is indeed likened to institutionalized segregation o It will merely serve to turn the school into one long, endless field trip back to 1954 o Inadvertently removes diversity o Will hurt the one institution where kids of every colour can come

together to gain appreciation of one another Equity vs. Formal Equality Equity is by far the most popular theme in the whole debate Those for: o Eurocentricity as the status quo in the mainstream school system, Africentric school proponents argue for more inclusive and culturally relevant curriculum and pedagogy o Parents will have an alternative if they believe that the current curriculum is not meeting their childs needs Those against: o Africentric school does not support student success for all o Will place the board on a slippery slope toward segregation across the system: will have many groups before us According to the Charter, they are unable to refure separate schools for other groups, Equality however does not mean treating everyone the same. Equity is a pathway to achieving equality Specific consideration must therefore be given to the ways in which underachievement is compounded by the racialized realities faced by black students Conclusion The Africentric debate is full of paradoxes and contradictions and assumes different meanings, depending on ones social location and angle of vision

Those against stress liberal ideals such as multiculturalism, harmony, and tolerance Through the interpretive lens of equity and critical race theory, such arguments used against the school are juxtaposed against the hidden narratives of black students lived experiences of racism Perspectives put forth by opponents rest on misinformation and false assumptions of what the school will be for and who They also fail to understand the direness of current racialized realities and the means through which equality is achieved they serve to help demonstrate how racism is deeply imbedded within ostensibly liberal clais to racial equality

Part 3 - Socialization

23/04/2013 12:46:00 PM

Chapter 1-: Online Interactions among Men Who Have Sex with Men: Situated Performances and Sexual Education / Anthony P. Lombrado Qualitative: Describes analysis involving the descriptive accounts of behaviour, beliefs, feelings, or values, with few or no numerical data available for statistical analysis Quantitative: Describes analysis involving numerical representation and manipulation of observations for the purpose of describing and explaining the phenomena that those observations reflect Erving Goffman: The most influential and micro-sociologist during the 1960s and 1970s, Goffman pioneered the dramaturgical approach for sociology Presentation of Self: An individuals efforts to present a self acceptable to others in the context of social interactions. The concept was elaborated by Erving Goffman. He argues that individuals are usually successful in this process which is why social interactions usually proceed in a routine and regular fashion Quantitative research has focused mainly on risk behaviours among MSM who do and do not seek sex Qualitative research has focused mainly on how men use the internet in their sexual lives for learning about gay culture and social networking and their experiences seeking sex online o Has also noted the development of diverse subcultures of MSM online o The role of the online environment in mens socialization into gay culture The analysis doesnt focus so much on how men use online interaction learn about gay culture, but rather how men learned to participate and interact in the online sex-seeking process The study draws upon Erving Goffmans presentation of self in analyzing mens online interactions

Method Ethnographic exploration of the experiences of 23 MSM in the GTA Received Ethics approval from U of T

Findings Mens accounts showed how they learned to give legitimated performances of self in their online interactionspresentations of selves Examples demonstrate certain rules that govern how a an should present his front in the online sexual search, even it is at odds with how he actually perceives himself These rules also highlight the dominance of certain physical characteristic There is a possibility afforded by the online environment to present numerous and diverse selves each one appropriate to the particular setting Men had to learn how to construct the selves of their potential partners Goffmans (1959) concepts of the give and the given off are instructive here where men must be careful not onliy what to give and give off through their actions as well as whats given and given off by their potential partners Conversations represent important source of sexual education, especially where such information might be difficult to obtain elsewhere

Discussion Findings show that men were somewhat restricted in how they could present their self in the online sexual search Mens online interactions were influenced by active and passive constructions of potential partners * Key Question: how men build and maintain erotic capital in online settings and the implications for sexual behaviour With the continued emphasis on the physical in the presentation of self online, online sex-seeking may exacerbate, rather than diminish this particular issue, warranting further inquiry Future work should explore the role of these interactions in how men develop folk knowledge of sexual risk and safety Cyberspace hold the potential for many diverse subcultures in the sexual realm

Chapter 11: The Ecology of College Drinking: Revisiting the Role of the Campus Environment on Students Drinking Patterns / Nancy Beauregard, Andree Demers, and Louis Gliksman Social Practice Theory: A framework for social science researchers who attempt to describe how individuals in different societies across the globe shape and are shaped by the cultural atmosphere in which they live Likert Scale: A widely used technique for scaling attitudes. Respondents are presented with a number of items, some positively phrased and some negatively phrased, which have been found to discriminate most clearly between extreme views on the subject of study Addresses student drinking within the Social Practice Theory with an empirical investigation of Canadian Undergraduates In light of the pervasive public health concern that constitutes college drinking, it is now recognized that higher education institutions contribute to youth health capital

The Social Dynamics of Post-secondary Drinking A basic tenet in sociology contends that human activity defines and is defined by the social environment According to social norms theory, norms characterizing their campus environment modulate their drinking patterns These norms respectively represent students perceptions of the typicality (i.e. quantity) and moral acceptability (i.e. social expectations) of drinking behaviours commonly displayed by student peers Collective aspects of social norms are present when social norms perceptions are shared by a given group of students exposed to the same normative environment At the collective level, reports of decreased institutional rates in problematic students drinking due to stricter policies and availability were noted, but not consistently In sum, two areas may be targeted to comprehensively address the social dynamics of post-secondary drinking: o The integrations of plural institutional pathways o The specification of their analytical levels

Contextualizing Post-Secondary Drinking: Bridging Pathways and Analytical Levels Health lifestyles represent socially conditioned patterns at the junction of individuals life chances and choices Life choices: a process of agency by which individuals critically evaluate and choose their course of action Life choices are constantly enabled/constrained by life chances (the opportunities structures conferred to individuals following their location on the social structure) For Giddens, human activity is comprised of three specific modalities: o Normative: stresses the Centrality to display a skilled performance in the negotiation of drinking related sanctions (i.e. peer pressure) o Political: Directs attention to the impact of administrative power relationships on post-secondary students alcohol consumption through alcohol policies led by campus authorities o Semantic: Underlies the performative components of the act of drinking whose definition rests on commonly held assumptions by members of a given student community about the meaning of this lifestyle This subjective level incorporates students individual representations of the social environment while the collective level incorporates the sharedness in such representations proper to members of a student community

Method Sample: Data followed a hierarchical structure in which students were nested in their academic environments Dependent Vareiables Heavy episodic drinking (HED) Independent Variables: Student-Level Variables Items measured on likert scale (rate 1-5) Respondents perceptions about alcohol related perceptions on camput 2 items measuring semantics, normative, and political pathways

Covariates Gender, years in program, living arrangement, recreational-oriented activities profile, and intellectual-oriented activities Academic environment-level variables Collective alcohol-related practices were aggregated scores at the academic environment units of the individual scores obtained from subjective alcohol-related practice measures Analytical Procedure Both subjective and collective alcohol-related practices indicators were dichotomized above the median to emphasize riskier perceived practices Results 11.8% of the total variation in the risk for HED was attributable to academic environments Subjective Alcohol Related Practices: non-drinkers being undervalues and being part of the university experience increased the risk for HED after adjustment for covariates Collective Alcohol-Related Practices: To hold liquor in public and social acceptance based on alcohol consumption were risk factors for HED while weak rules of enforcement were a protective factor after adjustment for covariates Discussion Academic environments were associated through normative, political and semantic pathways to HED among students A significant amount of academic environments variability in HED was connected to collective alcohol-related practices, independent of their subjective measures and other individual correlates The semantic pathways investigated were associated with HED, and were so through their subjective measures only Individual perceptions that drinking is a highly valued practice and a common way to experience post-secondary life were shown to put students at risk Alcohol consumption is meaningfully constructed by students as a functional, integrative, and inherent social practice of post-secondary life

The political pathway revealed that students were at greater risk for HED in campus environments where drinking regulations were collectively perceived as being strongly, enforce, contradiction preliminary evidence

Conclusion Higher education institutions are powerful learning environments for youth health capital Chapter 12: Duality and Diversity in the Lives of Immigrant Children: Rethinking the Problem of the Second Generation in Light of Immigrant Autobiographies / Nedim Karakayali Two-Worlds Thesis: The idea that immigrants are caught between two worlds: their homeland and their host country Duality: The quality or character of being two-sided Introduction Mayo-Smith (1894) identified three major groups among what he called the whites: o native born of parentage, the true Americans who constituted a homogeneous body and to this body the other of more recent arrival tend to be assimilated o the whites of foreign bith, the immigrants the real element to be assimilated o the native born of foreign parents the second generation of immigrants Second generation immigrants stant half way between the native e and the foreign elementthey represent the process of assimilation in the act Children of immigrants are caught between the worlds or cultures of their parents and the host society remains relevant This paper is an examination of the two worlds thesis Two-worlds thesis depicts an existence shaped by uncertainty and ambivalence Author suggests that the problem of the second generation should be located in the tension between diversity and duality rather than being caught in between two worlds

Data Sources and Limitations of Study: Autobiographies as Data Source Not all immigrant autobiographies deal with the experience of migration Methodological Limitations Main objective is to show in what ways accounts in autobiographies diverge from two worlds thesis Depending on race, ethnicity, and gender, immigrant children articulate these relationships and potentials in different ways A Brief History of The Two Worlds Thesis Two-worlds thesis states that, immigrants will bring with them the principles of the governments they leave and transmit to their children In How Many Worlds Do Children of Immigrants Live? Individuation begins with immediate family There is no uniform, typical relationship between immigrant child and his or her family The desire to take part in the society at large is often induced by encounters in the ethnic community itself Becoming Someone Else: Diversity, Desire, and the Secret Life of Immigrant Children An immigrant child, especially in his or her adolescent years is likely to develop a myriad of relationships and participate in many different lives Researchers identify a positive potential projects and dreams emerging our of this complexity In this sense, autobiographies of immigrant children can be seen as the stories of a new personif not a new peoplein the making Why Do Children of Immigrants Feel That They Live in Two Worlds? If the theme of two worlds is omnipresent in them, this is mainly because it is omnipresent in the everyday life of immigrant children Almost from the day they are born, the distinction between a homeland and a new land permeates their lives, even seeping through the tales they hear

Concluding Remarks Problem with the two worlds thesis is its failure to note that this experience follows from the condition of living in a world where most people believe that there are only two worlds Misses that point that there is a desire to escape this dualitya desire for a new identity Chapter 13: Even If I dont Know What Im Doing, I Can Make It Look Like I Know What Im Doing: Becoming a Doctor in the 1990s / Brenda L. Beagan Socialization: The process by which we learn to become members of society, both by internalizing the norms and values of society and also by learning to perform our social roles (as worker, friend, citizen, and so forth) Ethnography: A term usually applied to the acts both of observing directly the behaviour of a social group and producing a written description thereof; some-times also referred to as fieldwork Impression Management: A dramaturgical concept, introduced by Erving Goffman. It highlights the ways in which persons in the company of others may present an image of themselves in particular ways

Introduction What does becoming a doctor look like now, when many students are female, are of diverse backgrounds, are working-class, gand and/or parents? Study draws on survey and interview data from students and faculty at a Canadian medical school Research Methods and Participants Survey of third year class Interviews with faculty members of the same school Third-year is a key year because it is transitioning from classroom to field Processes of Identity Formation

First Experiences Become Commonplace Process whereby what feels artificial and unnatural initially comes to feel natural, simply through repetition Constructing a Professional Appearance Most students do not require reminders of dress code; they have internalized the requisite standards 59% of respondents worry about appearance or dress at the hospital Changes in language, Thinking, and Communication Skills Acquiring a huge vocabulary of both new words and old words with new meaningswhat one stuent called medical-eseis one of the central tasks facing medical students and one of the major bases for examining them The language of medicine is the basis for constructing a new reality; it constructs zones of meaning that are linguistically circumscribed Students may simultaneously lose the communication abilities they had upon entering medical school

Learning The Hierarchy Both faculty and students pointed out the compliance and hierarchical structure inculcates in students, discouraging them from questioning those above them For students, being a good medical student means not challenging clinicians Whenever they disagree, as long as it does not harm the patient, they just add it to the list of things not to do

Relationship to Patients In relation to patients, evens students hold a certain amount of power Developing a hard shell as a way of dealing with feelings Students must strike a balance between empathy and objectivity, learning to overcome or master their emotions Other faculty members, rejected the emotional distancing approach to medicine in favour of one based in egalitarian connection

Playing a Role Gradually Becomes Real Students grow to simply tolerate high levels of uncertainty

Students quickly learn that it is risky to display lack of certainty; impression management becomes a central feature of clinical learning

Responses from Others The more others treat students as if they were doctors, the more the students feel like doctors For many students, patients were the single most important source of confirmation for their emerging identity as physicians Significantly more men then women were regularly called doctor and significantly more women had never been called doctor Secondary Socialization: Subsuming the Former Self? Most students indicated that medicine had largely taken over the rest of their lives, diminishing their performance of other responsibilities Most believed that medical school was dominating all other aspects of daily life Students instead just let go of parts of themselves, at least for a while Segregate their lives: it becomes possible to experience a segment of the self as distinct, to detach a part of the self and its concomitant reality as relevant only to the role-specific situation in question Difference as a Basis for Resistance Those most able to resist socialization pressures minimized contact and interaction with others in medicine, maintained outside relationships that supported an alternative orientation to the program, and entered their programs with a relatively strong and well-defined orientation Conclusion The basic processed of socializing new members into the profession of medicine remain remarkably similar, as students encounter new social norms, a new language, new thought processes, and a new world view that will eventually enable them to become full-fledged members of the team taking the expected role in the medical hierarchy Older students, gay students, or those coming from poverty or working class background may be more likely to do medical student differently

Part 5 - Families

23/04/2013 12:46:00 PM

Chapter 18: The More Things Change the More We Need Child Care: On the Fortieth Anniversary of the Report on the Royal Commission on the Status of Women / Patrizia Albanese Looks at how the Report of the Royal Commission on the Status of Women (1970) has not been a success Many students, and women across Canada have to worry, wait, pay, juggle, and run, in order to keep their jobs and feed their families Evidence that many recommendations have never put into action; precisely the creation of a national daycare program

National Child Care Strategies Since the Royal Commission With the Royal Commissions report, child care came to be widely seen as a necessary step toward gender equalityfor all women, not just the poor Each step highlighted the importance of child care beyond its role as part of social welfare. And each failed to deliver a national stratedy With many failed attempts, high-quality, affordable child care remains out of reach for many Canadians A Look at the Ottawa Valley Despite rapid social and economic changes that have increasingly called upon mothers of young children to (re)enter the labour force, precious little has been done, especially outside Quebec, to facilitate the changes, particularly when it comes to child care Royal Commission adopted four principles: o Women should be free to choose whether or not to take employment o Care of children is shared responsibility b/w mother, father, society o Society has responsibility for women / special treatment for maternity will always be necessary o In certain areas women will for an interim time require special treatment, to overcome discriminatory practices Author found women are not free to choose, due to economy Many women in the study ineligible to receive subsidies, lost their subsidy, or could not find a subsidized sport in their communities

Cost of care was a common answer when asked mothers to identify the most challenging thing when balancing paid work and family life Canadian society does not reflect the share responsibility of children b/w father, mother, society To this day, children and child care are treated as private matters and individual lifestyle choices

Chapter 19: Keeping the Family Intact: The Lived Experience of Sheltered Homeless Families / Annette Tezli Preliminary results of research that explores the lived experience of homeless families sheltered at the Emergency Family Shelter (EFS) Paper aims at contributing to the existing literature on homeless families by exploring how the social organization of the EFS shapes the lived experience of homeless families

The Families: In Their Own Words All has a common history of residential instability and often cited high rents and the shortage of affordable housing in Calgary as the main reason for not being able to maintain housing Overcrowding, stress and conflict with hosts or roomates were the most frequently cited reasons for leaving the shared living arrangement and turning to a shelter for accommodation, which was often the last resort after all other options had been exhausted Families could stay together at the EFS as a family Interpersonal Relationships and Family Dynamics within Shelter Life Some relationships were stronger than others and some parents got along with their children better than others

Negative Aspects of Shelter Life Living in a confined space, the entire family housed in a small cubicle with no privacy, can be a challenging and stressful experience for couples and can strain their relationship

If they are in a feud or want to show affection, they have no privacy Altercation between partners is almost an everyday occurrence, a disagreement often arises over the distribution of chores, child rearing responsibilities and approaches, the need for personal space, and the exchange of physical intimacy Some women at the EFS struggled with the situation of abusive partners staying with them at the shelter

Conclusion When families are in trouble, it can be beneficial for couples to be housed together and jointly work on their problems Despite homeless shelters attempts to the contrary, shelterization can have a negative impact on the families and their interpersonal relationships

Chapter 20: Love and Arranged Marriage in India Today: Negotiating Adulthood / Nancy S. Netting Arranged Marriages: Marriage planned and agreed upon by the families or guardians of the couple concerned Modernization Theory: Theory emphasizing that positive change in social conditions is related to the modernization of attitudes and beliefs Open-Ended Interviews: Interview that allowed the subject to direct the path of the discussion through questions without a set of specific answers Caste: Hereditary social status in social status in society, which is often linked with ideas of spiritual purity and socio-economic stratification. In Hindu Indian society, movement and marriage between castes are not acceptable Patrilocal Multigenerational Family: The family created when, after marriage, the wife lives in her husbands household, near or with the husbands kin and extended family Research discussed asks what is happening to the arranged-marriage tradition in the current environment of rapid economic change Examines two opposing hypotheses

o Modernization Theory: predicts the collapse of the arranged marriage system and its replacement with Western-style individual choice o Neo-traditionalism: predicts that Indian youth will instead see individualism as destructive of Indian family and religion; and thus strengthen their support of customs like arranged marriage Results showed that arranged marriages, as they exist in todays India, are a product of ongoing evolution While there is more free choice at every stage than in the past, parents still expect to initiate the courting process and reserve the right to terminate any relationship of which they disapprove If parents disapproved, the usual reason was incompatibility of the partners family. The second most frequent cause was that the boy was too young and without a stable job In many ways, the predictions of modernization theorists have been realized. Parents still play a decisive role in most marriages, but they put more emphasis on achieved characteristics such as education and occupation, rather than on ascribed ones To a lesser extent, neo-traditionalism is present as well; horoscopes premarital virginity and the requirement of parental support remain important Long years of education have brought Indias middle class youth more physical independence, modern skills, and intellectual sophistication than earlier generations have ever experienced Young women want the rights to continue their careers, to have a small number of children and to maintain responsibility for their own parents (instead of their husbands) after marriage Men want more freedom of sexual expression for themselves and their partners, not only before but also during marriage Respondents spoke of their hopes to create an intimate space where emotion, sexuality, ideas, and needs could be safely expressed o Difficult to achieve because it is not a major goal of the patrilocal multigenerational family Compatibility of backgrounds, interests, values and education were valued by the respondents because the made intimacy possible

The prevailing tone expressed by Indian youth approaching marriage is not one of defiance or rebellion, but of conscious attention to their own needs and empathy for those of their parents

Gender Equality and Gender Differences: Parenting, Habitus, and Embodiment (The 2008 Porter Lecture) / Andrea Doucet Social and Political Landscapes: Men and Mothering When men are taking on much or most of the family caregiving, then they are mothering Sara Ruddicik, Maternal Thinking wanted to challenge and disrupt the binary distinction between mothers and fathers and the taken-for-granted ideological and discursive lapse between mother/carer/homemaker and father/provider/breadwinner On one hand, the argument that gender should not matter in parenting is grounded in the basic tenets of equality feminism and liberal feminism There are feminists and father rights groups who take on the postion that men do not mother For feminists, a position that recognizes gender differences in parenting is theoretically informed by difference feminism, or what feminist theorists have referred to as the difference category Researching Men and Mothering Drew directly on Ruddicks (1995) threefold conception of maternal demands: o preservation, growth, and social acceptability and explored them not as demands but as responsabilities: o emotional, community, moral Emotional Responsibility