08 Chapter 2sss

CHAPTER 11
SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE
Methods of Evaluation Factors in Internal Assessment Peer Evaluation Self-Evaluation Parent Opinions on Student Evaluation Conclusion References
Prepared by BeeHive Digital Concepts Cochin for Mahatma Gandhi University Kottayam
CHAPTER ll SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE

The sunley of related literature implies, locating, studying and evaluating reports of researches relevant to the topic under investigation. This enables the investigator to have a clear picture of the problem area. Again, it performs certain other functions such as avoiding the risk of duplication and contributing to the general scholarship of the investigator. "It is a crucial step which invariably m~nimisesthe risk of dead ends, rejected topics, rejected studies, wasted effort, trial and error activity oriented towards approaches already discarded by previous investigators, and even more important erroneous findings based on a faulty research design" (Mouly,
1963).
It can be noted that Crit~cal Dictionary of Education (1982), says on the terms like Evaluation, Measurement and Testing, "educational discourse has many words that related to the broad task of judging the worth of a person, including 'evaluating, 'assessing', 'examining', 'testing', 'marking', 'grading', and 'scoring'. Such words are often confused; one person's
'testing', is another person's 'assessing', and 'marking' in one country may be 'grading' in another". 'Assessing ' and 'appraising' are general terms that may indicate a variety of ideas and activit~es. On various occasions, both these words have been used as synonymous for very different terms: 'measuring' on one hand, or 'evaluating' on the other.
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Survey of Related Literature
Evaluation by teachers through teacher made and standardised tests, observation and other techniques are called internal assessment, i.e., assessment done internally by the teachers teaching in the same institution. External examination or assessment is organised and conducted by an external agency other than the institution. Internal assessment rectifies a major defect of the external examination. In place of depending on the results of the assessment at any one time or at a particular time, internal assessment can be continuous as desired. As in the case of general evaluation, the field of educational evaluation in lndia is still in its infancy. There is still no clear recognition on the part of many educational researchers in lndia that some strong and immediate steps must be taken to improve the methodology of educational evaluation if it is to have a respectable future. Most educational evaluations have failed to tackle the problems of conceptualisation, measurement, sampling and generalisability. Saskatchewan Department of Education, published a handbook, Student Evaluation (1991) The guiding principles of this handbook are that evaluation should be treated as an ongoing and comprehensive process that is pervaded by careful planning and systematic implementation. Evaluation is considered to be a critical element that influences teacher's decision-making and guides student learn~ng.
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Deitz (1995) in his work, summarises examples of assessment strategies put forth by the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics in "Assessment Standards for School Mathematics". Strategies include teacher observation of student behaviour, problem-solving projects that involve one or more students, and having student's right responses to problems in mathematics. In the following sections, the investigator reviews the most important studies related to the area of Internal Assessment in educational institutions These studies are grouped in the following categories: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
2.1
Methods of Evaluation Teacher Evaluation Peer Evaluation Self-Evaluation METHODS OF EVALUATION Research in educational evaluation and examination in the and
context of India is somewhat widespread. Rao and Bharathi (1989) made an attempt on the Continuous Evaluation System (CES) of examination in Kendriya Vidyalayas by studying the effects of such continuous evaluations on the final performance of the students. Their major findings were the following:
27
Suwey of Related Literature
(1) The marks scored in the continuous evaluation procedure were added
with the marks of the final examination. (2) Those students who were not able to score good marks in the internal assessment (continuous internal evaluation) were affected as they could score less marks in aggregate when compared with the other students. The findings of the study led to the following conclusions: The general pattern of internal evaluation is identical in arts, commerce and science colleges.
A trend of decrease in the weightage given to the internal evaluation in
arts, commerce and science colleges, and an increase of weightage in the training colleges was shown. The internal evaluation increased the administrative and clerical work for the Principals, Teachers and college offices and also increased the expenditure. The teachers and the principals are not in favour of the discontinuation of the internal evaluation. Though there was a moderately significant positive correlation between internal assessment marks and the university examination marks, no significant correlation was found between tutorial marks and college test marks.
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The mean scores of tutorial marks were found to be significantly higher than those of the university examination marks, i.e., college test marks. Raina (1974) in the study on the relationship between the external examination marks and internal assessment of M.Ed. students attempted to provide a comparison between the conventional system, where there is only external examination and the other system where there is a continuous internal evaluation procedure adopted for postgraduate teachers, and teachers of colleges affiliated to the University of Rajasthan. The major findings of the study were the following:
(1) There
was
no significant relationship between the
external
examination marks and the sessional work marks of the sample students taken into consideration separately and also when session and dissertation marks were taken into consideration conjointly. (2) The weaker students in the external examinations benefited more from sessional work than the students who have better performance to their credit in the external examination. Kamat (1974) In a study on the Internal and External Assessments analysed and compared the two kinds of assessment and examined the effects of the introduction of the scheme of external assessment on the results of the Pre-degree examination of the University of Poona.
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The study revealed that the coefficient of correlation between the internal and external assessment was not high; it was smaller in respect of the arts subjects than the science subjects and it was smaller in the colleges in the mofussil areas than in the colleges in Poona city. The dispersion of the internal assessment was generally greater, especially in arts subjects, than the dispersion of the external assessment. Rao (1974) studied the systems of tests and Examinations, both internal and external, in the secondary schools of Tamil Nadu, to make reforms in the examinations. The major purpose of the investigation was to study the present system of tests and examinations in the secondary schools of Tamil Nadu with special reference to the present practice followed in conducting internal and external examination in the secondary schools of Tamil Nadu as well as some problems arising out of the introduction of internal assessment. The values of correlation coefficients between the external and the internal assessment were found to be greater in the language subjects as compared to other subjects. The findings showed an indication that the
students were suspicious about trend of teachers who were engaged in the process of assessing students internally. Taneja and Ahluwalla (1966), compiled abstracts of M.Ed. Dissertations which Investigated the internal assessment procedures in Training Colleges of Punjab. The study tried to find out the variations in
30
procedures and practices in respect of internal assessment of student teachers (B.Ed.) as well as to discover the various difficulties and defects in the implementation of the system of internal assessment in the training colleges of Punjab. The major findings of the study highlight that: (1) Though there was considerable agreement among the Principals of Training Colleges to continue the system of internal assessment, there was no consensus as to its retention. (2) Internal assessment in respect of theory papers, community activity and craft work varied widely with respect to the nature of evaluation frequency and weightages given by different colleges.
2.2 FACTORS IN INTERNAL ASSESSMENT
Sylvia (1991) in her study, explains student achievement at various levels. The students are informed about the various criteria used for assessing them internally The findings of the study point towards the fact that if the students have got a sound understanding about the system of internal assessment, they will behave and react positively. 1 (1994) in the book, "Instructional Assessment", Fradd et a meets a critical assessment need, which is the need to develop legally and educationally defensible assessment procedures for use with non-English language background students who are still in the process of learning English.
- .
The purpose of this text is to provide educators the information in respect to the tools and the techniques that may be used in assessing the effective educational decisions and the knowledge and insight to enable them to nonEnglish language background students, internally and apply this information in both theoretical and practical contexts. 2.2.1 Factors i n Student Assessment Alberta Department of Education, Edmonton (1994), in the study on Evaluating Students' Learning and Communication, presents diagnostic teaching units for grade 7 science and grade 14 science. The student
activities of the diagnostic teaching units in the handbook have been designed to engage students in the six learning and communication processes, exploring, narrating, imagining, empathising, abstracting and monitoring described in the companion handbook. Each unit includes a general
description of the various methods for each lesson. As per the narration in the handbook, the students are expected to have a comprehension of the various teaching-learning activities and that performance would be assessed correspondingly with the regular session. They will be given reasonable
weightage when the final progress is estimated. Beck et al. (1995) in their article, evaluating student
performance, proposes that to assess students; preparedness to deliver pharmaceutical care; pharmacy schools have experimental evaluation systems consisting of multiple assessment methods, guidelines for optimal
32
use, and procedures to promote faculty-student communication about performance. Objective structured clinical examinations, collaboratively
produced, and examinations consisting of extended matching items are recommended as evaluation instruments. These evaluation instruments are being practised on the students by giving reasonable weightage. Their
corresponding performance is thus assessed frequently and continuously. Aikenhead and Dufee (1992) in their article on student evaluation, provides an analysis of data collected in a study of six teachers reflecting upon their evaluation practices as they contemplated implanting a Science-Technology-Society curriculum. The authors concluded that teacher evaluation methods are dependent upon personal understandings of the assessment process developed from teaching experiences, personal
evaluations, family influences and interactions with colleagues. They were of the strong opinion that the students were to be rated and assessed on the basis of their various potentialities along with the academic performance; the deserving candidates should be given ample weightage and consideration. Pike and Kasworm (1994) through one of their studies, examined pattern of coursework of 1099 adult students' academic Results suggest that
performance appraised by teaching personnel.
traditional models are inappropriate to this large and growing proportion of the college student population. More importance is given to conventional
33
methods of evaluating students still even though criteria for student evaluation have been changed nowadays. Riner (1993) in a study evaluated both a university student teaching programme and the procedures used to evaluate individual student, and suggested that these evaluat~onprocedures need the application of various criteria used for internal assessment on a scientific basis. Bodle (1994) in a research paper on "Student Evaluations", used candid interviews with journalism educators regarding negative student evaluations. Here, he discusses an understanding on student evaluations; handling rejection; learning from the process; the shortcomings of evaluations; and keeping all students under the internal evaluation procedure by absorbing the major criteria adopted for assessing them internally. Donmoyer (1993) discusses fairness in student evaluation, focussing procedures of internal evaluation, criteria adopted for the same, i.e., participation in seminars, class attendance, submission of assignments, projects etc. and points towards the reluctance of some students to do the same. He is of the clear opinion that if the above mentioned aspects are observed on a scientific basis, the internal evaluation can be performed satisfactorily. Platt (1993) through his study on student evaluations asserts that standardised teacher evaluation form belittle students by blending them into an anonymous mass and emphasise that writing is not so important. The
34
study consolidated that rather than increasing students' efficiencies, teacher evaluation enhanced administrator's power and posed a danger to intellectual freedom. So, all such practices have a negative influence on students with respect of internal evaluation. Russel and Rothman (1993) analysed, a method of student evaluation of preclerkship clinical medical teaching used at the University of Toronto (Canada). The findings were that a high response rate had yielded data on individual teacher effectiveness and had been accepted to students.
2.3
PEER EVALUATION Cadiz and Levi (1998) in their study examined one of the biggest
problems students face in team projects in social loafing, a situation in which the students may view team projects as a free ride. This research examined the performance of students grading other student team members on a group project. Team members' evaluations were part of the grade. All evaluations were confidential; and other students never saw the evaluations.
behaviourally anchored scale was designed and used to discharge ratings based merely on personality. 'The scale developed for this study was based on student opinions about the important task and social behaviours in teamwork. Ratings by students did make sense and the correlations between the behaviourally anchored scales and the overall team's ratings were significant. Student ratings of teamwork were different and independent from their project grades.
35
S~mkin and Marcoulides (1991) through their publication, made use of a prepared evaluation from generalizability theory to judge the reliability of student grading of their peer's papers. Findings suggested that students can be consistent and fair in their assessments. Student practice in peer evaluation will help to develop the management skill of employee evaluation. Morgan and Gliner (1997) in their study explained that students often have difficulty in evaluating the validity of a study, as they are unaware of the various techniques for conducting internal evaluation.
A conceptually and linguistically meaningful framework for

evaluating peers is proposed that is based on the discussion of internal and external validity of Cook and Campbell (1979). The proposal includes six key dimensions; three related to internal validity (instrument reliability and statistics, equ~valence of participant characteristics and control of experience I environment variables) and three related to external validity (operations and instrument validity, population validity and ecological validity). The usage of these scales is illustrated through a study by J.A. Gliner and P.Sample (1996) in which the purpose was to increase the quality of evaluation tool used for assessing peers internally in effective manners. Results suggested that peer evaluation helped to play vital role in internal assessment of pupils. Sherrard et al. (1994) through their empirical study, states that grades in a university classroom were based on peer evaluation and faculty assessments. Demographics of peer evaluators were found to introduce little
SurVey of Related Literature
bias into the peer evaluation process, although the response of women was much higher than men. Students harboured considerable concern about
being evaluated by their classmates

2.4 SELF-EVALUATION
Boersma et al. (1995) in their report on Improving Student SelfEvaluation descr~beda series of curricular modifications made an effort to increase students' ability to self-assess and set goals. Problems with selfevaluation and goal setting were documented through parent, teacher and student surveys Observations made on instructional methods revealed an
absence of possible alternative strategies and an overemphasis on teacherdependent assessment of students The corresponding findings showed an
inclination towards the fact that even though there is the practice of internal evaluation, the students should be given reasonable freedom to project their various potentialities. Klenowsk~ (1995) in the study on student self-evaluation processes, reports a research in student self-evaluation processes. Student self-evaluation requires judgement of the 'worth' of one's performance and the identification of strengths and weaknesses with a view to improving learning outcomes. Analysis of both types of self-evaluation identified several
elements: use of criteria, teacher-student interactive dialogue and ascription of a grade The ~ntended learning outcomes for students included
independence in their learning, responsibility for decision making related to
37
assignments, pro-activity and creativity in taking charge of their own work. The findings of the research indicated that despite all the constraints in the passage, it was possible to see an empowering impact on students. Twale, Shannon and Moore (1997) through their study, compared self-ratings and undergraduate student ratings of graduate teaching assistants (GTAs) on nine factors of teaching effectiveness, examining mathematics and science GTAs who speak English as their native language (NGTAs) differ from their international counterparts (IGTAs). Overall, selfratings were consistently higher than student ratings. Rating differences
depended on specific teaching effectiveness factors and ratings source. Lenski et al. (1996) in their study, discuss student-led parent conferences at Metcalf Laboratory School. It was found that students can
learn how to reflect on their learning, evaluate their progress, and communicate this information to their parents in a conference situation. Conclusion is that students were empowered and that student-led
conferences were a good way to use guided participation to create a community of learners capable of self-evaluation. Haswell (1993) in a work on Student Self-Evaluations and Developmental Change, examined the connections between college student self-evaluat~on and student development; it is proposed that such selfevaluation by actively emphasising on specific aspects of cognitive,
38
~
development can integrate their experience of selfpsychological and soc~al evaluation Moore and Hunter (1993) through their study, describes that college student self-evaluations can assist in institutional outcomes
assessment by helping educators understand the content, context and process of learning at both individual and institutional levels, and from the perspective of either research or assessment. Currently, self-assessment is used primarily in evaluating broad learning outcomes and individual development Kusnic and Finely (1993) in their publication, describes that selfevaluation is a learning strategy that can help college students, particularly non-traditional experiences. students, build coherence through their educational
Faculty need to approach students' reflective, self-evaluative
writing as learners listening to what students say and using it as a guide to aid student development. Wilson and Wright (1 993) in a study on The Predictive Validity of Student self-Evaluations, examined 301 students in grades 8 through 12 in 4 rural Appalachian schools, the abrlity of several school-related variables (including self-evaluations, teachers' evaluations and grades) to predict performance on 2 scales of the Differential Aptitude Test was studied. Teacher perceptions and student self-evaluation are moderately valid predictors.
39
~
Barnes and Barnes (1993) had explained in a study in one private university classified four academic disciplines to compare student evaluations of courses for organisation, breadth of coverage, group interaction, enthusiasm, grading and individual support. Results suggest a
single evaluation form may not be appropriate for all disciplines. Poirot (1993) in an article, the fourth in a series on work conducted at the Texas Center for Educational Technology and the University of Texas, discusses evaluative measures needed to access the improvements that educational technology may have on students' problem solving, critical thinking and content-level abilities. It is an indication that all these aspects should have a bearing in the curricular and co-curricular activities that may help them disclose the various capacities and abilities already they have with them.
2.5 PARENT OPINIONS ON STUDENT EVALUATION

Greene (1991) conducted a study to determine the methods of student evaluation that the parents felt most effective in helping them to assist their child's effort to develop skills and understand their child's performance in school. It was found that most parents thought conferences were the most informative kind of evaluation in terms of help that may be given to their children. Developmental checklists were the second choice of parents of first grade students, while letter grades and conferences were the first choices of fourth graders' parents.
40
.
2.6 CONCLUSION The foregoing review of related studies throws light on the nature of work done relating to the problem under study. It helped the
investigator a lot in defining the problem, limiting the scope and formulating hypotheses. Some useful suggestions have been given while pointing out the need for overhauling the system of internal assessment in the light of the changing social demands. Training of teacher educators in the techniques of evaluation is the need of the hour. The quality of colleges, staff, equipment and library may be improved. Evaluation procedures may be strengthened, updated and made systematic and scientific.
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References Alberta Department of Education, Edmonton, Student Evaluation Branch (1993). Evaluating students' learning and communication processes. Handbook 3-Diagnostic teaching units: Social studies. Alberta: Alberta Department of Education, p.320. Barnes, Laura L. and Barnes, Michael W. (1993). Academic discipline and generalisability of student evaluations of instruction. California: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.42. Beck, Diana E (1995). Evaluating student performance in the experimental setting with conference. American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education, Vol. 1 1 1 , 22-34. Bodle, John V. (1994). Evaluating student evaluations. The search for perspective. Illinois: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.55 Boersma. Gloria (1995). Improving student evaluation through authentic assessment. Illinois: ERlC Document Reproduction S e ~ ~ cp.138. e, Cook, T.D. and Campbell, D.T. (1979). Helping students evaluate the reliability of a research study. Colorado: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.20. Dietz, Charles (1995). The new standards: Evaluating student progress. Ontario: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.40. Donmoyer, Robert (1993). Art criticism as a guide to student evaluation. Ontario: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.55. Duffee, L. and Aikenhead, G. (1992). Curriculum change, Student Evaluation and Teacher Practical Knowledge. Ontario: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.160. Eliner, J.A., and Sample, P. (1996). Creating local norms to evaluate students in a State-wide testing program. Hawaii: ERlC p.56. Document Reproduction Service, Fradd, Sandra Homlar (1994). Instructional assessment: An integrative approach to evaluating student performance. Florida ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.509. Haswell. Richard H. (1993). Student self-evaluations and development change. Louisiana: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p 4 0
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13. Kamat, A.R. (1974). The internal and external assessments. A survey of research in education. Baroda: Centre of Advanced Studies in Education, p.390. 14. Kasworm, Carol E.. & Pike, Gary R. (1994). Adult undergraduate student: Evaluating appropriateness of a traditional model of New Brunton: ERlC Document academic performance. Reproduction Service, p.30 15. Klenowsk~, Val (1995). Student self-evaluation processes: Empowering students in learner-centred contexts. London: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.22.
16. Kusnic, Edith and Finley, Mary Lou (1993). Student self-evaluation: An introduction and rationale. Louisiana: ERIC Document Reproduction Service, p.40.
17. Lensk~, Susan Davis (1996). Honouring student self-evaluating in the classroom community. New York: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.24. 18. Levi, Daniel and Cadiz, Dav~d(1998). Evaluating team work on student projects. The use of behaviourally anchored scales to evaluate student performance. California: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.11 19. Marcoulides, George and Simkin, Mark G. (1991). Evaluating student papers. The case of peer review. California: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.28. 20. Moore, William S. and Hunter, Steve (1993). Beyondmildly interesting facts. Student self-evaluations and outcomes assessment. Ohio: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.60. 21. Morgan, George A. and Gliner, Jeffrey A. (1997). Helping students evaluate the validity of a research study. Colorado: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.20. 22. Mouly, George J. (1963). The science of educational research. New York: American Book Company. 23. Platt, Michael (1993). What student evaluation teach? Alberta: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.20. 24. Poirot, James L. (1993). Assessing and evaluating student gains. Ontario: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.45. 25. Raina, T N (1974). Relationship between external examination marks and internal assessment of M.Ed. students, Basic Teachers' Training College. Sardarshar. In M.B. Buch (ed.). A survey of research in education. Baroda: Centre of Advanced Studies in Education, p.407
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26. Rao, R.S. and Bharathi, M. (1974). An investigation into the present systems of tests and examinations. In M.B.Buch (ed.). A survey of research in education. Baroda: Centre of Advanced Studies in Education, p.408. 27 Riner, Philip S. (1993). Evaluating student teaching by multiple lines of evidence. Brunton: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, pp. 220-225. 28. Rowntree, Derek (1982). A critical dictionary of education. London: Harper and Row Publishers, 29. Russel, M Lynn and Rothman, Arthur (1993). Consensus evaluation: A method of student evaluation yielding a high retrieval rate and ranking scores. California: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.15. 30. Saskatchewan Department of Education (1991). Student evaluation: A teacher handbook. Ottawa: Saskatchewan, p.130.
31. Sherrard, William R. (1994). An empirical study of peer bias in evaluations: Students rating students. California: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.120.
32. Sylvia. Larter (1991). Benchmarks: The development of a new approach to student evaluation. Ontario: Toronto Board of Education. p.122. 33. Taneja, V.B. and Ahluwalia, S.P. (1966). The systems of internal assessment. In M.B. Buch (ed.). A survey of research in education. Baroda: Centre of Advanced Studies in Education, p.280
34 Twale, Daria; Shannon David, M; and Moore, Mathew, S. (1997). NGTA
and IGTA training experience comparisons between self-rating and undergraduate student evaluations. South Carolina: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.38. 35. Wilson, Jean and Wright, Claudia, R. (1993). The predictive validity of student self-evaluations, teachers' assessments, and grades for performance on the verbal reasoning and numerical ability scales of the differential aptitude test for a sample of secondary school students attending rural Appalachia schools. Ohio: ERlC Document Reproduction Service, p.35.

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CHAPTER 11

SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE

CHAPTER ll SURVEY OF RELATED LITERATURE

no significant relationship between the

Survey of Related Literature

Survey of Related Literature

performance appraised by teaching personnel.

Survey of Related Literature

A conceptually and linguistically meaningful framework for

SurVey of Related Literature

being evaluated by their classmates

independence in their learning, responsibility for decision making related to

Survey of Related Literature

Faculty need to approach students' reflective, self-evaluative

2.5 PARENT OPINIONS ON STUDENT EVALUATION

Survey of Related Literature

Survey of Related Literature

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