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An overview or tutorial about surface mount technology, SMT and surface mount devices SMDs
Surface mount technology, SMT includes: SMT overview SMD component packages SMD resistor SMD resistor markings MELF SMD resistor SMD capacitor Quad Flat Package, QFP BGA, Ball Grid Array SMD PLCC
Virtually all of today's mass produced electronics hardware is manufactured using surface mount technology, SMT. The associated surface mount devices, SMDs provide many advantages over their leaded predecessors in terms of manufacturability and often performance. It was not until the 1980's that surface mount technology, SMT became widely used. Once SMT started to be used, the change from conventional leaded components to surface mount devices, SMDs took place quickly in view of the enormous gains that could be made using SMT.
Why SMT?
Mass produced electronic circuit boards need to be manufactured in a highly mechanised manner to ensure the lowest cost of manufacture. The traditional leaded electronic components do not lend themselves to this approach. Although some mechanisation was possible, component leads needed to be pre-formed. Also when the leads were inserted into boards automatically problems were often encountered as wires would often not fit properly slowing production rates considerably. It was reasoned that the wires that had traditionally been used for connections were not actually needed for printed circuit board construction. Rather than having leads placed through holes, the components could be soldered onto pads on the board instead. This also saved creating the lead holes in the boards which added cost to the production of the bare PCBs.
Typical SMT board with transistors, and passive components As the components were mounted on the surface of the board, rather than having connections that went through holes in the board, the new technology was called surface mount technology or
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SMT and the devices used were surface mount devices, SMDs. The idea for SMT was adopted very quickly because it enabled greater levels of mechanisation to be used, and it considerably saved on manufacturing costs. To accommodate surface mount technology, SMT, a completely new set of components was needed. New SMT outlines were required, and often the same components, e.g. ICs were sold in both traditional leaded packages and SMT packages. Despite this, the gains of using SMT proved to be so large that it was adopted very quickly.
Passive SMDs: There is quite a variety of different packages used for passive SMDs. However the majority of passive SMDs are either resistors or capacitors for which the package sizes are reasonably well standardised. Other components including coils, crystals and others tend to have more individual requirements and hence their own packages. Resistors and capacitors have a variety of package sizes. These have designations that include: 1812, 1206, 0805, 0603, 0402, and 0201. The figures refer to the dimensions in hundreds of an inch. In other words the 1206 measures 12 hundreds by 6 hundreds of an inch. The larger sizes such as 1812 and 1206 were some of the first that were used. They are not in widespread use now as much smaller components are generally required. However they may find use in applications where larger power levels are needed or where other considerations require the larger size. The connections to the printed circuit board are made through metallised areas at either end of the package.
Transistors and diodes: These components are often contained in a small plastic package. The connections are made via leads which emanate from the package and are bent so that they touch the board. Three leads are always used for these packages. In this way it is easy to identify which way round the device must go. Integrated circuits: There is a variety of packages which are used for integrated circuits. The package used depends upon the level of interconnectivity required. Many chips like the simple logic chips may only require 14 or 16 pins, whereas other like the VLSI processors and associated chips can require up to 200 or more. In view of the wide variation of requirements there is a number of different packages available. For the smaller chips, packages such as the SOIC (Small Outline Integrated Circuit) may
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be used. These are effectively the SMT version of the familiar DIL (Dual In Line) packages used for the familiar 74 series logic chips. Additionally there are smaller versions including TSOP (Thin Small Outline Package) and SSOP (Shrink Small Outline Package). The VLSI chips require a different approach. Typically a package known as a quad flat pack is used. This has a square or rectangular footprint and has pins emanating on all four sides. Pins again are bent out of the package in what is termed a gull-wing formation so that they meet the board. The spacing of the pins is dependent upon the number of pins required. For some chips it may be as close as 20 thousandths of an inch. Great care is required when packaging these chips and handling them as the pins are very easily bent. Other packages are also available. One known as a BGA (Ball Grid Array) is used in many applications. Instead of having the connections on the side of the package, they are underneath. The connection pads have balls of solder that melt during the soldering process, thereby making a good connection with the board and mechanically attaching it. As the whole of the underside of the package can be used, the pitch of the connections is wider and it is found to be much more reliable. A smaller version of the BGA, known as the microBGA is also being used for some ICs. As the name suggests it is a smaller version of the BGA.
SMT in use
SMT is used almost exclusively for the manufacture of electronic circuit boards these days. Now it is found that SMDs are far more widely used than traditional leaded components, and as a result, traditional leaded components are considerably less common. Some components, particularly high density ICs may only be available in SMT packages. While there is still a need for many traditional components, SMDs now form the main line stream for components
Of these sizes, the 1812, and 1206 sizes are now only used for specialized components or ones requiring larger levels of power to be dissipated The 0603 and 0402 SMT sizes are the most widely used.
Transistor packages
SOT-23 - Small Outline Transistor. This is SMT package has three terminals for a diode of transistor, bit it can have more pins when it may be used for small integrated circuits such as an operational amplifier, etc. It measures 3 mm x 1.75 mm x 1.3 mm. SOT-223 - Small Outline Transistor. This package is used for higher power devices. It measures 6.7 mm x 3.7 mm x 1.8 mm. There are generally four terminals, one of which is a large heat-transfer pad.
SOIC - Small Outline Integrated Circuit. This has a dual in line configuration and gull wing leads with a pin spacing of 1.27 mm TSOP - Thin Small Outline Package. This package is thinner than the SOIC and has a smaller pin spacing of 0.5 mm SSOP - Shrink Small Outline Package. This has a pin spacing of 0.635 mm TSSOP - Thin Shrink Small Outline Package. PLCC - Plastic Leaded Chip Carrier. This type of package is square and uses J-lead pins with a spacing of 1.27 mm QSOP - Quarter-size Small Outline Package. It has a pin spacing of 0.635 mm VSOP - Very Small Outline Package. This is smaller than the QSOP and has pin spacing of 0.4, 0.5, or 0.65 mm. LQFP - Low profile Quad Flat Pack. This package has pins on all four sides. Pin spacing varies according to the IC, but the height is 1.4 mm. PQFP - Plastic Quad Flat Pack. A square plastic package with equal number of gull wing style pins on each side. Typically narrow spacing and often 44 or more pins. Normally used for VLSI circuits. CQFP - Ceramic Quad Flat Pack. A ceramic version of the PQFP. TQFP - Thin Quad Flat Pack. A thin version of the PQFP. BGA - Ball Grid Array. A package that uses pads underneath the package to make contact wit the printed circuit board. Before soldering the pads appear as solder balls, giving rise to the name. By placing the pads underneath the package there is more room for them, thereby overcoming some of the problems of the very thin leads required for the quad flat packs. The ball spacing on BGAs is typically 1.27 mm.
SMD Resistor
- an overview of surface mount technology SMT resistors, or SMD resistors, their packages and properties.
Surface mount device , SMD, resistors are the most widely used electronic component. Every day many millions are used to produce the electronic equipment from cell phones to televisions and MP3 players, and commercial communications equipment to high technology research equipment.
It can be seen from the dimensions in Imperial measurements, that the package names correspond to the dimensions in hundredths of an inch. This an SMD resistor with an 0805 package measures 0.08 by 0.05 inches.
Temperature coefficient: Again the use of metal oxide film enables these SMD resistors to provide a good temperature coefficient. Values of 25, 50 and 100 ppm / C are available.
Applications
SMD resistors are used in many designs. Their size not only means that they are suitable for compact circuit boards, and for automatic assembly techniques, but it also ahs the advantage that they perform well at radio frequencies. Their size means that they have little spurious inductance and capacitance. Nevertheless care has to be taken when calculating their power dissipation as they can only dissipate small levels of power. ..............
Three figure SMD resistor marking system Four figure SMD resistor marking system EIA96 SMD resistor marking system
Therefore an SMD resistor with the figures 472 would have a resistance of 47 x 102 ohms, or 4.7k. However beware of resistors marked with figures such as 100. This is not 100 ohms, but it follows the scheme exactly and it is 10 x 100 or 10 x 1 = 10 .
Where resistance values less than ten ohms are used, the letter "R" is used to indicate the position of the decimal point. As an example, a resistor with the value 4R7 would be 4.7.
Resistors with values of less than 100 ohms are marked utilise the letter 'R', as before, to indicate the position of the decimal point.
The details for the EIA SMT resistor marking scheme are tabulated below:
Code
Multiplier
Z 0.001 Y or R 0.01 X or S 0.1 A 1 B or H 10 C 100 D 1 000 E 10 000 F 100 000 EIA SMT resistor marking scheme multipliers
Code 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Sig Figs 100 102 105 107 110 113 115 118 121 124 127 130 133 137 140 143 147 150 154 158 162 165 169 174
Code Sig Figs Code Sig Figs 25 178 49 316 26 182 50 324 27 187 51 332 28 191 52 340 29 196 53 348 30 200 54 357 31 205 55 365 32 210 56 374 33 215 57 383 34 221 58 392 35 226 59 402 36 232 60 412 37 237 61 422 38 243 62 432 39 249 63 422 40 255 64 453 41 261 65 464 42 267 66 475 43 274 67 487 44 280 68 499 45 287 69 511 46 294 70 523 47 301 71 536 48 309 72 549 EIA SMT resistor marking scheme significant figures
Code 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96
Sig Figs 562 576 590 604 619 634 649 665 681 698 715 732 750 768 787 806 825 845 866 887 909 931 953 976
For example a resistor that is marked 68X can be split into two elements. 68 refers to the significant figures 499, and X refers to a multiplier of 0.1. Therefore the value indicated is 499 x 0.1 = 49.9.
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MELF Resistor
- details of the MELF resistor a surface mount device, SMD used to provide superior performance over SMT resistors in certain applications.
Another form of SMD resistor that can be used is known as the MELF resistor - Metal Electrode Leadless Face. These resistors are not nearly as widely used as the standard SMD resistors, but in some instances they provide advantages and can be used.
MELF resistors provide a high level of reliability. A MELF resistor has a more predictable pulse handling capacity than other SMD resistors MELF resistors can be manufactured with tolerances as tight as 0.1% They can be manufactured with very low levels of temperature coefficient, sometimes as low as 5 ppm/C
Although the standard flat chip resistors are cheaper and much easier to handle during manufacture, the performance of MELF resistor can be an overriding factor making them a cost effective solution
easy to use. As such the MELF SMD resistor marking code is effectively the same as that used for leaded resistors. There are three variations used:
Four band code: This system is used for resistors with tolerances up to 5% using the E24 resistor series. The first two bands provide the significant digits. The third band provides the multiplier and the fourth, normally wider, provides the tolerance.
Sometimes an alternative colour banding system may be used where the bands are all grouped towards one end of the MELF resistor rather than having a wider band at the far end.
Five band code: This system is used for higher tolerance resistors typically better than 1% that use the E48, E96 or E192 series values. The first three bands provide the significant figures. The fourth band gives the multiplier and the fifth band gives the tolerance.
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Six band code: This code provides space for a temperature coefficient marking. As with the four band code the first three bands give the significant figures. Next is the tolerance band, and finally the fifth band provides the tolerance. .
Tables showing the various colours and figures are given below:
Colour None Silver Gold Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
Digit
Colour Code Multiplier 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 20% 10% 5% 1% 2%
Tolerance
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Temperature Coefficient Marking Colour Code (6th Band) Brown Red Yellow Orange Blue Violet 100 50 25 15 10 5 TCR ppm/K
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1812 - 4.6 mm x 3.0 mm (0.18" x 0.12") 1206 - 3.0 mm x 1.5 mm (0.12" x 0.06") 0805 - 2.0 mm x 1.3 mm (0.08" x 0.05") 0603 - 1.5 mm x 0.8 mm (0.06" x 0.03") 0402 - 1.0 mm x 0.5 mm (0.04" x 0.02") 0201 - 0.6 mm x 0.3 mm (0.02" x 0.01")
Construction: The SMD capacitor consists of a rectangular block of ceramic dielectric in which a number of interleaved precious metal electrodes are contained. This structure gives rise to a high capacitance per unit volume. The inner electrodes are connected to the two terminations, either by silver palladium (AgPd) alloy in the ratio 65 : 35, or silver dipped with a barrier layer of plated nickel and finally covered with a layer of plated tin (NiSn). Ceramic capacitor manufacture: The raw materials for the dielectric are finely milled and carefully mixed. Then they are heated to temperatures between 1100 and 1300C to achieve the required chemical composition. The resultant mass is reground and additional materials added to provide the required electric properties. The next stage in the process is to mix the finely ground material with a solvent and binding additive. This enables thin sheets to be made by casting or rolling. For multilayer capacitors electrode material is printed on the sheets and after stacking and pressing of the sheets co-fired with the ceramic compact at temperatures between 1000 and 1400C. The totally enclosed electrodes of a multilayer capacitor guarantee good life test behaviour as well.
Size A 3.2 mm x 1.6 mm x 1.6 mm (EIA 3216-18) Size B 3.5 mm x 2.8 mm x 1.9 mm (EIA 3528-21) Size C 6.0 mm x 3.2 mm x 2.2 mm (EIA 6032-28) 13
Size D 7.3 mm x 4.3 mm x 2.4 mm (EIA 7343-31) Size E 7.3 mm x 4.3 mm x 4.1 mm (EIA 7343-43)
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BGA assembly
When BGAs were first introduced, BGA assembly was one of the key concerns. With the pads not accessible in the normal manner would BGA assembly reach the standards that could be achieved by more traditional SMT packages. In fact, although soldering may have appeared to be a problem for a Ball Grid Array, BGA, device, it was found that standard reflow methods were very suitable for these devices and joint reliability was very good. Since then BGA assembly methods have improved, and it is generally found that BGA soldering is particularly reliable. In the soldering process, the overall assembly is then heated. The solder balls have a very carefully controlled amount of solder, and when heated in the soldering process, the solder melts. Surface tension causes the molten solder to hold the package in the correct alignment with the circuit board, while the solder cools and solidifies. The composition of the solder alloy and the soldering temperature are carefully chosen so that the solder does not completely melt, but stays semi-liquid, allowing each ball to stay separate from its neighbours. As many products now utilise BGA packages as standard, BGA assembly methods are now well established and can be accommodated by most manufacturers with ease. Accordingly there should be no concerns about using BGA devices in a design.
The joints cannot be tested fully by checking the electrical performance. It is possible that the joint may not be adequately made and that over time it will fail. The only satisfactory means of inspection is to use X-ray inspection as this means of inspection is able to look through the device at the soldered joint beneath.It is found that once the heat profile for the solder machine is set up correctly, the BGA devices solder very well and few problems are encountered, thereby making BGA assembly possible for most applications.
BGA repair
Once removed, the BGA can be replaced with a new one. Occasionally it may be possible to refurbish or repair a BGA that has been removed. This BGA repair may be an attractive proposition if the chip is expensive and it is known to be a working device once removed. Undertake a BGA repair it needs to have the solder balls replaced. This BGA repair can be undertaken using some of the small ready-made solder balls that are manufactured and sold for this purpose.
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Space saving: The "J" lead of the SMD PLCC provides a useful reduction in board area when compared to the gull wing lead of the QFP. As the "J" lead effectively folds back under the package, this provides a significant reduction in real estate usage. Socket compatible: In some areas, especially when developing new products a socketed chip can be particularly useful, if new builds of a PLD or other chip may be needed. The PLD can be programmed off the board and added to the board to test the overall system operation. While many boards will allow on-board programming, this may not always be achievable. Heat resistance: In some limited instances, the heat experienced during the soldering process could cause damage to the chip. In this case a socket can be added to the board, and the PLCC inserted after soldering is completed, and no high temperatures will be experienced.
the SMD PLCC can have a variety of formats. Lead counts can vary from 20 up to 84 and body widths range from 0.35 to 1.15 inches. Pin or lead spacing is generally 0.05 inches, i.e. 1.27 mm.
PLCC sockets
One of the major advantages of an SMD PLCC is that the chip can be connected to the circuit via a socket. The same chip format can also be used in the standard SMT format, soldering the PLCC directly to the board. This can have significant advantages when a replaceable chip is needed for development, but then the same chip can be used in production where it can be soldered onto the board. PLCC sockets may either be surface mounted - the most common, or some through hole versions are also available. Some through hole PLCC sockets may be used with wire wrap techniques for prototyping. Although it is often possible to extract PLCCs using a small screwdriver, etc., it is far more preferable to use a PLCC extractor tool. This will make extraction of the PLCC far easier, and minimize the possibility of any damage.
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Resistor Types
- Information, tutorial about the basics of the different types of resistors including fixed and variable resistors, carbon, film, carbon composition, metal film, etc
Resistor types includes: Resistor types summary Variable / adjustable resistor Thermistor LDR light dependent resistor MELF resistor
There are many different types of resistor available for use within electronic circuits. These different resistor types have somewhat different properties dependent upon their construction and manufacture. This makes the different types of resistor suitable for different applications. Over the years the resistor types used in mass electronics production have changed. Years ago, all the resistors used had leads and were relatively large, and by today's standards they offered a low level of performance. Today, the resistor types used are much smaller and offer much higher levels of performance.
Fixed resistors: Fixed resistors are by far the most widely used type of resistor. They are used in electronics circuits to set the right conditions in a circuit. Their values are determined during the design phase of the circuit, and they should never need to be changed to "adjust" the circuit. There are many different types of resistor which can be used in different circumstances and these different types of resistor are described in further detail below. Variable resistors: These resistors consist of a fixed resistor element and a slider which taps onto the main resistor element. This gives three connections to the component: two connected to the fixed element, and the third is the slider. In this way the component acts as a variable potential divider if all three connections are used. It is possible to connect to the slider and one end to provide a resistor with variable resistance.
Carbon composition: These types were once very common, but are now seldom used. They are formed by mixing carbon granules with a binder which was then made into a small rod. This type of resistor was large by today's standards and suffered from a large negative temperature coefficient. The resistors also suffered from a large and erratic irreversible changes in resistance as a result of heat or age. In addition to this the granular nature of the carbon and binder lead to high levels of noise being generated when current flowed.
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Carbon film: This resistor type is formed by "cracking" a hydrocarbon onto a ceramic former. The resulting deposited film had its resistance set by cutting a helix into the film. This made these resistors highly inductive and of little use for many RF applications. They exhibited a temperature coefficient of between -100 and -900 ppm / Celcius. The carbon film is protected either by a conformal epoxy coating or a ceramic tube. Metal film / metal oxide: This type of resistor is now the most widely used form of resistor. Rather than using a carbon film, this resistor type uses a metal film deposited on a ceramic rod. Metals such as nickel alloy, or a metal oxide such as tin oxide are deposited onto the ceramic rod. The resistance of the component is adjusted in two ways. First the thickness of the deposited layer is controlled during the initial manufacturing stages. Then it can be more accurately adjusted by cutting a helical grove in the film. Again the film is protected using a conformal epoxy coating. This type of resistor has a temperature coefficient of around 15 parts per million / K, giving it a far superior performance to that of any carbon based resistor. Additionally this type of resistor can be supplied to a much closer tolerance, 5%, 2% being standard, and with 1% versions available. They also exhibit a much lower noise level than carbon types of resistor. Wire wound: This resistor type is generally reserved for high power applications. These resistors are made by winding wire with a higher than normal resistance (resistance wire) on a former. The more expensive varieties are wound on a ceramic former and they may be covered by a vitreous or silicone enamel. This resistor type is suited to high powers and exhibits a high level of reliability at high powers along with a comparatively low level of temperature coefficient, although this will depend on a number of factors including the former, wire used, etc.. Thin film: Thin film technology is used for most of the surface mount types of resistor. As these are used in their billions these days, this makes this form of resistor technology one of the most widely used.
Construction advantages
One reason for the survival of wirewound resistors is that all of the alternative fabrication techniques have drawbacks. For example, the use of conductive inks to produce carbon film or thick film resistors can produce very low-cost components but the resulting devices have limited pulse handling, no better than 0.1% initial tolerance and poor long-term stability, typically 500 to 1000ppm/year. The resistance is temperature dependent, with a temperature coefficient of
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resistance (TCR) of around 50 to 100ppm/C. Moreover, relatively high current noise of -18 dB to -10 dB is typical, where: dB = 20 x log (noise voltage [in V]/DC voltage [in V])
Figure 1: Easy customization is one of the major advantages of wirewound resistor technology
Carbon composition resistors, made by binding conductive carbon powder and an insulating material (usually ceramic) in a resin are some of the earliest resistor types. The proportions of carbon and insulating material determine the desired resistance value. Its difficult to achieve accurate values so 5% is often the best initial tolerance available and they exhibit poor temperature stability with a TCR of some 1000ppm/C. These resistors also have high current noise (-12 dB to +6 dB ) and suffer from poor stability over time. Metal film types perform better. They deliver improved tolerance (as good as 0.01%), TCR of 10 to 200ppm/C and stability of 200 to 600ppm/yr. But these figures still cannot match those of wirewound alternatives, and their pulse handling capability is significantly inferior. As a result of the limitations of other technologies, wirewound components continue to be used in many applications. They can handle high level pulses and transients, can dissipate substantial amounts of power (some are rated at up to 2.5kW), and they can be made with great precision some have initial tolerances down to 0.005%. Just as importantly, they are stable (15 to 50ppm/yr), maintaining their precision over time because they are made with stable materials. Wirewound resistors are also among the lowest current noise resistors available at -38dB. The basic structure of a wirewound resistor has remained unchanged for many years. As the name suggests, a resistance wire is wound around a central core or former, usually made of ceramic. Metal end-caps are pressed onto the core, and the resistance wire welded to them. Finally, the assembly is encapsulated to protect it from moisture and physical damage.
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Figure 2: The fundamental construction of a wirewound resistor has changed little over time.
Wirewound construction also produces devices that are easy to customize, so engineers have the freedom to specify exactly what they need, even if the final quantities required are in the hundreds, rather than tens of thousands. And although familiar, the technology has not stood still. For instance, advances in materials science allow the construction of devices with tightly controlled response across a range of temperatures, with TCR as low as 1ppm/C. The individual components resistance is determined by the length, cross-sectional area, and material (and hence resistivity) of the resistance wire. In terms of material choice, a small diameter copper wire 30m long may have a resistance of a few ohms. In contrast, the higher resistivity of a nickel-chrome alloy means that a small diameter wire only 30cm long made of this material may have a resistance of several thousand ohms. Manufacturers of wirewound resistors offer a choice of metal alloys and sizes and the fabrication characteristics go a long way to explaining the advantages. When a high precision resistor is required, for example, a longer resistance wire can be used, allowing the value to be trimmed to great accuracy by removing a few centimetres (or even millimetres) of wire.
Temperature stability
The choice of material is also the major factor influencing the temperature characteristic of the resistor. For example, low-TCR RO-800 alloy is formulated to have a TCR of 5 to 10ppm/C. For comparison, pure nickel has a TCR of 6700ppm/C, and copper a TCR of 3900ppm/C. The material choice therefore allows the manufacturer to tailor the resistor to desired characteristics. In general, low TCR is desirable. However, in some situations, such as temperature sensing and compensation applications, the opposite may be true, since the specific purpose of these components is to respond to changes in temperature. Wirewound components are sometime chosen for their ability to continue operating in extreme temperatures. Devices such as Riedons UT series of axial resistors, for example, operate from 55C to 275C, and continue to function at even higher temperatures with de-rating. These capabilities make the technology well-suited for use in the aerospace industry, and in applications such as fire suppression systems. Power handling and energy dissipation characteristics are similarly linked to the physical construction of the device. As a general rule, a resistor with a larger mass can safely absorb and dissipate more instantaneous power and more energy overall, and this is another strength of wirewound technology.
Pulse performance
One common use for wirewound resistors is in pulse handling. A device such as a medical defibrillator needs to dissipate a large amount of energy in a very short time, putting its electrical components under a high degree of stress. To protect these components from failure, engineers typically design-in a resistor that can absorb the energy of a significant millisecond current surge. In another application, wirewound resistors are used to protect a metering module installed in a solid state electricity meter.
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Here, the resistor absorbs the high current generated when a metal oxide varistor (MOC) clamps in response to a voltage surge on the grid. Surges can have many causes, including lightning, inductive loads (motors), capacitor banks, switchgear, or even switching heating and ventilation systems in and out of circuit. For these types of application, resistors in the UT series mentioned above are sometimes used. They can withstand over 1000 Joules. Values range from 0.02 Ohms to 260k with tolerances down to 0.01% and TCR down 20ppm/C. Determining the right pulse handling capabilities for a particular application is not always a straightforward task. Dealing with inrush current implies different requirements than transient suppression. It is not easy to capture within a datasheet all of the information required to make such a choice. For pulses of up to five seconds, the industry standard specification is a withstand of five-times rated power for five seconds, so a 5W resistor must be able to handle 25W for 5 seconds (125 Joules), regardless of package size or resistance value. For shorter pulses, the mass of the resistance wire determines the Joule rating, which is then dependent upon resistor value and package type, including its size and whether its an axial or surface mount component. Repetition rate and pulse shape - square, triangular or irregular also have to be taken into account.
Figure 3: Pulse shape, repetition rate and duration all need to be understood in order to calculate the required energy handling capabilities.
In current sensing applications, designers have different requirements. For example, monitoring battery life in a handheld device generally requires a small package, whereas measurements in industrial or medical equipment might necessitate high precision and high current withstand. Wirewound devices excel where accuracy is important. For instance, four-terminal components are available in values from 0.01 to 1k with tolerances down to 0.005% and current handling capability of up to 25A. The most commonly cited disadvantage of wirewound resistors, particularly with respect to high frequency applications, is their self-inductance. However, this can overcome with a bifilar winding technique, shown in Figure 4, in which the turns are arranged so that two opposing magnetic fields are created ( one clockwise and the other counter-clockwise ), cancelling out the
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inductance, except the residual amount accounted for by terminations and connecting leads. Inductance is typically reduced by 90% compared to a standard part.
Figure 4: Non-inductive winding can produce wirewound resistors with minimal self-inductance
Leaded resistors: This type of resistor has been used since the very first electronic components have been in use. Typically components were connected to terminal posts of one form or another and leads from the resistor element were needed. As time progressed, printed circuit boards were used, and the leads were inserted through holes in the boards and typically soldered on the reverse side where the tracks were to be found.
Surface mount resistors: These resistor types have been used increasingly since the introduction of surface mount technology. Typically this type of resistor is manufactured using thin film technology. A full range of values can be obtained.
The variable resistor symbols depict the current version use din circuit diagrams today and the traditional format that may be seen on older circuit diagrams. When a true variable resistor with only two connections is needed, it is common practice to connect the slider to the remote end of the variable resistor as shown below.
Wirewound variable resistors: Wirewound variable resistors are able to give a high level of performance and as a result they are often the variable resistor of choice for many applications such as audio, etc.. Wirewound variable resistors are manufactured using very fine resistance wire. This is wound around a former that is almost torroidal. The most commonly used form of resistance wire used is a nickel chrome alloy. Which has some further additives to improve its electrical characteristics. Wirewound variable resistors offer a high level of linearity and close tolerance. Some very close tolerance versions may be able to offer linearity tolerances of 0.1%. These variable resistors are also stable over a wide temperature range. There are two main disadvantages with the wirewould variable resistor. The first is that often as the slider moves over the wires, the resistance changes have discrete steps. This may not be a problem in many applications, but it is a point to note. The second is that they are not suitable even for low frequency RF applications as the resistance wire forms a coil and has significant inductance.
Cermet variable resistors: Cermet variable resistors are widely used, particularly for trimmer resistors. The name cermet is derived from the fact that the resistive element is made from CERamic and METal. The resistive element is made from a mixture of fine metal oxides or precious metal particles and glass in a viscous organic material. The resulting paste is applied to the substrate and fired to solidify the mixture. Cermet variable resistors are ideal for trimmer resistors because they have a low to medium adjustment life, and they often have temperature coefficients of around 100ppm/C.
Carbon composition variable resistors: For the carbon composition variable resistor, a mixture of carbon powder and a binder are moulded under heat into the required shape. In some manufacturing processes the carbon composition element is moulded at the same time as the plastic substrate. 25
Carbon composition variable resistors are some of the least expensive types and they are widely used in many areas - they are a good all round general purpose variable resistor. The carbon composition variable resistor element can be tailored to give approximately linear, logarithmic or even anti-logarithmic characteristics. The logarithmic forms are particularly useful for audio applications because the hearing characteristics of the ear mean that a logarithmic curve is more useful. Carbon composition variable resistors can sometimes exhibit temporary resistance changes of up to around 10% if operated at very high or low temperatures. Typically there operating temperature range might be expected to be from -55C to +120C. These variable resistors can also become noisy after use as wear and dirt appear on the track. Often some switch cleaner improves the situation.
Conductive plastic variable resistors: Conductive plastic variable resistors are made using a conductive plastic ink. This ink contains carbon, resin, solvent and other materials specific to the manufacturer. It is applied to the substrate, either by screening or co-moulding. As the ink has a relatively low curing temperature, this enables a variety of substrate materials to be used. Conductive plastic variable resistors have a high rotational life as well as providing a low noise output. As a result, they are often used for position sensors in servo-controlled machines, etc.
By the very nature of this table the characteristics for the various forms of variable resistor can only be taken as a guide - with developments in technology occurring, along with the differing specifications of components from the variety of manufacturers, there is a large variation of performance of components from different sources.
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Resistor colour codes are used to indicate the value of leaded resistors. These resistor colours have been widely used for many years. The resistor colour code provides an easy and reliable method for value indication - often printing the values in figures can be obscured or erased during handling making identification difficult.
Four band resistor colour code scheme Five band resistor colour code scheme Six band resistor colour code scheme
Dependent upon the number of rings used, the different resistor colour code schemes are able to provide
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As an example the colours shown above are red, violet, and orange on the left - the forth band on the right is red. The value is given by the first three, red violet corresponds to the significant figures, 27, and then the orange corresponds to a multiplier of 1000. This gives the value 27k. The fourth band gives a tolerance of 2%. Note: If only three bands are present on the resistor, they will be the two significant figures, followed by the multiplier, i.e. no tolerance band.
Using the example in the diagram where the resistor colours are, orange; brown; blue; red; brown. From the first three resistor colour bands, it can be seen that the significant digits are 316, and the multiplier is 100. This gives 31600 or 31.6k. The final band or ring indicates the tolerance is 1%
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The example of the six band resistor colour code system shown in the diagram has colours of where the resistor colours are, orange; brown; blue; red; brown red. From the first three resistor colour bands, it can be seen that the significant digits are 316, and the multiplier is 100. This gives 31600 or 31.6k. The fifth band or ring is brown and indicates the tolerance is 1%. The final red band indicates the temperature coefficient is 50 ppm/K.
Colour Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White Gold Silver None 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Multiplier 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109
Tolerance
1% 2%
The resistor colour code is used in virtually all leaded resistors with power dissipation levels up to about a watt. Beyond this the resistors are generally large enough, and use a different form of construction allowing sufficient space for the values to be marked in figures. Nevertheless the resistor colour code is the most widely used system for leaded resistors. The same basic concept is also used on some capacitors.
value lists, common resistor values can be chosen from available components. This not only makes manufacture easier, but it enables stock holdings of manufacturers to be reduced by having a preferred resistor value range. As most component values need not be high precision special values, this is a particularly attractive idea.
The system for adopting standard component values works very well for resistors. It is also equally applicable for other components. The same concept of using values in a standard list that are determined by the tolerance of the components is equally applicable. Accordingly the E series preferred values are also widely used for capacitors, where some of the lower order series are used - E3, E6 as the values on many capacitors do not have a high tolerance. Electrolytic capacitors typically have a very wide tolerance, although others such as many ceramic types have a much tighter tolerance and many be available in ranges conforming to the E12 or even E24 values. Another example of components that follow the EIA E series preferred values is Zener diodes for their breakdown voltages. The Zener diode standard voltages typically conform to the E12 values although E24 series voltage values are also available - especially 5.1 volt Zener diode for 5 volt rails.
1.0 3.3
E12 Standard Resistor Series 1.2 1.5 2.2 2.7 3.9 4.7 6.8 8.2
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E24 Standard Resistor Series 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.6 2.0 2.2 2.7 3.0 3.6 3.9 4.7 5.1 6.2 6.8 8.2 9.1
1.00 1.15 1.33 1.54 1.78 2.05 2.37 2.74 3.16 3.65 4.22 4.87 5.62 6.49 7.50 8.66
E48 Standard Resistor Series 1.05 1.10 1.21 1.27 1.40 1.47 1.62 1.69 1.87 1.96 2.15 2.26 2.49 2.61 2.87 3.01 3.32 3.48 3.83 4.02 4.42 4.64 5.11 5.36 5.90 6.19 6.81 7.15 7.87 8.25 9.09 9.53 E96 Standard Resistor Series 1.02 1.05 1.10 1.13 1.18 1.21 1.27 1.30 1.37 1.40 1.47 1.50 1,58 1.62 1.69 1.74 1.82 1.87 1.96 2.00 2.10 2.16 2.36 2.32 2.43 2.49 2.61 2.67 2.80 2.87 3.01 3.09 3.24 3.32 3.48 3.57 3.74 3.83 4.02 4.12
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1.00 1.07 1.15 1.24 1.33 1.43 1.54 1.65 1.78 1.91 2.05 2.21 2.37 2.55 2.74 2.94 3.16 3.40 3.65 3.92
4.22 4.53 4.87 5.23 5.62 6.04 6.49 6.98 7.50 8.06 8.66 9.31
4.32 4.64 4.91 5.36 5.76 6.19 6.65 7.15 7.68 8.25 8.87 9.59
4.42 4.75 5.11 5.49 5.90 6.34 6,81 7.32 7.87 8.45 9.09 9.76
Tables of standard resistor values in the E series Virtually all resistors that are available fall into the standard resistor values that are given in the table above. Although resistors are specified up to the E96 series, for most applications a comparatively few number of resistor values is needed. By choosing from E3 or E6 series of standard resistor values, and not going to some of the higher order series, it can reduce the stock holding as there is a greater chance the same values may be used elsewhere in a design. Only where close tolerance types are required should resistors from the E24, or even E48 or E96 series of standard resistors should be used.
SMD Resistor
- an overview of surface mount technology SMT resistors, or SMD resistors, their packages and properties.
Surface mount technology, SMT includes: SMT overview SMD component packages SMD resistor SMD resistor markings MELF SMD resistor SMD capacitor Quad Flat Package, QFP BGA, Ball Grid Array SMD PLCC
Surface mount device , SMD, resistors are the most widely used electronic component. Every day many millions are used to produce the electronic equipment from cell phones to televisions and MP3 players, and commercial communications equipment to high technology research equipment.
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The resistor itself consists of a ceramic substrate and onto this is deposited a metal oxide film. The thickness, and the length of the actual film determines the resistance. In view of the fact that the SMD resistors are manufactured using metal oxide, means that they are quite stable and usually have a good tolerance.
Package style 2512 2010 1812 1210 1206 0805 0603 0402 0201
Size (mm) 6.30 x 3.10 5.00 x 2.60 4.6 x 3.0 3.20 x 2.60 3.0 x 1.5 2.0 x 1.3 1.5 x 0.08 1 x 0.5 0.6 x 0.3
Size (inches) 0.25 x 0.12 0.20 x 0.10 0.18 x 0.12 0.12 x 0.10 0.12 x 0.06 0.08 x 0.05 0.06 x 0.03 0.04 x 0.02 0.02 x 0.01
It can be seen from the dimensions in Imperial measurements, that the package names correspond to the dimensions in hundredths of an inch. This an SMD resistor with an 0805 package measures 0.08 by 0.05 inches.
Typical Power Ratings Package style Typical Power Rating (W) 2512 0.50 (1/2) 2010 0.25 (1/4) 1210 0.25 (1/4) 1206 0.125 (1/8) 0805 0.1 (1/10) 0603 0.625 (1/16) 0402 0.0625 - 0.031 (1/16 - 1/32) 0201 0.05
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Some manufacturers will quote higher power levels than these. The figures given here are typical. Tolerance: In view of the fact that SMD resistors are manufactured using metal oxide film they available in relative close tolerance values. Normally 5%, 2%, and 1% are widely available. For specialist applications 0.5% and 0.1% values may be obtained. Temperature coefficient: Again the use of metal oxide film enables these SMD resistors to provide a good temperature coefficient. Values of 25, 50 and 100 ppm / C are available.
Applications
SMD resistors are used in many designs. Their size not only means that they are suitable for compact circuit boards, and for automatic assembly techniques, but it also ahs the advantage that they perform well at radio frequencies. Their size means that they have little spurious inductance and capacitance. Nevertheless care has to be taken when calculating their power dissipation as they can only dissipate small levels of power. ..............
Three figure SMD resistor marking system Four figure SMD resistor marking system EIA96 SMD resistor marking system
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As the name indicates this SMD resistor marking system uses three figures. The first two indicate the significant figures, and the third is a multiplier. This is the same as the coloured rings used for wired resistors, except that actual numbers are used instead of colours. Therefore an SMD resistor with the figures 472 would have a resistance of 47 x 102 ohms, or 4.7k. However beware of resistors marked with figures such as 100. This is not 100 ohms, but it follows the scheme exactly and it is 10 x 100 or 10 x 1 = 10 .
Where resistance values less than ten ohms are used, the letter "R" is used to indicate the position of the decimal point. As an example, a resistor with the value 4R7 would be 4.7.
Resistors with values of less than 100 ohms are marked utilise the letter 'R', as before, to indicate the position of the decimal point.
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To generate the system the E-96 resistor series has been taken and each value or significant figure set has been numbered sequentially. As there are only 96 values in the E-96 series, only two figures are needed to number each value, and as a result this is a smart way of reducing the number of characters required.
The details for the EIA SMT resistor marking scheme are tabulated below:
Code Multiplier Z 0.001 Y or R 0.01 X or S 0.1 A 1 B or H 10 C 100 D 1 000 E 10 000 F 100 000 EIA SMT resistor marking scheme multipliers Code 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 Sig Figs 100 102 105 107 110 113 115 118 121 124 127 130 133 137 140 143 147 150 154 158 162 165 169 174 Code Sig Figs Code Sig Figs Code 25 178 49 316 73 26 182 50 324 74 27 187 51 332 75 28 191 52 340 76 29 196 53 348 77 30 200 54 357 78 31 205 55 365 79 32 210 56 374 80 33 215 57 383 81 34 221 58 392 82 35 226 59 402 83 36 232 60 412 84 37 237 61 422 85 38 243 62 432 86 39 249 63 422 87 40 255 64 453 88 41 261 65 464 89 42 267 66 475 90 43 274 67 487 91 44 280 68 499 92 45 287 69 511 93 46 294 70 523 94 47 301 71 536 95 48 309 72 549 96 EIA SMT resistor marking scheme significant figures Sig Figs 562 576 590 604 619 634 649 665 681 698 715 732 750 768 787 806 825 845 866 887 909 931 953 976
For example a resistor that is marked 68X can be split into two elements. 68 refers to the significant figures 499, and X refers to a multiplier of 0.1. Therefore the value indicated is 499 x 0.1 = 49.9.
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MELF Resistor
- details of the MELF resistor a surface mount device, SMD used to provide superior performance over SMT resistors in certain applications.
Another form of SMD resistor that can be used is known as the MELF resistor - Metal Electrode Leadless Face. These resistors are not nearly as widely used as the standard SMD resistors, but in some instances they provide advantages and can be used.
MELF resistors provide a high level of reliability. A MELF resistor has a more predictable pulse handling capacity than other SMD resistors MELF resistors can be manufactured with tolerances as tight as 0.1% They can be manufactured with very low levels of temperature coefficient, sometimes as low as 5 ppm/C
Although the standard flat chip resistors are cheaper and much easier to handle during manufacture, the performance of MELF resistor can be an overriding factor making them a cost effective solution
easy to use. As such the MELF SMD resistor marking code is effectively the same as that used for leaded resistors. There are three variations used:
Four band code: This system is used for resistors with tolerances up to 5% using the E24 resistor series. The first two bands provide the significant digits. The third band provides the multiplier and the fourth, normally wider, provides the tolerance.
Sometimes an alternative colour banding system may be used where the bands are all grouped towards one end of the MELF resistor rather than having a wider band at the far end.
Five band code: This system is used for higher tolerance resistors typically better than 1% that use the E48, E96 or E192 series values. The first three bands provide the significant figures. The fourth band gives the multiplier and the fifth band gives the tolerance.
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Six band code: This code provides space for a temperature coefficient marking. As with the four band code the first three bands give the significant figures. Next is the tolerance band, and finally the fifth band provides the tolerance. .
Tables showing the various colours and figures are given below:
Colour None Silver Gold Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
Digit
Colour Code Multiplier 10-2 10-1 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 20% 10% 5% 1% 2%
Tolerance
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Colour Code (6th Band) Brown Red Yellow Orange Blue Violet
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Capacitor types
- an overview, information or tutorial about the different capacitor types looking at different types of capacitor and their construction, specifications and parameters.
Capacitor types includes: Capacitor types overview Uses and applications Electrolytic capacitor Ceramic capacitor Tantalum capacitor Polycarbonate capacitor Silver mica capacitor Glass dielectric capacitor Polystyrene capacitor Capacitor markings
Electronic capacitors are one of the most widely used forms of electronics components. However there are many different types of capacitor including electrolytic, ceramic, tantalum, plastic, sliver mica, and many more. Each capacitor type has its own advantages and disadvantages can be used in different applications. The choice of the correct capacitor type is of great importance because it can have a major impact on any circuit. The differences between the different types of capacitor can mean that the circuit may not work correctly if the correct type of capacitor is not used. Accordingly a summary of the different types of capacitor is given below, and further descriptions of a variety of capacitor types can be reached through the related articles menu on the left hand side of the page below the main menu.
Capacitor basics
there are many different types of capacitor, but they all conform to the same basic physical laws. These determine the basic way the capacitor operates, its value, i.e. the amount of charge it will hold and hence its capacitance. In order to understand some of the reasons why various forms of capacitor are used, it is necessary to look at the basic theory behind capacitance.
Note on Capacitance:
All capacitors conform to the same basic laws. Regardless of the dielectrics and many other enw developments made, the same laws apply. Click on the link for further information about Capacitance
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Ceramic capacitor: The ceramic capacitor is a type of capacitor that is used in many applications from audio to RF. Values range from a few picofarads to around 0.1 microfarads. Ceramic capacitors are by far the most commonly used type of capacitor being cheap and reliable and their loss factor is particularly low although this is dependent on the exact dielectric in use. In view of their constructional properties, these capacitors are widely used both in leaded and surface mount formats Read more about the ceramic capacitor Electrolytic capacitor: Electrolytic capacitors are a type of capacitor that is polarised. They are able to offer high capacitance values - typically above 1F, and are most widely used for low frequency applications - power supplies, decoupling and audio coupling applications as they have a frequency limit if around 100 kHz. Read more about the electrolytic capacitor Tantalum capacitor: Like electrolytic capacitors, tantalum capacitors are also polarised and offer a very high capacitance level for their volume. However this type of capacitor is very intolerant of being reverse biased, often exploding when placed under stress. They must also not be subject to high ripple currents or voltages above their working voltage. They are available in both leaded and surface mount formats. Read more about the tantalum capacitor Silver Mica Capacitor: Silver mica capacitors are not as widely used these days, but they still offer very high levels of stability, low loss and accuracy where space is not an issue. They are primarily used for RF applications and and they are limited to maximum values of 1000 pF or so. Read more about the silver mica capacitor Polystyrene Film Capacitor: Polystyrene capacitors are a relatively cheap form of capacitor but offer a close tolerance capacitor where needed. They are tubular in shape resulting from the fact that the plate / dielectric sandwich is rolled together, but this adds inductance limiting their frequency response to a few hundred kHz. They are generally only available as leaded electronics components.
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Polyester Film Capacitor: Polyester film capacitors are used where cost is a consideration as they do not offer a high tolerance. Many polyester film capacitors have a tolerance of 5% or 10%, which is adequate for many applications. They are generally only available as leaded electronics components. Metallised Polyester Film Capacitor: This type of capacitor is a essentially a form of polyester film capacitor where the polyester films themselves are metallised. The advantage of using this process is that because their electrodes are thin, the overall capacitor can be contained within a relatively small package. The metallised polyester film capacitors are generally only available as leaded electronics components. Polycarbonate capacitor: The polycarbonate capacitors has been used in applications where reliability and performance are critical. The polycarbonate film is very stable and enables high tolerance capacitors to be made which will hold their capacitance value over time. In addition they have a low dissipation factor, and they remain stable over a wide temperature range, many being specified from -55C to +125C. However the manufacture of polycarbonate dielectric has ceased and their production is now very limited. Read more about the polycarbonate capacitor Polypropylene Capacitor: The polypropylene is sometimes used when a higher tolerance is necessary than polyester capacitors offer. As the name implies, this capacitor uses a polypropylene film for the dielectric. One of the advantages of the capacitor is that there is very little change of capacitance with time and voltage applied. They are also used for low frequencies, with 100 kHz or so being the upper limit. They are generally only available as leaded electronics components. Glass capacitors: As the name implies, this type of capacitor uses glass as the dielectric. Although expensive, these capacitors offer very high levels or performance in terms of extremely low loss, high RF current capability, no piezo-electric noise and other features making them ideal for many performance RF applications. Read more about the glass dielectric capacitor
These capacitors include some of the main types of capacitor, although there are other types that are used for more specialist applications.
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Application
Suitable types with reasons details & comments Aluminium electrolytic High capacity and high ripple current capability ** Aluminium Electrolytic: High capacitance Tantalum: High capacitance and small size Polyester / polycarbonate : Cheap, but values not as high as those available with electrolytics Ceramic COG: Small, cheap and low loss Ceramic X7R: Small and cheap but higher loss than COG, although high capacitance per volume Polystyrene: Very low loss, but larger and more expensive than ceramic Ceramic COG: Small, low loss, but values limited to around 1000 pF max. Ceramic X7R: Small, low loss, higher values available than for COG types Silver mica: Close tolerance, low loss and stable, but high cost Ceramic COG: Close tolerance, low loss, although not as good as silver mica
RF coupling
RF decoupling
Tuned circuits
** Care must be taken to ensure that the ripple current rating of the capacitor meets the requirements of the capacitor application. This table gives the typical capacitor applications or capacitor uses for areas where particular capacitors be used. However it is necessary to look at the exact requirements for any capacitor application in a circuit, and choose the capacitor according to the needs and specifications available.
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2. Frequency response: One of the problems with electrolytic capacitors is that they have a limited frequency response. It is found that their ESR rises with frequency and this generally limits their use to frequencies below about 100 kHz. This is particularly true for large capacitors, and even the smaller electrolytic capacitors should not be relied upon at high frequencies. To gain exact details it is necessary to consult the manufacturers data for a given part.
3. Leakage: Although electrolytic capacitors have much higher levels of capacitance for a given volume than most other capacitor technologies, they can also have a higher level of leakage. This is not a problem for most applications, such as when they are used in power supplies. However under some circumstances they are not suitable. For example they should not be used around the input circuitry of an operational amplifier. Here even a small amount of leakage can cause problems because of the high input impedance levels of the op-amp. It is also worth noting that the levels of leakage are considerably higher in the reverse direction. 4. Ripple current: When using electrolytic capacitors in high current applications such as the reservoir capacitor of a power supply, it is necessary to consider the ripple current it is likely to experience. Capacitors have a maximum ripple current they can supply. Above this they can become too hot which will reduce their life. In extreme cases it can cause the capacitor to fail. Accordingly it is necessary to calculate the expected ripple current and check that it is within the manufacturers maximum ratings.
5. Tolerance: Electrolytic capacitors have a very wide tolerance. Typically this may be 50% + 100%. This is not normally a problem in applications such as decoupling or power supply smoothing, etc. However they should not be used in circuits where the exact value is of importance.
Polarisation
Unlike many other types of capacitor, electrolytic capacitors are polarised and must be connected within a circuit so that they only see a voltage across them in a particular way. The capacitors themselves are marked so that polarity can easily be seen. In addition to this it is common for the can of the capacitor to be connected to the negative terminal. It is absolutely necessary to ensure that any electrolytic capacitors are connected within a circuit with the correct polarity. A reverse bias voltage will cause the centre oxide layer forming the dielectric to be destroyed as a result of electrochemical reduction. If this occurs a short circuit will appear and excessive current can cause the capacitor to become very hot. If this occurs the component may leak the electrolyte, but under some circumstances they can explode. As this is not uncommon, it is very wise to take precautions and ensure the capacitor is fitted correctly, especially in applications where high current capability exists.
applications significant amounts of current may be drawn from them. Accordingly electrolytic capacitors intended for these applications have a ripple current rating which should also not be exceeded. If it is, then the electronic component may become excessively hot and fail. It is also worth noting that these components have a limited life. It can be as little as 1000 hours at the maximum rating. This may be considerably extended if the component is run well below its maximum rating.
This voltage should then be continued to be applied for a further hour. The capacitor can then be slowly discharged through a suitable resistor so that the retained charge does not cause damage
Ceramic capacitors
- an overview, information or tutorial about the basics of the ceramic capacitor: its construction, technical information, properties and the uses of the ceramic capacitor.
Ceramic capacitors are one of the most widely used forms of capacitor used in electronics equipment these days. Ceramic capacitors have also been used for many years, being found in valve or tube circuits dating from the 1930s. Today ceramic capacitors area available in a variety of formats ranging from leaded components to surface mount technology, SMT varieties. As leaded versions disc ceramic capacitors are widely available, and as SMT devices, ceramic capacitors are available in all the common formats. As such these ceramic capacitors are used in virtually every type of electronics equipment. The actual performance of the ceramic capacitors is highly dependent upon the dielectric used. Using modern dielectrics, very high values are available, but it is also necessary to check parameters such as the temperature coefficient and tolerance. Different levels of performance are often governed by the dielectric used, and therefore it is necessary to choose the type of dielectric in the ceramic capacitor. Ceramic capacitors range in value from figures as low as a few picofarads to around 0.1 microfarads. In view of the wide range and suitability for RF applications they are used for coupling and decoupling applications in particular. Here they are by far the most commonly used type being cheap and reliable and the loss factor is particularly low although this is dependent on the exact dielectric in use.
leaded disc ceramic capacitors for through hole mounting which are resin coated multilayer surface mount chip ceramic capacitors Specialist microwave bare leadless disc ceramic capacitors that are designed to sit in a slot in the PCB and are soldered in place
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Although it is possible to obtain other types of ceramic capacitor, these are the main types that can be found today. Of these the surface mount variety is used in the greatest quantities by far because of the manufacturing methods used these days for electronic equipment.
Ceramic dielectrics
Ceramic capacitors have a variety of different ceramic dielectrics as the basis of the capacitor. Ceramic dielectrics are made from a variety of forms of ceramic dielectric. The exact formulas of the different ceramics used in ceramic capacitors vary from one manufacturer to another but common compounds include titanium dioxide, strontium titanate, and barium titanate. In view of the wide variation of ceramics used in capacitors the EIA (Electronic Industries Alliance) classifies ceramics into groups. In general the lower the group or class the better the overall characteristics, but this is usually at the expense of size. Types within each class define the working temperature range, temperature drift, tolerance, etc. 1. Class 1: Class 1 ceramic capacitors are the most stable forms of ceramic capacitor with respect to temperature. They have an almost linear characteristic and their properties are almost independent of frequency within normal bounds. The common compounds used as the dielectrics are magnesium titanate for a positive temperature coefficient, or calcium titanate for capacitors with a negative temperature coefficient. Using combinations of these and other compounds it is possible to obtain a dielectric constant of between 5 and 150. Also temperature coefficients of between +40 and -5000 ppm/C may be obtained. Class 1 capacitors also offer the best performance with respect to dissipation factor. This can be important in many applications. A typical figure may be 0.15%. It is also possible to obtain very high accuracy (~1%) class 1 capacitors rather than the more usual 5% or 10% tolerance versions. The highest accuracy class 1 capacitors are designated C0G or NP0. 2. Class 2: Class 2 capacitors offer better performance with respect to volumetric efficiency, but this is at the cost of lower accuracy and stability. As a result they are normally used for decoupling, coupling and bypass applications where accuracy is not of prime importance. A typical class 2 capacitor may change capacitance by 15% or so over a -50C to +85C temperature range and it may have a dissipation factor of 2.5%. It will have average to poor accuracy (from 10% down to +20/-80%). Howeer for many applications these figures would not present a problem. 3. Class 3: Class 3 ceramic capacitors offer a still high volumetric efficiency, but again this is at the expense of poor accuracy and stability and a low dissipation factor. They are also not normally able to withstand high voltages. The dielectric used is often barium titanate that has a dielectric constant of up to about 1250. A typical class 3 capacitor will change its capacitance by -22% to +50% over a temperature range of +10C to +55C. It may also have a dissipation factor of around 3 to 5%. It will have a fairly poor accuracy (commonly, 20%, or -20/+80%). As a result, class 3 ceramic capacitors are typically used as decoupling or in other power supply applications where accuracy is not an issue. However they must not be used in applications where spikes are present as these may damage the capacitor if they exceed the rated voltage.
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As an example, one common type of class 1 capacitor is a C0G and this will have 0 drift, with an error of 30PPM/C. Class 2 capacitor codes In order to define the class of temperature coefficient of a particular capacitor, a three letter code designated by the EIA is used. For non-temperature-compensating capacitors this EIA code comprises of three characters: 1. The first character is a letter. This gives the low-end operating temperature. 2. The second is numeric and this provides the high-end operating temperature. 3. The third character is a letter which gives capacitance change over that temperature range.
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The table below details what each of the EAI codes means. First character (letter) low temperature X -55C (-67F) Y -30C (-22F) Z +10C (+50F) Second character (digit) high temperature 2 +45C (+113F) 4 +65 (+149F) 5 +85 (+185F) 6 +105 (+221F) 7 +125 (+257F) Third character (letter) change D +/-3.3% E +/-4.7% F +/-7.5% P +/-10% R +/-15% S +/-22% T +22% / -33% U +22% / -56% V +22% / -82%
Two very common examples of class 2 ceramic capacitors are the X7R capacitor which will operate from -55C to +125C with a capacitance change of up to 15%, and the Z5U capacitor which will operate from +10C to +85C with a capacitance change of up to +22% to -56%.
It can be noted that the package designation is derived from the package size in 0.01 inch increments.
Tantalum capacitors
- an overview, information or tutorial about the basics of the tantalum capacitor: its construction, properties and the uses of tantalum capacitors.
Tantalum capacitors are widely used in electronics design these days. Tantalum capacitors offer a form of capacitor that provides a very high capacity density. As a result this form of capacitor has found widespread use in many areas of electronics. In view of its size and the attainable levels of capacitance, these capacitors are widely used in many mass produced items of electronics equipment. The tantalum capacitor is similar to the electrolytic capacitor, but using tantalum within the construction of the capacitor it is able to offer extremely high levels of capacitance for any given volume. As such tantalum capacitors are widely used in electronics equipment where there is a need for small size and a high level of capacitance. In view of its advantages, the tantalum capacitor is used in large volumes within the electronics manufacturing industry.
Tantalum foil electrolytic capacitor: The tantalum foil capacitor was introduced around 1950. It was developed to provide a more reliable form of electrolytic capacitor without the shelf life limitations of the aluminium electrolytic capacitor. It was able to be developed as a result of the availability of high purity tantalum foils and wires. Initially plain foil variants were introduced, but this was quickly followed by etched variants. The purity of the materials used plays a major part in determining the leakage current of this type of tantalum capacitor. These tantalum capacitors have a higher capacitance density than their aluminium electrolytic counterparts. They can often operate at temperatures up to about 120C and therefore they are often used in equipment used in extreme conditions.
Tantalum capacitors with porous anode and liquid electrolyte: This form of tantalum capacitor is also known as the wet tantalum capacitor and it was the first form to be introduced. It still offers the best space factor. A variety of electrolytes can be used within this form of tantalum capacitor. Those using sulphuric acid as the electrolyte have excellent electrical characteristics and the maximum
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working voltages that are manufactured tend to be a maximum of about 70 volts. Basically this type of capacitor consists of a sintered porous anode of tantalum power. This is housed in a silver or silver plated container. The porous anode is made by pressing high purity tantalum power into a cylindrical body and then sintering in a vacuum at about 2000C. These wet tantalum capacitors are very much more expensive than their newer brothers and as a result they are not as widely used.
Tantalum capacitors with porous anode and solid electrolyte: This variant of the tantalum capacitor family is also known as the solid tantalum, and it is the variety that is most commonly used. Many millions of them are sued each day, and they can be found in many items of consumer and commercial electronic equipment. The capacitor was developed by the Bell Telephone Laboratories by using a porous anode and then replacing the liquid electrolyte with a solid semiconductor. This overcome the problem od requiring a vent that is common to all other forms of electrolytic capacitor. These capacitors are superior to electrolytic capacitors in many ways exhibiting excellent temperature and frequency characteristics. They are also smaller than their aluminium electrolytic counterparts. However they are not able to handle high levels of current or voltage spikes. They are also damaged almost instantaneously by reverse polarity - usually exploding quite nicely.
As a result of the different construction and requirements for tantalum SMT capacitors, there are some different packages that are used for them. These conform to EIA specifications. Package designation Size A Size B Size C Size D Size D Size (mm) 3.2 x 1.6 x 1.6 3.5 x 2.8 x 1.9 6.0 x 3.2 x 2.2 7.3 x 4.3 x 2.4 7.3 x 4.3 x 4.1 EIA designation EIA 3216-18 EIA 3528-21 EIA 6032-28 EIA 7343-31 EIA 7343-43
Volumetric efficiency: Tantalum capacitors offer a very high level of volumetric efficiency - much greater than many other types. In particular they are better than electrolytic capacitors which are their main rival. Good frequency characteristics: The frequency response of tantalum capacitors is superior to that of electrolytic capacitors. This means that they are more suitable for use in a number of applications where electrolytics could not be used. High reliability: Tantalum capacitors are more reliable than many other forms of capacitor. Provided they are operated within their ratings they are able to provide an almost unlimited life. Their use is not time limited as in the case of electrolytic capacitors. Wide operating temperature range: Tantalum capacitors are able to operate over a very wide temperature range. They are often specified for operating over the range -55C to +125C. This makes them an ideal choice for use in equipment for use in harsh environmental conditions. Compatibility with modern production methods: Modern production techniques often expose components to high temperatures during soldering as the whole assembly is heated by infra-red heat. Using conventional leaded components only the board surface was heated and the amount of heat conducted by the leads was usually insufficient to damage the components. Tantalum capacitors are able to withstand the temperatures of SMT production and are there fore ideal for use in many new electronics designs.
Tantalum capacitors have a number of disadvantages, and these need to be considered when using them in new designs.
Low ripple current ratings: It is hardly surprising in view of their size, that tantalum capacitors do not have a high ripple current rating. They should not normally be used in areas that require any levels of current to be passed. Not tolerant to reverse or excess voltage: Tantalum capacitors do not like reverse or excess voltage. Even spikes can destroy them. If they are exposed to excess or reverse voltages then they can explode. More expensive than other types: Tantalum capacitors are more expensive than many other forms of capacitor. As a result their cost should be considered during the design phase as the other benefits may outweigh any increased costs.
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Polycarbonate capacitors
- an overview, tutorial about the basics of the polycarbonate capacitor or polycarbonate film capacitor: its construction, properties and general data and information.
The polycarbonate capacitor has been available for many years. The polycarbonate dielectric material is very stable having a high tolerance and can operate over a temperature of range of typically -55C to +125C without de-rating. Additionally the insulation resistance and dissipation factor are good and the dielectric constant means that polycarbonate capacitors are a reasonable size for their capacitance. While polycarbonate capacitors have been widely used within many electronics circuits and found favour with many electronics design centres, they are not as widely used these days. The Bayer Corporation which manufactures the majority of polycarbonate announced in 2000 that it was to discontinue production of the dielectric film used in these capacitors. Although many saw this as the end of polycarbonate capacitors, there are still some smaller sources of the dielectric material and some capacitors are still made. However many are cautious about using polycarbonate capacitors in new electronics designs as there are fewer suppliers, and relying on a single source for the long term supply of an electronics component is not wise.
Polycarbonate dielectric
Polycarbonates are a group of thermoplastic polymers which find uses in many areas of industry as they are easily moulded and thermoformed. They also posses a number of useful features in that they are temperature resistant impact resistant (virtually bullet-roof). They can also be used for vandal-proof glazing. Polycarbonate is also used in capacitors as a dielectric. Polycarbonate is very stable, offering the possibility of high tolerance capacitors that can be used over a wide temperature range, and shows little sign of ageing. The basic electrical properties of polycarbonate are summarised below: Parameter Dielectric constant Dissipative factor Volume resistivity Dielectric strength Water absorption Value 3.2 0.0007 @ 50Hz 0.001 at 1MHz 10-17 ohm cm 38 kV / mm 0.16%
Polyethylene napthalate (PEN) Polyphenylene sulphide (PPS) Polyimide (PI) Polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE
Of these polyphenylene sulphide, PPS is being widely used in many areas as an almost direct replacement. Polyphenylene sulphide, PPS has many of the same characteristics of polycarbonate and can be often be used as a direct replacement. It has gaining a variety of MIL standards and as such it is being used in many high specification applications. PPS has been found to have a superior temperature performance both in terms of the temperature range applicable and the temperature coefficient. It is found that polyphenylene sulphide, PPS and polycarbonate have the almost the same dielectric constant. This means that the size of equivalent capacitors will be virtually the same, making replacement in existing designs much easier. Unfortunately not all capacitors will be able to be made exactly the same size because PPS and polycarbonate are not available in the same thicknesses.
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High accuracy: Silver mica capacitors can be obtained with tolerance figures of +/- 1%. This is much better than virtually every other form of capacitor available today. Temperature co-efficient: The temperature co-efficient of silver mica capacitors is much better than most other types of capacitor. The temperature coefficient is positive and is normally in the region 35 to 75 ppm / C, with +50 ppm / C being an average value Value range: Values for silver mica capacitors are normally in the range between a few picofarads up to two or possibly three thousand picofarads. Low capacitance variation with voltage : Silver mica capacitors exhibit very little voltage dependence. High Q : Silver mica capacitors have very high levels of Q and conversely small power factors. These are both almost independent of frequency.
Although silver mica capacitors have a high tolerance and low temperature co-efficient they are known to jump in value on occasions.
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Mica dielectric
The mica dielectric obviously forms the basis for silver mica capacitors. Its properties govern the performance of the silver mica capacitor. It was also one of the first dielectric materials to be used for capacitors in the early days or wireless because of its combination of stability and general physical and mechanical attributes. Although there are several different forms of mica, they all have very similar properties. They are fundamentally very stable both mechanically and chemically, enabling the capacitors manufactured with mica to exhibit similar properties. The material has a dielectric constant ranging from around 5 to 7. It is also found that the crystalline structure of mica has binding forces that are different in different planes. In one plane they are strong, but weak in the perpendicular plane. This gives it a layered structure and enables it to be spilt along the lines of the weak bond into very thin flat sheets. The sheets used in capacitor manufacture are from less than about 0.025 to 0.1 mm. Natural mica has to be carefully selected because some samples do contain impurities including, iron, sodium, ferric oxide, and lithium. This introduces some variability into any mica that might be used for capacitor manufacture and therefore it must be carefully inspected and classified. This is one of the reasons why silver mica capacitors are more expensive than other types which have less manual intervention. Mica is chemically very stable and chemically inert. Mica does not react with oil, water, many acids alkalis, and solvents. As a result of this, ageing does not occur to any major degree, and the variations of water vapour in the atmosphere do not cause undue variations in the overall capacitor performance. Although more costly than other dielectrics, mica is an ideal form of dielectric for very high performance capacitors such as silver mica capacitors. A summary of the properties of mica are given below: Parameter Dielectric constant Dielectric strength Value 6 10 000 volts per mil
Construction
For silver mica capacitors the silver electrodes are now plated directly on to the mica dielectric, although originally thin sheets of silver foil were placed between the mica dielectric. Again several layers are used to achieve the required capacitance. Wires for the connections are added and then the whole silver mica capacitor assembly is encapsulated to provide protection. Today a ceramic encapsulation is used, although early versions, used in some valve or vacuum tube radios can be seen to have a form of wax encapsulation. This was effective for the day in protecting the capacitor from moisture, but when warmed, the wax melted, and often these capacitors had little wax on them from the warm environment of a vacuum tube or valve radio
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Glass capacitors
- an overview or tutorial about the basics of the glass capacitor, its construction, properties and the uses of glass dielectric capacitors particularly in RF circuits.
Glass capacitors are used where the ultimate performance is required for RF circuits. Glass dielectric capacitors offer very high levels of performance, although their cost is high when compared to many other forms of capacitor. Typically a glass capacitor will have a relatively low capacitance value. The values of glass capacitors may range between a fraction of a picofarad up to two to here thousand picofarads. As such these capacitors are used mainly in radio frequency circuit design. While the performance of glass capacitors is exceedingly high, this is also usually reflected in the cost - it can run into many pounds or dollars for each component. As such glass dielectric capacitors are reserved only for the most exacting RF requirements, often on low volume products where cost is not such an issues as it is in high volume products. The supply of glass capacitors is also limited to a small number of manufacturers and suppliers, and the capacitors may not be available ex-stock.
Low temperature coefficient: Glass capacitors have a low temperature coefficient. Figures of just over 100 ppm / C are often obtained for these capacitors. No hysteresis: Some forms of capacitor exhibit hysteresis in their temperature characteristic. This is not the case for glass capacitors which follow the same temperature / capacitance when the temperature is rising and falling. Zero ageing rate: Many electronics components change their value with age as chemical reactions take place within the component. Glass capacitors do not exhibit this effect and retain their original value over long periods of time. No piezo-electric noise : Some capacitors exhibit the piezo-electric effect to a small degree. This can result in effects such as microphony on oscillators. Where this could be a problem, the use of glass capacitors could help solve the problem. Extremely low loss / High Q: Glass capacitors are very low loss as there is virtually no dielectric loss. This enables very high Q circuits to be built using them. provided the other components (e.g. inductors) are not lossy. Large RF current capability: Some capacitors are not able to withstand large values of current. This is not the case for glass capacitors which are suitable for use in RF high power amplifiers, etc. High operating temperature capability : Glass dielectric capacitors are able to operate at very high temperatures. Many are able to operate at temperatures up to about 200C without fear of damage or performance shortfall.
As the capacitance between two plates is not always sufficient to provide the required level of performance, the majority of capacitors use a multiplayer construction to provide several layers of plates with interspersed dielectric to give the required capacitance. Although the glass plates are always flat, and tubular forms of construction are not applicable, the glass capacitors are usually available with leads emanating in either a radial or axial form. Essentially the leads either exit the encapsulation at the side or the end.
Circuits exposed to temperature extremes: With the tolerance to a wide range of temperatures, both high and low, some circuits that may be exposed to very harsh environmental conditions may choose to use glass capacitors. Not only can they withstand high and low temperatures, but they do not change value at these extremes by a great amount. Accordingly remote sensors may choose to use glass capacitors. Applications requiring a high Q circuit: Many circuits including oscillators and filters may require high Q components to give the required performance. Filters will be able to attain their required bandwidth, and for oscillators there are a number advantages including improvement of phase noise performance, reduction in drift and reduction of spurious oscillations. Low microphony requirements: It may be expedient to use glass capacitors in circuits where microphony may be a problem. RF oscillators including those found in phase locked loops and PLL synthesizers may benefit from their use. High power amplifiers: The high current capability of glass capacitors may enable their use in RF power amplifiers where other forms of capacitor would not be suitable. High tolerance areas: In many areas such as filters or free running oscillators the high tolerance and precision accompanied by the low temperature coefficient may be required to maintain the tolerances within a precision circuit.
Polystyrene capacitor
- summary and notes on the polystyrene capacitor or polystyrene capacitor detailing its properties, advantages and disadvantages.
Polystyrene capacitors are used within a limited number of applications. Polystyrene capacitor construction does not lend itself to surface mount technology and accordingly polystyrene capacitors tend to be used for leaded applications. As a result of their construction and limited use, polystyrene capacitors are not widely sued these days and can be difficult to source.
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The polystyrene capacitors provide a number of electrical characteristics which make them suitable for a number of applications. These capacitors provide high insulation, low leakage, low dielectric absorption, low distortion and excellent temperature stability. In view of their properties, polystyrene capacitors can often be used in place of silver mica or ceramic disc capacitors.
High insulation Low leakage Low dielectric absorption Low distortion (audio enthusiasts like them because of this) Good temperature stability
Polystyrene capacitor disadvantages Technology does not lend itself to SMT Not heat resistance polystyrene melts Very limited availability
Third Figure 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
1812 - 4.6 mm x 3.0 mm (0.18" x 0.12") 1206 - 3.0 mm x 1.5 mm (0.12" x 0.06") 0805 - 2.0 mm x 1.3 mm (0.08" x 0.05") 0603 - 1.5 mm x 0.8 mm (0.06" x 0.03") 0402 - 1.0 mm x 0.5 mm (0.04" x 0.02") 0201 - 0.6 mm x 0.3 mm (0.02" x 0.01")
Construction: The SMD capacitor consists of a rectangular block of ceramic dielectric in which a number of interleaved precious metal electrodes are contained. This structure gives rise to a high capacitance per unit volume. The inner electrodes are connected to the two terminations, either by silver palladium (AgPd) alloy in the ratio 65 : 35, or silver dipped with a barrier layer of plated nickel and finally covered with a layer of plated tin (NiSn). Ceramic capacitor manufacture: The raw materials for the dielectric are finely milled and carefully mixed. Then they are heated to temperatures between 1100 and 1300C to achieve the required chemical composition. The resultant mass is reground and additional materials added to provide the required electric properties. The next stage in the process is to mix the finely ground material with a solvent and binding additive. This enables thin sheets to be made by casting or rolling.
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For multilayer capacitors electrode material is printed on the sheets and after stacking and pressing of the sheets co-fired with the ceramic compact at temperatures between 1000 and 1400C. The totally enclosed electrodes of a multilayer capacitor guarantee good life test behaviour as well.
3.2 mm x 1.6 mm x 1.6 mm (EIA 3216-18) 3.5 mm x 2.8 mm x 1.9 mm (EIA 3528-21) 6.0 mm x 3.2 mm x 2.2 mm (EIA 6032-28) 7.3 mm x 4.3 mm x 2.4 mm (EIA 7343-31) 7.3 mm x 4.3 mm x 4.1 mm (EIA 7343-43)
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Inductor Types
- Summary of the different types of inductor with descriptions of their attributes and applications.
Inductors tutorial includes: Inductor types Inductor parameters & specifications Inductor ferrites Ferrite bead inductors
Inductors of many types and styles are used throughout the electronics industry. Inductors perform a number of different styles of function within a circuit. Some types can be used for filtering and removing spikes on power lines, others are used within high performance filters. Others may be used within oscillators, and there are many other areas where inductors can be used. As a result of this, there are many different types of inductor that can be obtained. Size, frequency, current, value, and many other factors means that there is a whole host of different types and forms of inductor.
Inductor basics
Although there are many different types of inductor, they all comply with the same basic laws of nature. Each inductor sets up a magnetic field around the conductor and also has a certain reactance.
The basic parameters are used within the inductor, whatever type it is.
Note on Inductance:
Inductance is one of the basic factors that affect electrical circuits. Any wire or coil has a certain inductance associated with it which is caused by the magnetic field that is set up when the current flows. Energy is stored in the field, and the action of the coil is to exhibit a resistance to change of the current flow within the conductor or coil. Click on the link for further information about Inductance
Inductor cores
Inductors are normally made in the form of a coil. The reason for this is that the magnetic field is linked between the windings and builds up. As such an inductor with a sufficiently large inductance can be built up more easily. As the permeability of the medium in which the coil is located has a major effect on the inductance, a core running down the centre of the coil is often used.
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Cores such as iron, ferrite and other magnetic materials are used. These all significantly increase the level of inductance that can be obtained, but care has to be taken in the choice of core to ensure its performance is suitable for the power level, frequency and general application of the inductor.
Air cored inductor: This type of inductor is normally used for RF applications where the level of inductance required is smaller. The fact that no core is used has several advantages: there is no loss within the core as air is lossless, and this results in a high level of Q, assuming the inductor or coil resistance is low. Against this the number of turns on the coil is larger to gain the same level of inductance and this may result in a physical increase in size. Iron cored inductor: Iron cores are normally used for high power and high inductance types of inductor. Some audio coils or chokes may use iron laminate. They are generally not widely used. Ferrite cored inductor : Ferrite is one of the most widely used cores for a variety of types of inductor. Ferrite is a metal oxide ceramic based around a mixture of Ferric Oxide Fe2O3 and either manganese-zinc or nickel-zinc oxides which are extruded or pressed into the required shape. Iron power inductor: Another core that can be used in a variety of types of inductor is iron oxide. Like ferrite, this provides a considerable increase in the permeability, thereby enabling much higher inductance coils or inductors to be manufactured in a small space.
Bobbin based inductor: This type of inductor is would on a cylindrical bobbin. They may be designed for printed circuit board mounting, even surface mount of they may be much larger and mounted via some other mechanical means. Some older versions of these inductors may even be in a similar format to normal leaded resistors. Toroidal inductor: This form of inductor is wound on a toroid - a circular former. Ferrite is often used as the former as this increases the permeability of the core. The advantage of a toroid is that the toroid enables the magnetic flux to travel in a circle around the toroid and as a result the flux leakage is very low. The disadvantage with a toroidal inductor is that it requires a special winding machine is required to perform the manufacture as the wire has to be passed thought the toroid for each turn required. Multilayer ceramic inductor: This type of inductor is widely used for surface mount technology. The inductor is manufactured within a ferrite or more commonly a magnetic ceramic material. The coil is contained within the body of the ceramic and is presented to the external circuit on end caps in the same way as chip capacitors, etc.
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Film inductor: This form of inductor uses a film of conductor on a base material. The film is then etched or shaped to give the required conductor profile.
As it can be seen, there are a number of ways to classify the different types of inductor. Each has its own advantages, and it is therefore necessary to make a decision about the various options available when choosing an inductor for a particular application. Modern materials and technology has meant that the performance of inductors has increased and many more options are open to the circuit designer whether for RF applications, combatting EMI, or for power applications.
Inductance
The key parameter for any inductor is its inductance. The inductance is the property of the inductor that tends to oppose any change in the current flowing. The SI unit of inductance is the henry, H. The inductance of a circuit is one henry if the rate of change of current in a circuit is one ampere per second and this results in an electromotive force of one volt. The actual level of the inductance is influenced by many factors including the number of turns on the coil, coil diameter and in particular the core used within the coil. As a one henry coil would be very large and only used in very low frequency applications, inductor parameters are more normally specified in terms of microhenries,, H. Other values may also be used and can be converted according to the table below: Value 1 henry 1 millihenry 1 nanohenry Value in terms of microhenries 1 000 000 H 1 000 H 0.001H
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DC Resistance
Another important inductor parameter is the DC resistance it exhibits. As inductors are often manufactured from very thin wire, the DC resistance can sometimes be significant. Even when thicker wire is used, it is still an important factor because it can significantly affect the overall performance as an inductor.
The DC resistance can be considered to be in series with the pure indictor for the sake of most circuit simulations, although in reality it is distributed throughout the inductor. The DC resistance, measured with a steady current is normally specified in Ohms, and typically given as a maximum value as it is sometimes difficult to control accurately.
Saturation Current
The saturation current is another parameter or specification which is of importance for an inductor. In an inductor it is possible to saturate the core because there is a limit to the level of magnetic flux a magnetic core such as iron, ferrite or another compound can take. When this occurs the relative permeability falls and in turn this causes the level of inductance falls. The saturation current is generally taken to be the current at which the level of inductance falls by a specified amount. Figures of 10% are often used for inductors with ferrite cores and 20% for those with iron powdered cores.
Incremental current
Often inductors run with a bias current passing through them. For example, this may be the quiescent current for a transistor collector where the inductor is in the collector circuit itself. There is a drop in inductance that is caused by this current and it is necessary to understand this so that the circuit will be able to operate satisfactorily even when the DC bias current is flowing. The incremental current inductor parameter is generally taken as the DC bias current flowing through the inductor that causes the inductance to fall by 5% from its initial value with zero bias. The value for the incremental current parameter or specification indicates the level where a further increase in current would cause the inductance to fall by a significant value. The incremental current value for an inductor is most important when using ferrite cores as they exhibit a much faster reduction in inductance with increasing current than other forms of core such as a powered iron core.
Rated current
Another important inductor parameter is the rated current. This specification is the maximum continuous current that the inductor can withstand. Generally the limiting factor for this parameter is the temperature rise of the inductor.
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With thin wire being used in many inductors to keep the size to a minimum, the current flow can result in power being dissipated in the inductor with the result that the temperature rises. Undue temperature rises can reduce the reliability or even cause catastrophic failure in some circumstances.
Core permeability
The permeability of the inductor core is a key parameter. It governs the inductance of the inductor for a given inductor geometry. Higher permeability core materials result in the inductor providing a higher level of inductance. The core material as well as the core shape, size and geometry affect the overall effective permeability, and therefore these factors also need to be taken into consideration as well.
Winding self-capacitance
The inductor self-capacitance or distributed capacitance is a particularly important parameter in many applications. It arises from the fact that apart from adding inductance, the wires also have a small but appreciable level of capacitance between each other.
The diagram shows individual capacitors within the inductor as this a simplified way of showing the self-capacitance. However the capacitance is distributed throughout the whole inductor and it is not separate capacitance. The level of capacitance depends on the area of the wire, the distance between the two wires and the permittivity of the material between them. Normally the level is relatively low, but it manifests itself to an external circuit as a small amount of capacitance across the inductor. This gives rise to what is termed the self-resonant frequency of the inductor.