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Antennas Since Hertz and Marconi

JOHN D.

m u s , LIFEFELLOW,IEEE

Y TALK HAS three parts: fust a bit of history, then some things personal, and finally a peek into the future. It was three centuries ago that Isaac Newton formulated his famous Law of Universal Gravitation. Because his lawviolated the accepted principle that action-at-a-distance is impossible, Newton himself was reluctant to announce it and be subjected toattack.Edmund Halley, who discovered the comet which bears his name, was a friend of Newtons andhe persuaded Newtontolet him presentthe law beforetheRoyalSociety. This Halley did for Newton in London in 1685 and, as Newton hadanticipated, he and his law were attacked. When Halleys comet comes around next year, remember what Halley did for Newton. Butby 1839, when Michael Faradaypresentedthe results of his Experimental Researches, with curved linesof force extendingthroughempty space, the world was at last ready t o embrace action-at-a-distance. Based on Faradays work, James Clerk Maxwell unified the theories of electricity and magnetism in a profound and elegant manner in his Treatise pubhhed in 1873. He postulated that light was electromagnetic in nature and that electromagnetic waves of other lengths were possible. But in the years that followed,many were skeptical of his ideasbecause,among other things, his theory gave a relative permittivity of 81 forwater whereas the accepted value was less than two. TheAmerican Institute of ElectricalEngineers (NEE) was organized 100 years ago, but radio was unknown and there were no antennas. X-rays had not been discovered, relativity had not been proposed, neither had quantum theory. Cosmicrayswere unknown, there were no airplanes and blood letting with leeches was a standard medical cure-all. Although the electric telegraph was king, Edisons incandescent light was making painfully slow headway against the entrenched gas illumination industry. In the United States, controversy raged over whether the electric street car or the horse-drawn car was better, and in England, the Red Flag Act required thatany self-propelled highway vehicle be preceded by a man carrying a red flag by day and a red lantern by night. So it was in 1881. A few years earlier the Berlin Academy of Science had offered a prize for research on the relation between electromagnetic forces and dielectricpolarization.Heinrich Rudolph Hertz considered whethertheproblem could be solved with oscillations using Leyden jars or open induction coils. Although he did not pursue this problem, his interest in oscillations had been kindled, and in 1886 as professor at the Technical Institute in Karlsruhe he assembled apparatus we wouldnow describeasa complete radio system with an end-loaded half-wave dipole as transmitting antennaand a resonant square loopantenna as receiver. When
Manuscript received September 10, 1984. The author is with the Radio Observatory, 2015 Neil Avenue, The Ohio State University, Columbus, OH 43210.

Fig. 1. Heinrich Hertzs complete radio system of 1886 with end-loaded 112wavelength dipole transmitting antenna (CC) and resonant loop receiving antenna (abcd). With induction coil ( A )turned on, sparks at gap B induced sparks at gap M in the receiving antenna. (From Heinrich Hertzs book Electric Waves, MacMillian, 1893.)

Fig. 2. Display of Hertzs radio apparatus. Sphere loaded 1/2-wavelength dipole and spark gap for 4 m is in foreground. Cylindrical parabolic reflector with transmitting dipole for 30 cm is at left (dipole with spark gap is vertical on parabola focal axis). Resonant receiving loop on wooden frame is resting inside parabola (at right). (Photo by E. C. Jordan.)

sparks were produced at a gap at the center of the dipole, sparking also occurred at agapin the nearby loop. During the next two years, Hertzextended his experimentsanddemonstrated reflection,refractionandpolarization, showing that except for their much greater length, radio waves were one with light. Hertzturnedthetide against Maxwell around.Hertz became the father of radio. Hertzs initial experiments were conducted at wavelengths of about 4 m while his later work was at shorter wavelengths around 30 cm. I have constructed and display here a working replica of Hertzs earliest 4-m system but Im not going to fue it upbecause it would knock out a lot of radios and TVs. If a William Proxmire had been around in Hertzs time, Hertzs radioapparatus might have received a Golden Fleece Award as a complete waste of moneyand effort-a toy of absolutely no practical value. Yet from this simple, fundamental beginning

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has come all of wireless, all of radio, all of TV, and a l l of space communications. However, Hertzs equipment did remain a laboratory curiosity for nearlya decadeuntil 20-year-oldGuglielmoMarconi, on a summer vacation in the Alps,chanced upon a magazine which described Hertzs experiments. Young Gughelmo wonderd if these Hertzian waves could be used to send messages. He became obsessed with the idea, cut short his vacation and rushed home to test it. In spacious rooms on an upper floor of the Marconi mansion Fig. 3. The fan, grid, and square cone antennas were popular types at the turn of the century. (Wireless Telegraphy and Telephony, by A. P. Morgan, in Bologna, Gughelmorepeated Hertzs experiments. His first Henley, 1912.) success late one night so elated hun he couldnt wait until morning t o break the news, so he woke his mother and demonstrated his radio system to her. Marconi quickly went on t o add tuning, big antenna and ground systems for longerwavelengths and was able to signal over large distances. In mid-December 1901, he startled the world byannouncingthathehad received radio signals atSt. Johns, Newfoundland, which had been sent across the Atlantic from Poldhu inCornwall,England. The scientific establishment did not believe his claim because they theorized that radio waves, like light, shouldtravelinstraight lines andcould not bend around the earth from England to Newfoundland. But the Cable Company believed Marconi and sewed himwith awrit to cease and desist because it had a monopoly on transAtlantic communication. The cable companys stock had plummeted following Marconis announcement and it threatened to sue him for any loss of revenue if he persisted. But persist he did. and a legal battle developed that continued for 27 years until finally the cable and wireless groups merged. Onemonthafter Marconis announcement,the AIEE held a banquet at New Yorks Waldorf-Astoria to celebrate the event. Charles Protius Steinmetz, President of the AIEE. was there as was Alexander Graham Bell, but many prominent scientists boycotted the banquet. Their theories had been challenged and Fig. 4. Square cone antenna at Marconis Poldhu, England, station in 1905. The 70 m wooden towers support a network of w i r e s which converge to a they wanted no part of it. point just above the transmitting and receiving buildings between the A year later, in 1903, Marconi began regular transAtlantic mestowers. sage service between Poldhu, England: and stations he built near Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, and South Wellfleet on Cape Cod. The Poldhu station had a fan aerial supported by two 60 m resistances only an ohm or less. Losses in heat and corona reguyedwooden poles. As receiving antennafor his fEst trans- duced efficiencies but with the brute power of many kilowatts, Atlantic signals at St. Johns, Marconi pulled up a 200 mwire signlficant amounts were radiated. of Radio In 1912 the Wireless Institute and the Society with a kite, working it against an array of wires on the ground. the Institute of Radio Engineers. A later antenna at Poldhu, typical of antennas at other Marconi Engineers merged to form stations, consisted of aconical wire cage. This was held up by In the fust issue of the Institutes Proceedings, which appeared n January1913,it is interestingthatthefust articlewas on four massive self-supporting 70 m wooden towers. With inputs of i and in particular on radiation resistance. Another 50 kW, antenna wires crackled and glowed with corona at night. antennas Local residents were sure that such fueworks in the sky would Proceedings article noted the youthfulness of commercial wireless operators. Most were in their late teens withpractically none alter the weather. Rarely has an invention captured the public imagination like over 25. Wireless was definitely a young mans profession. The era before the first World War was one of long waves, of Marconis wireless did at the turn of the century. We now call it arc and alternators for transmission; and of coherers, radio but then it was wireless: Marconis wireless. After its value spark, at sea had been dramatizedbythe S. S. Republicand S. S. Fleming valves and De Forest audions for reception. Following Titanic disasters, Marconi was regarded w i t h a universal awe thewar? vacuum tubes became available for transmission; conbegan in and admiration seldom matched. Before wireless, complete tinuous waves replaced sparkandradiobroadcasting isolation enshrouded a ship at sea. Disaster could strike without the 200 to 600 m range. Wavelengths less than 200 m were considered of little value anyone on the shore or nearby ships being aware that anything relegated to the amateurs. In 1921, the American hadhappened. Marconichanged all that. Marconibecame the and were Radio L e a g e sentPaulGodley to Europe to try to receive a wizard of the airwaves. Greenwich, CT, amateur station operating on 200 m. Major At typical wavelengths of 2000 to 10 000 m, the antennas inventor of the superheterodyne, conwere a small fraction of a wavelength in height and their radiation Edwin H. Armstrong,

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Fig. 5 . Rotating Bruce beam antenna of Karl G. Jansky with which he discovered radio waves from the center Ofour galaxy in 1932 (Bell Labs.)

Fig. 7 . First helicalbeamantenna.Rotatinghand-held dipolegave constant response, indicating circularly polarized radiation from the open end of the helix.

amateurs.It was abreakthrough,and in theyears whichfollowed,wavelengths from200 117 down came into wide use for long-distance communication. Atmospherics were the bane of the long waves, especially in the summer. They were less on the short waves but still enough of a problem in 1930 for the Bell Telephone Laboratories to have of GroteReberwhich he used to Karl Jansky study whether they came from certain predominant Fig. 6. Ninemeterparabolicdishantenna produce the first mapsof the radio sky. Built in 1937, Rebers antennais the directions.Antennasfortelephone service withEurope might prototype of the modem dish antenna. then be designed with nulls in these directions. Jansky constructed a rotating eight-element Bruce curtain 14 m. Although he obtained the destructed the transmitter with the help of several other amateurs. with reflector operating at Godley set up his receiving station near the Furth of Clyde in sired data on atmospherics from thunderstorms: he noted that in the absenceofall suchstaticthere was alwayspresent a very Scotland. He had two receivers, one a 10 tube superheterodyne, comand a Beverage antenna. On December 12; 1921, just 20 years to faint hiss-like static w h c h moved completelyaroundthe n 24 h. After many months of observations, Jansky conthe day after Marconi received his first transAtlantic signals on pass i cluded that it was coming from beyond the earth and beyond the a very long wavelength, Godley received messages from the Connecticut station and went on to log over 30 other U.S. sun. It was a cosmic static coming from the center of our galaxy.

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Fig. 9 . Panorama showing how the sky would appear if our eyes were sensitive to radio waves instead of light as produced by converting 96-helix map to shades of light and dark. The panorama is a Mercator projection. To appreciatemore fully itsthree-dimensional significance, imagine thatthe left and right sides are stretched around behind your head and the top pulled over your headso that the map completely surrounds you like the actual sky. The bright arch of radiation is from our Milky Way galaxy. The bright dots are radio sources none of which correspond to any visible star.

Fig. 8. Ninety-six helix radio telescope antenna at The Ohio State University in 1953. Radio maps produced with this antenna were the most detailed of the time. (See Fig. 9.)

Janskys serendipitous discovery of extraterrestialradio waves opened a new window on the universe. Jansky became the father of radio astronomy. For many years, or until after WW 11, only one person, Grote Reber, followed up on Janskys discovery in asignificant way. Reberconstructed a 9-m parabolic reflectorantennaoperating at about 2 m which is the prototype of the modern parabolic dish antenna.With it he made the first radio maps of the sky. I was 10 when I hauled up my first antenna to receive radio broadcast stations. The year was 1920. I soon subscribed to QST, became a licensed amateuranderected a succession of transmitting antennas. The firstwasa single-wire fed half-wave dipole, developed by Bill Everitt and John Byrne of Ohio State University, which came to be known as the Windom antenna. Twenty years later I took B i l l Everitts place atOhioState. Next I builtFranklinantennas, dipoles with reflectors, Bruce curtain arrays and rhombics. In 1932 I joined the Institute of Radio Engineers. Thefollowing year I received myPh.D. degree in physics fromthe Universityof Michigan, publishlng my dissertation research on the propagation of 5-m waves in the Proceedings. I readevery issue withinterest.OnopeningtheJanuary1937 Proceedings, I delved into a monumental treatise on Directional Antennas by George H. Brown of RCA. Buried deep in the article was, to me, an astonishing calculation which indicated that spacings of one-eighth wavelength or less had higher gains than the customary larger spacings. Within oneweek of thetime I received my Pvoceedings I had designed andbuilt an array of four close-spaced half-wave dipoles at my amateur station W8JK. Operating at a wavelength of 20 m, the array was phenomenally effective. I published the design and in subsequent articles extended it to a whole family of close-spaced arrays. Theantennasoutperformed all othersand came to becalled W8JK arrays. In 1937 close-spacing wasanew and revolutionary concept. In George Browns autobiography he states, Ironically, the particular portion of my paper which John Kraus used so effec-

Fig. 10. Clarke orbit Fleetsatcorn satellite with helical antennas for transmitting and receiving. A number of these satellites give global coverage. (TRW
Carp.)

tively was a small paper which I submitted to the Proceedings in 1932 only to have it rejected by a reviewer whodeniedits validity. When I prepared DirectionalAntennasI tuckedthis older material into the middle of this bulky manuscript on the assumption that thereviewer would not notice it. George Browns ruse workedandthe worldfmallylearned of his idea but only after it had languished in obscurity for five years. Recalling Newton, Maxwell, Marconi and Brown, it seems that the establishment is often slow to see the light but this is simply par for the course. Ifollowed upwithpublicationsonfoldeddoublets,multiwire dipoles and in 1940 with the corner reflector. For antennas no larger than a wavelength, thecorner reflector offers high gain, wide bandwidth and is easier to construct than a parabolic reflector. Millions have been built. Then came W V1 1 , microwaves and radar. Following the war, radio astronomy developed rapidly. Bernard Lovell at the University of Manchester led the way in big dishes while Martin Ryle at Cambridgepioneered interferometersandaperture synthesis with dipole and corner reflector arrays. In1946, a few monthsafterjoiningthefacultyatOhio State University, I attendedanafternoonlectureon travelingwave tubes by a famous scientist who was visiting the campus. In these tubes an electronbeam is fireddownthe insideofa

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Fig. 1 1 .
.

Big Ear, the 110-111radio,telescope atThe Ohio State University with which the most distantknown objects in the . a . universe were discovered. .

krlomeers

Fig. 12. Soviet scheme for measuring the distance of astronomical objects using the Fresnel-Fraunhofer field effect.

long helix for amplification of waves traveling along the helix. The helix is only asmall fraction ofawavelength in diameter andacts as aguiding structure.Afterthelecture, I asked the visitor if he though a helix could be used as an antenna. No, he replied, Ive tried it and it doesnt work. The finality of his answer set me thinking. If the helix were larger in diameter than in traveling-wave tube, I feltthatit would have to radiate in some way but how I did not know. I determined to find out, and that evening in the basement of my home I wound a seventurn helicalcoil of wire one wavelength in circumference for operation at 12 cm. I was thrilled to find that it produced a sharp beamofcircularlypolarized radiation off its open end. In the days and years that followed, I embarked on an extensive set of measurements and published a series of articles, with my students Claude Wdliamson, Otto Glasser, and Thomas Tice collaborating on some of them. We showed that in its beam mode, ahelical coil is asupergain antenna with almost constant resistive input and very wide bandwidth. Furthermore, it is noncritical to an unprecedented degree. I t is also easy to use in arrays because of an almost neghgible mutual impedance. I also derived equations suitable for engineering design purposes. When we built our first radio telescope at Ohio State in 1951, it consisted of a 96-helix array 50 m long operating at 250 M H z .

Following Sputnik,the helical coil became theworkhorseof space communications, being employedboth on satellites and at earth stations. Many US. satellites including its weather satellites, Amsat, Fleetsatcom, Navstar, Leasat, Westar, and Tracking and Data-Relay satellites a l l have helical coil antennas, the latter with arrays of 30, while the Russian satellites also have helical coil antennas, their Ekran satellites being equipped with arrays of no less than 96 helicals. The helicalcoil antenna has also beencarried to the Moon and Mars. I speculate that there may be more helical coil antennas in space than any other kind. In 1956 we began constructionatOhioState of a 110-m standing-parabola tiltable-flat-reflector radio telescope of unique design foroperationupto 4 GHz. Duringthe following two decades we used thisantenna, called Big Ear,in an all-sky survey thatlocated 20 000 radio sources and discovered what turnedoutto be themostdistantknownobjects in the universe at distances of 15 billion light years. And for the past 10 years Big Ear has been engaged in the worlds longest running search for the real ET. A 300-m telescope of the samedesign as Big Ear has been constructed at Nancay, France, a stilllarger and one 600 m across was recently completed near Zelenchukskaya, in the Soviet Union. You are all familiar with the fact that the pattern of an an-

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I A Gravitational Lens

Star

.~ .

Fig. 16. Gravity lens antenna with star, like the sun, as central mass can provide a gain of 70 dB. (From Our Cosmic Universe, by John Kraus, Cygnus-Quasar Books, 1980.)

Fig. 13. The Cyclops concept. Start with a few 100-m dish antennas...

Fig. 14.

... add more dishes if needed in order to find the real ET.

the phase front from the distantsource. With three 3-km diameter dishes in space, one near the earths orbit and two near Saturns, it should be possible at centimeter wavelengths to measure the distanceof even themostdistantobjects in the universe. At present, the distance to such objects is inferred by very indirect methods and a direct measurement by the Soviet scheme would be a great advance. Another gandiose proposal for the future is the Cyclops antenna consisting of anarray of 2000 100-m dishescovering an area of about 20 k m 2 . Another concept ofgreat potential is the gravity lens. You simplyuse a large mass to bend the radio waves to a focus. For example, -at 1 mm wavelength with the sun as the mass, you can expect a gain of 70 dB along a semi-infinite focal line. Thus, if you have a 100 m dish, the gravity lens makes it equivalent to an array of 10 million such dishes. So you see, we have hardly touched the realm of really high-gain antennas. With mankinds activities expanding into space, the need for antennas will grow toanunprecedented degree. Antennas will provide the vital l i n k s to andfromeverythingoutthere.The future of antennas reaches to the stars. One hundred years from now, in 2084, w i l l our present technology seem as primitive as this transmitter of Hertz now appearsto us?

REFERENCES
J. Billingham, Ed., Project Cyclops, a design study of a system for detecting extraterrestrial life , NASAlAmes Res. Center. Moffen Field, CA, 1970. G. H. Brown, Directional antennas, Proc. IRE, vol. 2 5 , pp. 78-145, Jan. 1937. , And part ofwhich I was, Angus Cupar, 117Hunt Drive, Princeton, NJ, 1982. , Marconi. Cosmic Search, vol. 2, no. 2, serial 6, Spring 1980. Von R. Eshleman, Gravitational lens of the sun: Its potential for observations and communications over interstellar distances, Sci., vol. 205, p. 1133, Sept. 14, 1979. M. Faraday, Experimental researches in electricity, B. Quaritch, London, p. 1839, 1855. H. R. Hertz, Electric Waves. London: MacMillian, 1893; New York: Dover, 1962. N. Kardashev, J. Shklovsky, V. Gorshkov, et al., Academy of Sciences, U.S.S.R., Space Research Inst. Moscow, Rep. PR-373, 1977. J. Kraus, Antennas. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1950. , Big Ear. Cygnus-Quasar, 1976. , Our Cosmic Universe. Cygnus-Quasar, 1980. Marconi, D., M y Father Marconi. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1962. i13i J. C. Maxwell. A Treatise on Electricitv and Mametism. London. .~~~ England: Oxford Univ. Press, 1873, 19G. [14] I. Newton, Principia. Cambridge, 1687.

Fig. 15. Ultimate Cyclops with 2000 100-m dish antennas covering an area of 20 km*. (Figs. 13, 14, and 15 by NASA.)

tenna is a function of the distance unless the distance is greater than acritical value equalapproximately to the squareof the antenna diameter divided by the wavelength. A group of Soviet scientists has proposed that this Fresnel-Fraunhofer field effect beemployed to measure the distance of astronomicalobjects. In effect the schemesimplymeasures the radius of curvature of

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John D. Kraus (A32-M43-SM43-F54-LF76) received the Ph.D. degree from the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, in 1933. Heis Director of the Radio Observatory and Taine G . McDougal Professor Emeritus of Electrical Engineering and Astronomy at The Ohio State University. He has been active in antenna development for over 50 years and is the inventor ofmany types of antennas including the comer reflector, helical antenna, closed-spaced (W8JK) arrays, multiwire doublets and steerable beam arrays. He is currently active as an antenna consultant while also preparing new

editions of Antennas and Radio Asfronomy. As director of the Radio Observatory, he is working with area universities and high-tech business men to form a consortium to operate the observatory as a regional educational and research facility. Dr. Kraus is the author of hundreds of technical articles and of the widelyused textbooks Electromagnetics, now in its third edition, Anrennas and Radio Astronomy. He has also written two popular books, Big Ear and Our Cosmic Universe.

Early History of the OSU ElectroScience Laboratory

GEORGE SWCLMR,
LIFE FELLOW, IEEE

who has access t o much of the untold story of the origin of the AbsCract-The early history of the Antenna Laboratory (the name was later changed to the ElectroScience Laboratory) of The Ohio State Laboratory, so I finally accepted his invitation. I hope my acUniversity is sketched. The development of scale model antenna techniques count will help to illustrate what is wrong with the history of is described, as applied to measuring the patterns of aircraft and missile technology. one for measuring full-scale antenna antennas. Other projects included on the patterns of vehicularantennasfor the U.S. Armyandanother THE PERIOD 1939- 1942 development of a CW technique for studying the reflections from radar targets. Emphasized is the importance of including in historical accountsof The month of September, 1939, proved to be a very important theworksofengineeringthehumaninvolvementof the engineerswho one inshaping myfuture life. There were three eventswhich create them. occurred. INTRODUCTION 1) I arrived in Columbus, OH, from our home in Edmonton, Alberta, Canada, in order to study for aPh.D. under Professor William L. Everitt at The Ohio State University. Two of my friends from Edmonton,Ed Jordan and Geoffreyhliller, had preceded me there and convinced me to choose Ohio State. 2) Canada entered the war against Germany. 3) My onlybrother,who was a Lieutenant in the Royal Canadian Navy, was assigned to active duty on a destroyer escorting ships across the North Atlantic. For the first year or so in Columbus, life went smoothly for I received word that my brothers me until December 1940? when destroyer had been torpedoed and he was lost at sea. With that news, I decided toreturnto Canada tocontributetothe war effort. I felt uncomfortable living at peace in the United States when my friends and relatives were involved in a war. Knowing that I wouldnotqualifyfor active military duty, I began negotiations with some government research laboratories in Ottawa, which were engaged inresearchrelating to the war effort. I informed Dr. Everitt of my intention to terminate my studies. Dr. Everitt suggested there might be an alternative course of actionwhichwouldpermitmetocontinuemy studies.He w a s negotiating for a contract from the U.S. Air Force at Wright Field? Dayton, OH: to solve an urgentproblem relating to the design of aircraft antennas. He offered to hire me on the project andstatedthat,undera Canada-U.S. Defense agreement,any results would be available to the Canadian government. I could contribute to Canadas war effort and could also use the research for my Ph.D. dissertation, so I accepted. The project related to the problem of designing aircraft an-

HEN PROFESSOR Ed Jordan f m t approached me to

consider participating in the Centennial Plenary Session of the 1984 APS International Symposium, I declined the invitation. M y reluctance was based on my disenchantment with the academic discipline known as the history oftechnology. As most historians already know, the discipline has some limitations, namely,it is failing to producethe insight and wisdom one expectsfrom historical accounts [ I ] , and they are aware that this is due to uncertainty as to the proper way to include the human involvement. One of the pioneers in the field, Jacques Ellul, is known for his claim thattechnologyfunctionswithouthumanintervention [ 2 ] . In other words, he is saying that engineers are unimportant in the development of technology (however you define it). In my view, the human involvement of engineers in producing the works which engineers create is not merely peripheral, but is centralto their projects.Thepoint I wanttomake is that I cannot possiblyconveyan accuratepictureoftheearly history of the ElectroScience Laboratory at The Ohio State University without explaining, in some detail, my personal history. The two are intimately connected. Harold Wheeler encountered the same problem when he wrote the history of the Hazeltine Corporation, as is evident from the title ofhis book and its preface [3]. As Professor Jordan pointed out to me, I am the only person
Manuscript received September 10, 1984. The author iswith Sinclair Radio Laboratories Ltd., 122 Rayene Road, Concord, ON, Canada L4K 2G3.

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