Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

Introduction to PIC Programming

Programming Baseline PICs in C
by David Meiklejohn, Gooligum Electronics

Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Although assembly language is commonly used to programming small microcontrollers, it is less appropriate for complex applications on larger MCUs; it can become unwieldy and difficult to maintain as programs grow longer. A number of higher-level languages are used in embedded systems development, including BASIC, Forth and even Pascal. But the most commonly used high level language is C. C is often considered to be inappropriate for very small MCUs, such as the baseline PICs we have examined in the baseline assembler tutorial series, because they have limited resources and their architecture is not well suited to C code. However, as this tutorial series will demonstrate, it is quite possible to use C for simple programs on baseline PICs although it is true that C may not be able to make the most efficient use of the limited memory on these small devices, as we will see in later lessons. This lesson introduces the free Custom Computer Services (CCS) compiler bundled with MPLAB1, and Microchips XC8 compiler (running in Free mode), both of which fully support all current baseline PICs2. As well see, the XC8 and CCS compilers take quite different approaches to many implementation tasks. Most other PIC C compilers take a similar approach to one or the other, or fall somewhere in between, making these compilers a good choice for an introduction to programming PICs in C. This lesson covers basic digital output, through that standby of introductory microcontroller courses: flashing LEDs although the concepts can be applied to anything which can be controlled by a high/low, on/off signal, including power MOSFET switches and relays. It is assumed that you are already familiar with the material covered in those baseline assembler lessons 1 to 3. If not, you should review those lessons while working through this one. Specifically, this lesson does not provide a detailed overview of the baseline PIC architecture, installing and using MPLAB or programmers such as the PICkit 2. Instead, this lesson explains how to create C projects in MPLAB, and how to implement the examples from the assembler lessons, in C. In summary, this lesson covers: Introduction to the Microchip XC8 and CCS PCB compilers Using MPLAB 8 and MPLAB X to create C projects Simple control of digital output pins Programmed delays

with examples for both compilers. This tutorial assumes a working knowledge of the C language; it does not attempt to teach C.

1 2

CCS PCB is bundled with MPLAB 8 only. at the time of writing (August 2012)

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 1

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

Introducing XC8 and CCS PCB

Up until version 8.10, MPLAB was bundled with HI-TECHs PICC-Lite compiler, which supported all the baseline (12-bit) PICs available at that time, including those used in this tutorial series, with no restrictions. It also supports a small number of the mid-range (14-bit) PICs although, for most of the mid-range devices it supported, PICC-Lite limited the amount of data and program memory that could be used, to provide an incentive to buy the full compiler. Microchip have since acquired HI-TECH Software, and no longer supply or support PICC-Lite. As such, PICC-Lite will not be covered in these tutorials. Microchip have developed the former HI-TECH C compiler into their own MPLAB XC8 compiler. It is available for download at www.microchip.com. XC8s Free mode supports all 8-bit (including baseline and mid-range) PICs, with no memory restrictions. However, in this mode, most compiler optimisation is turned off, making the generated code around twice the size of that generated by PICC-Lite. This gives those developing for baseline and mid-range PICs easy access to a free compiler supporting a much wider range of devices than PICC-Lite, without memory usage restrictions, albeit at the cost of much larger generated code. And XC8 will continue to be maintained, supporting new baseline and mid-range devices over time. But if you are using Windows and developing code for a supported baseline PIC, it is quite valid to continue to use PICC-Lite (if you are able to locate a copy by downloading MPLAB 8.10 from the archives on www.microchip.com, for example), since it will generate much more efficient code, while allowing all the (limited) memory on your baseline PIC to be used. It can be installed alongside XC8. But to repeat PICCLite wont be described in these lessons. MPLAB 8 includes a free copy of CCSs PCB C compiler for Windows, which supports most baseline PICs, including those used in these tutorials. Although its now a little date (at the time of writing, the version bundled with MPLAB was 4.073, while the latest commercially available version was 4.135), it remains useful and so is used in these tutorials. If you are using MPLAB 8, you should select the CCS compiler as an option when installing MPLAB, to ensure that the integration with the MPLAB IDE will be done correctly. The XC8 installer (for Windows, Linux or Mac) has to be downloaded separately from www.microchip.com. When you run the XC8 installer, you will be asked to enter a license activation key. Unless you have purchased the commercial version, you should leave this blank. You can then choose whether to run the compiler in Free mode, or activate an evaluation license. Well be using Free mode in these lessons, but its ok to use the evaluation license (for 60 days) if you choose to. Custom Computer Services (CCS) PCB CCS (www.ccsinfo.com) specialises in PIC development, offering hardware development platforms, as well as a range of C compilers supporting (as of February 2012) almost all the PIC processors from the baseline 10Fs through to the 16-bit PIC24Fs and dsPICs. They also offer an IDE, including a C-aware editor, and debugger/simulator. PCB is the command-line compiler supporting the baseline (12-bit) PICs. A separate command-line compiler, called PCM, supports the mid-range (14-bit) PICs, including most PIC16s. Similarly, PCH supports the 16-bit instruction-width, 8-bit data width PIC18 series, while PCD supports the 24-bit instruction-width, 16-bit data width PIC24 and dsPIC series. These command-line compilers are available for both Windows and Linux. A plug-in allows these compilers to be integrated into both MPLAB 8 and MPLAB X3.

Note that the free version of the CCS PCB compiler, supplied with MPLAB 8, will not work with MPLAB X.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 2

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

CCS also offer a Windows IDE, called PCW, which incorporates the PCB and PCM compilers. PCWH extends this to include PCH for 18F support, while PCWHD supports the full suite of PICs. A lower-cost IDE, called PCDIDE includes only the PCD compiler. The CCS compilers and IDEs are relatively inexpensive: as of February 2012, the advertised costs range from US$50 for PCB, through US$150 for PCM, US$350 for PCW, to US$600 for the full PCWHD suite. As well see, the CCS approach is to provide a large number of PIC-specific inbuilt functions, such as read_adc(), which make it easy to access or use PIC features, without having to be aware of and specify all the registers and bits involved. That means that the CCS compilers can be used without needing a deep understanding of the underlying hardware, which can be a two-edged sword; it is easier to get started and less-error prone (in that the compiler can be expected to set up the registers correctly), but can be less flexible and more difficult to debug when something is wrong (especially if the bug is in the compilers implementation, and not your code).

Microchip MPLAB XC8 XC8 supports the whole 8-bit PIC10/12/16/18 series in a single edition, with different licence keys unlocking different levels of code optimisation Free (free, but no optimisation), Standard and PRO (most expensive and highest optimisation). Microchip XC compilers are also available for the PIC24, dsPIC and PIC32 families. The XC8 compiler is more expensive than those from CCS: as of August 2012, the advertised costs include US$495 for the Standard mode, and US$995 for this compiler in PRO mode. Well see that XC8 exposes the PICs registers as variables, to be accessed directly by the developer, in much the same way that they would be in assembler, instead of via built-in functions. This means that, to effectively use the XC8 compiler, you need a strong understanding of the underlying PIC hardware, equivalent to that needed for programming in assembler.

These differing approaches are highlighted in the examples below. Instead of trying to force either compiler into a particular style, the examples for each compiler are written in a style similar in spirit to the sample code provided with each. Although it is possible to map registers into variables in the CCS compilers, the examples in these tutorials use the CCS built-in functions where that seems reasonable, since that is how that compiler was intended to be used. However, identical comments are used where reasonable, to highlight the correspondence between both C compilers and the original assembler version of each example.

Data Types One of the problems with implementing ANSI-standard C on microcontrollers is that there is often a need to work with individual bits, while the smallest data-type included in the ANSI standard is char, which is normally considered to be a single byte, or 8 bits. Another problem is the length of a standard integer (int) is not defined, being implementation-dependent. Whether an int is 16 or 32 bits is an issue on larger systems, but it makes a much more significant difference to code portability on microcontrollers. Similarly, the sizes of float, double, and the effect of the modifiers short and long is not defined by the standard. So different compilers use various sizes for the standard data types, and for microcontroller implementations it is common to add a single-bit type as well generally specific to that compiler.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 3

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

Here are the data types and sizes supported by CCS PCB and XC8: Type bit int1 char int8 short int int16 short long long int32 float double XC8 1 8 16 16 24 32 24 or 32 24 or 32 CCS PCB 1 8 8 1 8 16 16 32 32 Youll see that very few of these line up; the only point of agreement is that char is 8 bits! XC8 defines a single bit type, unique to XC8. CCS PCB defines int1, int8, int16 and int32 types, which make it easy to be explicit about the size of a data element (such as a variable). The standard int type is 8 bits in CCS PCB, but 16 bits in XC8. But by far the greatest difference is in the definition of short: in XC8, it is a synonym for int and is a 16-bit type, whereas in CCS PCB, short is a single-bit type, the same as an int1. That could be very confusing when porting code from CCS PCB to another compiler, so for clarity it is probably best to use int1 when defining single-bit variables. XC8 also offers the non-standard 24-bit short long type. And note that floating-point variables in XC8 can be either 24 or 32 bits; this is set by a compiler option. The only floatingpoint representation available in CCS PCB is 32-bit, which may be a higher level of precision than is needed in most applications for small applications, so XC8s ability to work with 24-bit floating point numbers can be useful.

To make it easier to create portable code, XC8 provides the stdint.h header file, which defines the C99 standard types such as uint8_t and int16_t. Unfortunately, CCS PCB does not come with a version of stdint.h, although the size of CCS types such as int8, and int16 is clear.

Example 1: Turning on an LED

In baseline assembler lesson 1 we saw how to turn on a single LED, and leave it on; the (very simple) circuit, using a PIC10F200, is shown below: This circuit is intended for use with the Gooligum baseline training board, where you can simply plug the 10F200 into the 10F socket, and connect jumper JP12. If you have the Microchip Low Pin Count Demo board, which does not support PIC10F devices, you will have to substitute a 12F508 or 12F509 and connect an LED to pin GP1: see baseline assembler lesson 1 for details.

To turn on the LED on GP1, we must clear bit 1 of the TRIS, configuring GP1 as an output, and then set bit 1 of GPIO, setting GP1 high, turning the LED on.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 4

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

At the start of the assembly language program, the PIC was configured, and the internal RC oscillator was calibrated, by loading the factory calibration value into the OSCCAL register. Finally, the end of the program consisted of an infinite loop, to leave the LED turned on.

Here are the key parts of the 10F200 version of the assembler code from baseline lesson 1:
__CONFIG RESET CODE movwf movlw tris movlw movwf goto ; ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog _MCLRE_ON & _CP_OFF & _WDT_OFF 0x000 OSCCAL b'111101' GPIO b'000010' GPIO $ ; effective reset vector ; apply internal RC factory calibration ; configure GP1 (only) as an output ; set GP1 high ; loop forever

XC8 XC8 projects in MPLAB are created in a similar way to assembler projects, but as we saw in baseline lesson 1, the details depend on which version of the MPLAB IDE you are using. MPLAB 8.xx You should use the project wizard to create a new project, as before. To specify that this is an XC8 project, select the Microchip XC8 ToolSuite when you reach Step Two: Select a language toolsuite:

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 5

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

When completing the wizard, note that there is no need to add existing files to your project, unless you wish to make use of some existing code, perhaps from a previous project. There is no equivalent to the MPASM template files we saw in baseline lesson 1. After finishing the project wizard, you can use the File Add New File to Project menu item to create a .c source file in your project folder. It should appear under Source Files in the project window, as usual:

If you have installed more than one HI-TECH or XC8 compiler, you need to tell the XC8 toolsuite which compiler, or driver, to use. Open the project build options window (Project Build Options Project) then select the Driver tab, as shown on the right.

To select the compiler you wish to use, move it to the top of the list of available drivers, by using the Move up button). The Current driver

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 6

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

panel shows which compiler will be used for your device; since not every compiler supports every PIC, the toolsuite selects the first driver in the list which supports the device you are compiling for. When you have selected the compiler you wish to use, click OK to continue. You are now ready to start coding! MPLAB X You should use the New Project wizard to create your new project, as usual. When you reach step 5, Select Compiler, select XC8 (taking care to select the version you wish to use, if you have more than one XC8 compiler installed), to specify that this is an XC8 project:

After completing the wizard, right-click Source Files in the project tree within the Projects window, and select New C Source File to create a .c source file in your project folder:

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 7

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

Note that, when you right-click Source Files and select the New sub-menu, to create a new file and add it to your project, you are presented with a number of options, including any file types you have recently used, and Other. This leads you to the New File dialog, which allows you to base your new file on an existing template. Youll find some templates for use with XC8 under Microchip Embedded:

The main.c template is a reasonable start, but its slightly different from the C source code style used in these tutorials, so we wont use it here. Nevertheless, these code templates are a helpful feature of MPLAB X, and as you become more experienced, you can even develop your own. When you have created a blank C source file, it should appear in the project tree, as usual:

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 8

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

You can now use the editor to start coding! XC8 Source code As usual, you should include a comment block at the start of each program or module. Most of the information in the comment block should be much the same, regardless of the programming language used, since it relates to what this application is, who wrote it, dependencies and the assumed environment, such as pin assignments. However, when writing in C, it is a good idea to state which compiler has been used because, as we have seen for data types, C code for microcontrollers is not necessarily easily portable. So we might use something like:
/************************************************************************ * * * Filename: BC_L1-Turn_on_LED-10F200-HTC.c * * Date: 7/6/12 * * File Version: 1.1 * * * * Author: David Meiklejohn * * Company: Gooligum Electronics * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Architecture: Baseline PIC * * Processor: 10F200 * * Compiler: MPLAB XC8 v1.00 (Free mode) * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Files required: none * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Description: Lesson 1, example 1 * * * * Turns on LED. LED remains on until power is removed. * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Pin assignments: * * GP1 = indicator LED * * * ************************************************************************/

Note that, as we did our previous assembler code, the processor architecture and device are specified in the comment block. This is important for the XC8 compiler, as there is no way to specify the device in the code; i.e. there is no equivalent to the MPASM list p= or processor directives. Instead, the processor is specified in the IDE (MPLAB), or as a command-line option.

Most of the symbols relevant to specific processors are defined in header files. But instead of including a specific file, as we would do in assembler, it is normal to include a single catch-all file: xc.h (or htc.h). This file identifies the processor being used, and then calls other header files as appropriate. So our next line, which should be at the start of every XC8 program, is:
#include <xc.h>

Next, we need to configure the processor. This can be done with a configuration pragma.
Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output Page 9

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

For the 10F200 version of this example, we would have:

// ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog #pragma config MCLRE = ON, CP = OFF, WDTE = OFF

Or, you can use the __CONFIG macro, in a very similar way to the __CONFIG directive in MPASM:
__CONFIG(MCLRE_ON & CP_OFF & WDTE_OFF);

The symbols are the same in both, but note that the pragma uses = (with optional spaces) between each setting, such as MCLRE, and its value, such as ON, while the macro uses _ (with no spaces)4. To see which symbols to use for a given PIC, you need to consult the pic_chipinfo.html file, in the docs directory within the compiler install directory. For the 12F508 or 12F509 version5, we have:
// ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog, int RC clock __CONFIG(MCLRE_ON & CP_OFF & WDT_OFF & OSC_IntRC);

As with most C compilers, the entry point for user code is a function called main(). So an XC8 program will look like:
void main() { ; // user code goes here }

Declaring main() as void isnt strictly necessary, since any value returned by main() is only relevant when the program is being run by an operating system which can act on that return value, but of course there is no operating system here. Similarly it would be more correct to declare main() as taking no parameters (i.e. main(void)), given that there is no operating system to pass any parameters to the program. How you declare main() is really a question of personal style. At the start of our assembler programs, weve always loaded the OSCCAL register with the factory calibration value (although it is only necessary when using the internal RC oscillator). There is no need to do so when using XC8; the default start-up code, which runs before main(), loads OSCCAL for us. XC8 makes the PICs special function registers available as variables defined in the header files. Loading the TRIS register with 111101b (clearing bit 1, configuring GP1 as an output) is simply:
TRIS = 0b111101; // configure GP1 (only) as an output

Individual bits, such as GP1, can be accessed through bit-fields defined in the header files. For example, the pic10f200.h file header file defines a union called GPIObits, containing a structure with bit-field members GP0, GP1, etc.
4

Although the __CONFIG macro is now (as of XC8 v1.10) considered to be a legacy feature, it is still supported and we will continue to use it in these tutorials (the examples were originally written for HI-TECH C).
5

The source code for the 12F508 and 12F509 is exactly the same.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 10

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

So, to set GP1 to 1, we can write:

GPIObits.GP1 = 1; // set GP1 high

Baseline assembler lesson 2 explained that setting or clearing a single pin in this way is a read-modifywrite (rmw) operation, which may lead to problems, even though setting GP1 individually, as above, will almost certainly work in this case. To avoid any potential for rmw problems, we can load the value 000010b into GPIO (setting bit 1, and clearing all the other bits), with:
GPIO = 0b000010; // set GP1 high

Finally, we need to loop forever. There are a number of C constructs that could be used for this, but the one used in most of the XC8 sample code (and its as good as any) is:
for (;;) { ; } // loop forever

Complete program Here is the complete 10F200 version of the code to turn on an LED on GP1, for XC8:
/************************************************************************ * Description: Lesson 1, example 1 * * * * Turns on LED. LED remains on until power is removed. * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Pin assignments: * * GP1 = indicator LED * * * ************************************************************************/ #include <xc.h> /***** CONFIGURATION *****/ // ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog __CONFIG(MCLRE_ON & CP_OFF & WDTE_OFF); /***** MAIN PROGRAM *****/ void main() { // Initialisation TRIS = 0b111101; GPIO = 0b000010; // Main loop for (;;) { ; } }

// configure GP1 (only) as an output // set GP1 high

// loop forever

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 11

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

The 12F508/509 version is the same, except for the different __CONFIG line, given earlier. Building the project Whether you use MPLAB 8 or MPLAB X, the process of compiling and linking your code (making or building your project) is essentially the same as for an assembler project (see baseline assembler lesson 1). To compile the source code in MPLAB 8, select Project Build, press F10, or click on the Build toolbar button:

This is equivalent to the assembler Make option, compiling all the source files which have changed, and linking the resulting object files and any library functions, creating an output .hex file, which can then be programmed into the PIC as normal. The other Project menu item or toolbar button, Rebuild, is equivalent to the MPASM Build All, recompiling all your source files, regardless of whether they have changed. Building an XC8 project in MPLAB X is exactly the same as for a MPASM assembler project: click on the Build or Clean and Build toolbar button, or select the equivalent items in the Run menu, to compile and link your code. When it builds without errors and you are ready to program your code into your PIC, select the Run Run Main Project menu item, click on the Make and Program Device toolbar button, or simply press F6. CCS PCB The process of creating a new CCS PCB project in MPLAB 8 is the same as that for XC8, except that you need to select the CCS C Compiler toolsuite, in the project wizard, as shown on the right.

Note that the free version of CCS PCB, bundled with MPLAB 8, cannot be used with MPLAB X. However, if you purchase the most recent version of MPLAB X, you can use MPLAB C to create and build CCS C projects, in the same way as for XC8.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 12

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

CCS PCB Source code The comment block at the start of CCS PCB programs can of course be similar to that for any other C compiler (including XC8), but the comments should state that this code is for the CCS compiler. Its not as important for the comments to state which processor is being used, since, unlike XC8, CCS PCB requires a #device directive, used to specify which processor the code is to be compiled for. Also unlike XC8, there is no catch-all header file, so you are expected to include the appropriate .h file (found in the devices directory within the CCS PCB install directory), which defines all the symbols relevant to the processor you are using. This file will incorporate the appropriate #device directive, so you would not normally place that directive separately in your source code. Instead, at the start of every CCS PCB program, you should include a line such as:
#include <10F200.h>

However, you will find that this file, for the 10F200, defines the pins as PIN_B0, PIN_B1, etc., instead of the more commonly-used GP0, GP1, etc. This is true for the other 10F and 12F PICs as well. So to be able to use the normal symbols, we can add these lines at the start of our code, when working with 10F or 12F PICs:
#define #define #define #define #define #define GP0 GP1 GP2 GP3 GP4 GP5 PIN_B0 PIN_B1 PIN_B2 PIN_B3 PIN_B4 PIN_B5 // define GP pins

(if youre using a 10F device, you only need to define GP0 to GP3, because the 10Fs only have four pins) The #fuses directive is used to configure the processor. For the 10F200, we have:
// ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog #fuses MCLR,NOPROTECT,NOWDT

While for the 12F508 or 12F509, we also need to configure the oscillator:
// ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog, int RC clock #fuses MCLR,NOPROTECT,NOWDT,INTRC

Again, although this is similar to the __CONFIG directive we know from MPASM, the configuration symbols are different. For example, NOPROTECT instead of _CP_OFF, and INTRC instead of _IntRC_OSC. To see which symbols to use for a given PIC, you need to consult the header file for that device. In the same way as XC8, the user program starts with main():
void main() { ; // user code goes here }

And, as with XC8, the default start-up code, run before main() is entered, loads the factory calibration value into OSCCAL, so there is no need to write code to do that.

As mentioned earlier, the approach taken by CCS PCB is to make much of the PIC functionality available through built-in functions, reducing the need to access registers directly.
Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output Page 13

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

The output_high() function loads the TRIS register to configure the specified pin as an output, and then sets that output high. So to make GP1 an output and set it high, we can use simply:
output_high(GP1); // configure GP1 (only) as an output and set high

However, as explained for the XC8 version and in detail in baseline assembler lesson 2, setting or clearing a single pin may lead to potential read-modify-write problems, and it is safer to write a value to the whole port (GPIO) in a single operation. CCS C, we can do this with the output_x() built-in function, which outputs an entire byte to port x:
output_b(0b000010); // configure GPIO as all output and set GP1 high

Note that, as far as CCS is concerned, on a 10F200 or 12F508/509, GPIO is port b. Also note that the output_x() function configures the port with every pin as an output, before outputting the specified value. This behaviour of loading TRIS every time an output is made high (or low) makes the code simpler to write, but can be slower and use more memory, so CCS PCB provides a #use fast_io directive and set_tris_X() functions to override this slower standard I/O, but for simplicity, and in the spirit of CCS C programming style, well keep this default behaviour for now. To loop forever, we could use the for(;;) {} loop used in the XC8 example above, but since the standard CCS PCB header files define the symbol TRUE (and XC8 doesnt), we can use:
while (TRUE) { ; } // loop forever

Complete program Here is the complete 10F200 version of the code to turn on an LED on GP1, using CCS PCB:
/************************************************************************ * * * Description: Lesson 1, example 1 * * * * Turns on LED. LED remains on until power is removed. * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Pin assignments: * * GP1 = indicator LED * * * ************************************************************************/ #include <10F200.h> #define #define #define #define GP0 GP1 GP2 GP3 PIN_B0 PIN_B1 PIN_B2 PIN_B3 // define GP pins

/***** CONFIGURATION *****/ // ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog #fuses MCLR,NOPROTECT,NOWDT

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 14

 Gooligum Electronics 2012 /***** MAIN PROGRAM *****/ void main() { // Initialisation output_b(0b000010); // Main loop while (TRUE) { ; } }

www.gooligum.com.au

// configure GPIO as all output and set GP1 high

// loop forever

The 12F508/509 versions are the same, except that you need to #include a different header (12F508.h or 12F509.h, instead of 10F200.h), and change the #fuses directive, as shown earlier. Building the project To compile the source code in MPLAB 8, select Project Build, press F10, or click on the Make Project toolbar button:

This is the CCS equivalent to the XC8 Build project option, compiling all changed source files and linking the object files and library functions to create an output .hex file, which can be programmed into the PIC as normal. The other Project menu item or toolbar button, Build All, is equivalent to the XC8 Rebuild or the MPASM Build All, recompiling your entire project, regardless of whats changed. Comparisons Even in an example as simple as turning on a single LED, the difference in approach between XC8 and CCS PCB is apparent. The XC8 code shows a closer correspondence to the assembler version, with the TRIS register being explicitly written to. On the other hand, in the CCS PCB example, GPIO is configured as all outputs and written to, through a single built-in function that performs both operations, effectively hiding the existence of the TRIS register from the programmer.

Example 2: Flashing an LED (20% duty cycle)

In baseline lesson 2, we used the same circuits as above, but made the LED flash by toggling the GP1 output. The delay was created by an in-line busy-wait loop.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 15

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

Baseline lesson 3 showed how to move the delay loop into a subroutine, and to generalise it, so that the delay, as a multiple of 10 ms, is passed as a parameter to the routine, in W . This was demonstrated on the PIC12F509, using the circuit shown on the right. If you are using the Gooligum baseline training board, remember to remove the 10F200 from the 10F socket, before plugging the 12F509 into the 12F section of the 14-pin socket.

The example program flashed the LED at 1 Hz with a duty cycle of 20%, by turning it on for 200 ms and then off for 800 ms, and continually repeating.

Here is the main loop from the assembler code from baseline lesson 3:
main_loop ; turn on LED movlw b'000010' movwf GPIO ; delay 0.2 s movlw .20 pagesel delay10 call delay10 ; turn off LED clrf GPIO ; delay 0.8 s movlw .80 call delay10 ; repeat forever pagesel main_loop goto main_loop

; set GP1 (bit 1) ; delay 20 x 10 ms = 200 ms

; (clearing GPIO clears GP1) ; delay 80 x 10ms = 800ms

XC8 Weve seen how to turn on the LED on GP1, with:

GPIObits.GP1 = 1; // set GP1 // set GP1 (bit 1 of GPIO)

or
GPIO = 0b000010;

And of course, to turn the LED off, it is simply:

GPIObits.GP1 = 0; // clear GP1 // (clearing GPIO clears GP1)

or
GPIO = 0;

These statements can easily be placed within an endless loop, to repeatedly turn the LED on and off. All we need to add is a delay. XC8 provides a built-in function, _delay(n), which creates a delay n instruction clock cycles long. The maximum possible delay depends on which PIC you are using, but it is a little over 50,000,000 cycles. With

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 16

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

a 4 MHz processor clock, corresponding to a 1 MHz instruction clock, thats a maximum delay of a little over 50 seconds. The compiler also provides two macros: __delay_us() and __delay_ms(), which use the _delay(n) function create delays specified in s and ms respectively. To do so, they reference the symbol _XTAL_FREQ, which you must define as the processor oscillator frequency, in Hertz. Since our PIC is running at 4 MHz, we have:
#define _XTAL_FREQ 4000000 // oscillator frequency for _delay()

Then, to generate a 200 ms delay, we can write:

__delay_ms(200); // stay on for 200 ms

Complete program Putting these delay macros into the main loop, we have:
/************************************************************************ * * * Description: Lesson 1, example 2 * * * * Flashes an LED at approx 1 Hz, with 20% duty cycle * * LED continues to flash until power is removed. * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Pin assignments: * * GP1 = flashing LED * * * ************************************************************************/ #include <xc.h> /***** CONFIGURATION *****/ // ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog, int RC clock __CONFIG(MCLRE_ON & CP_OFF & WDT_OFF & OSC_IntRC); #define _XTAL_FREQ 4000000 // oscillator frequency for _delay()

/***** MAIN PROGRAM *****/ void main() { // Initialisation TRIS = 0b111101; // Main loop for (;;) { GPIO = 0b000010; __delay_ms(200); GPIO = 0; __delay_ms(800); } }

// configure GP1 (only) as an output

// turn on LED on GP1 (bit 1) // stay on for 200 ms // turn off LED (clearing GPIO clears GP1) // stay off for 800 ms // repeat forever

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 17

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

CCS PCB In the previous example, we turned on the LED with:

output_high(GP1); // set GP1 // set GP1 (bit 1 of GPIO)

or
output_b(0b000010);

Similarly, the LED can be turned off by:

output_low(GP1); or output_b(0); // (clearing GPIO clears GP1) // clear GP1

In a similar way to XC8, CCS PCB provides built-in delay functions: delay_us() and delay_ms(), which create delays of a specified number of s and ms respectively. They accept a 16-bit unsigned value (0-65535) as a parameter. Unlike the XC8 macros, which can only generate a constant delay, the CCS delay functions accept either a variable or a constant as a parameter. Since the functions are built-in, there is no need to include any header files before using them. But you must still specify the processor clock speed, so that the delays can be created correctly. This is done using the #use delay pre-processor directive to the processor oscillator frequency, in Hertz. For example, since our PIC is running at 4 MHz, we have:
#use delay (clock=4000000) // oscillator frequency for delay_ms()

To create a 200 ms delay, we can then use:

delay_ms(200); // stay on for 200 ms

Complete program Here is the complete code to flash an LED on GP1, with a 20% duty cycle, using CCS PCB:
/************************************************************************ * * * Description: Lesson 1, example 2 * * * * Flashes an LED at approx 1 Hz, with 20% duty cycle * * LED continues to flash until power is removed. * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Pin assignments: * * GP1 = flashing LED * * * ************************************************************************/ #include <12F509.h> #define #define #define #define #define #define GP0 GP1 GP2 GP3 GP4 GP5 PIN_B0 PIN_B1 PIN_B2 PIN_B3 PIN_B4 PIN_B5 // define GP pins

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 18

 Gooligum Electronics 2012 /***** CONFIGURATION *****/ // ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog, int RC clock #fuses MCLR,NOPROTECT,NOWDT,INTRC #use delay (clock=4000000) /***** MAIN PROGRAM *****/ void main() { // Main loop while (TRUE) { output_b(0b000010); delay_ms(200); output_b(0); delay_ms(800); } }

www.gooligum.com.au

// oscillator frequency for delay_ms()

// turn on LED on GP1 (bit 1) // stay on for 200ms // turn off LED (clearing GPIO clears GP1) // stay off for 800ms // repeat forever

Example 3: Flashing an LED (50% duty cycle)

The first LED flashing example in baseline assembler lesson 2 used an XOR operation to flip the GP1 bit every 500 ms, creating a 1 Hz flash with a 50% duty cycle. In that example, we used a shadow register to maintain a copy of the port register (GPIO), and flipped the shadow bit corresponding to GP1, instead of working on port directly. As that lesson explained, this was to avoid potential problems due to read-modify-write operations on the port bits. If youre a little hazy on this concept, it would be a good idea to review that section of baseline assembler lesson 2. As noted earlier, when you use a statement like GPIObits.GP1 = 1 in XC8, or output_high(GP1) in CCS PCB, the compilers translate those statements into bit set or clear instructions, acting directly on the port registers, which may lead to read-modify-write problems. Note: Any C statements which directly modify individual port bits may be subject to read-modifywrite considerations.

To avoid such problems, shadow variables can be used in C programs, in the same way that shadow registers are used in assembler programs.

To demonstrate this, we can continue to use the circuit from the previous example, and model our code on the corresponding example from baseline assembler lesson 3:
;***** Initialisation start movlw b'111101' tris GPIO clrf ;***** Main loop sGPIO

; configure GP1 (only) as an output ; start with shadow GPIO zeroed

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 19

 Gooligum Electronics 2012 main_loop ; toggle LED on GP1 movf sGPIO,w xorlw b'000010' movwf sGPIO movwf GPIO ; delay 0.5 s movlw .50 pagesel delay10 call delay10 ; repeat forever pagesel main_loop goto main_loop

www.gooligum.com.au

; get shadow copy of GPIO ; toggle bit corresponding to GP1 (bit 1) ; in shadow register ; and write to GPIO ; delay 50 x 10 ms = 500 ms ; -> 1 Hz flashing at 50% duty cycle

XC8 To toggle GP1, you could use the statement:

GPIObits.GP1 = ~GPIObits.GP1;

or:
GPIObits.GP1 = !GPIObits.GP1;

This statement is also supported:

GPIObits.GP1 = GPIObits.GP1 ? 0 : 1;

It works because single-bit bit-fields, such as GP1, hold either a 0 or 1, representing false or true respectively, and so can be used directly in a conditional expression like this.

However, since these statements modify individual bits in GPIO, to avoid potential read-modify-write issues well instead use a shadow variable, which can be declared and initialised with:
uint8_t sGPIO = 0; // shadow copy of GPIO

This makes it clear that the variable is an unsigned, eight-bit integer. We could have declared this as an unsigned char, or simply char (because char is unsigned by default), but you can make your code clearer and more portable by using the C99 standard integer types defined in the stdint.h header file. To define these standard integer types, add this line toward the start of your program:
#include <stdint.h>

This variable declaration could be placed within the main() function, which is what you should do for any variable that is only accessed within main(). However, a variable such as a shadow register may need to be accessed by other functions. For example, its quite common to place all of your initialisation code into a function called init(), which might initialise the shadow register variables as well as the ports, and your main() code may also need to access them. It is often best to define such variables as global (or external) variables toward the start of your code, before any functions, so that they can be accessed throughout your program. But remember that, to make your code more maintainable and to minimise data memory use, you should declare any variable which is only used by one function, as a local variable within that function. Well see examples of that later, but in this example well define sGPIO as a global variable.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 20

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

Flipping the shadow copy of GP1 and updating GPIO, can then be done by:
sGPIO ^= 0b000010; GPIO = sGPIO; // toggle shadow bit corresponding to GP1 // write to GPIO

Complete program Here is how the XC8 code to flash an LED on GP1, with a 50% duty cycle, fits together:
/************************************************************************ * * * Description: Lesson 1, example 3 * * * * Flashes an LED at approx 1 Hz. * * LED continues to flash until power is removed. * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Pin assignments: * * GP1 = flashing LED * * * ************************************************************************/ #include <xc.h> #include <stdint.h> /***** CONFIGURATION *****/ // ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog, int RC clock __CONFIG(MCLRE_ON & CP_OFF & WDT_OFF & OSC_IntRC); #define _XTAL_FREQ 4000000 // oscillator frequency for _delay()

/***** GLOBAL VARIABLES *****/ uint8_t sGPIO = 0; /***** MAIN PROGRAM *****/ void main() { // Initialisation TRIS = 0b111101; // Main loop for (;;) { // toggle LED on GP1 sGPIO ^= 0b000010; GPIO = sGPIO; // delay 500 ms __delay_ms(500); } } // repeat forever

// shadow copy of GPIO

// configure GP1 (only) as an output

// toggle shadow bit corresponding to GP1 // write to GPIO

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 21

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

CCS PCB CCS PCB provides a built-in function specifically for toggling an output pin: output_toggle(). To toggle GP1, all that is needed is:
output_toggle(GP1);

But since this function performs a read-modify-write operation on GPIO, well use a shadow variable, which can be declared and initialised with:
unsigned int8 sGPIO = 0; // shadow copy of GPIO

CCS PCB doesnt come with an equivalent to stdint.h, so we cant use the C99 standard uint8_t type, as we did with XC8. We could have declared this variable as a char, and that would be ok, but by declaring it as an unsigned int8, its very clear that this variable is an unsigned, eight-bit integer. And, as in the XC8 example, well define this as a global variable, outside main(), so that it can be accessed by any other functions you add to the code in future. Toggling the shadow copy of GP1 is then the same as for XC8:
sGPIO ^= 0b000010; // toggle shadow bit corresponding to GP1

To write the result to GPIO, we can use the output_b() built-in function, as before:
output_b(sGPIO); // write to GPIO

[Recall that CCS PCB refers to GPIO on the 10F and 12F PICs as port B.] Complete program Here is the complete CCS PCB code to flash an LED on GP1, with a 50% duty cycle:
/************************************************************************ * * * Description: Lesson 1, example 3 * * * * Flashes an LED at approx 1 Hz. * * LED continues to flash until power is removed. * * * ************************************************************************* * * * Pin assignments: * * GP1 = flashing LED * * * ************************************************************************/ #include <12F509.h> #define #define #define #define #define #define GP0 GP1 GP2 GP3 GP4 GP5 PIN_B0 PIN_B1 PIN_B2 PIN_B3 PIN_B4 PIN_B5 // define GP pins

/***** CONFIGURATION *****/ // ext reset, no code protect, no watchdog, int RC clock #fuses MCLR,NOPROTECT,NOWDT,INTRC

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 22

 Gooligum Electronics 2012 #use delay (clock=4000000) /***** GLOBAL VARIABLES *****/ unsigned int8 sGPIO = 0; /***** MAIN PROGRAM *****/ void main() { // Main loop while (TRUE) { // toggle LED on GP1 sGPIO ^= 0b000010; output_b(sGPIO); // delay 500ms delay_ms(500); } } // repeat forever

www.gooligum.com.au // oscillator frequency for delay_ms()

// shadow copy of GPIO

// toggle shadow bit corresponding to GP1 // write to GPIO

Comparisons Although this is a very small, simple application, it is instructive to compare the source code size (lines of code6) and resource utilisation (program and data memory usage) for the two compilers and the assembler version of this example from baseline lesson 3. Source code length is a rough indication of how difficult or time-consuming a program is to write. We expect that C code is easier and quicker to write than assembly language, but that a C compiler will produce code that is bigger or uses memory less efficiently than hand-crafted assembly. But is this true? Its also interesting to see whether the delay functions provided by the C compilers generate accurately-timed delays, and how their accuracy compares with our assembler version. Memory usage is reported correctly by MPLAB for assembler and XC8 projects, but note that the CCS PCB compiler does not accurately report data memory usage to MPLAB. We can get it from the *.lst file generated by the CCS compiler. The MPLAB simulator7 can be used to accurately measure the time between LED flashes ideally it would be exactly 1.000000 seconds, and the difference from that gives us the overall timing error. Here is the resource usage and accuracy summary for the Flash an LED at 50% duty cycle programs:
Flash_LED

Assembler / Compiler Microchip MPASM XC8 (Free mode) CCS PCB

Source code (lines) 28 11 9

Program memory (words) 34 36 43

Data memory (bytes) 4 4 6

Delay accuracy (timing error) 0.15% 0.0024% 0.0076%

6 7

ignoring whitespace, comments, and unnecessary lines such as the redefinition of pin names in the CCS C examples a topic for a future tutorial?

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 23

 Gooligum Electronics 2012

www.gooligum.com.au

The assembler version called the delay routine as an external module, so its quite comparable with the C programs which make use of built-in delay functions. Nevertheless, the assembly language source code is around three times as long as the C versions! This illustrates how much more compact C code can be. As for C being less efficient the XC8 version is barely larger than the assembler version, despite having most compiler optimisations disabled in Free mode. This is largely because the built-in delay code is highly optimised, but it does show that C is not necessarily inherently inefficient at least for simple applications like this. On the other hand, the CCS compiler is noticeably less efficient in this example, generating code 26% bigger than the assembler version. Finally, note that the time delays in both C versions are amazingly accurate!

Summary
Overall, we have seen that, although XC8 and CCS PCB take quite different approaches, basic digital output operations can be expressed succinctly using either C compiler. We saw that the CCS approach is to use built-in functions to perform operations which may take a number of statements in XC8 to accomplish (such as configuring pin direction and outputting a value in a single statement). Whether this approach is better is largely a matter of personal style, although having so many built-in functions available can make development much easier. Whichever compiler you use, it could be argued that, because the C code is significantly shorter than corresponding assembler code, with the program structure more readily apparent, C programs are more easily understood, faster to write, and simpler to debug, than assembler. So why use assembler? One argument is that, because assembler is closer to the hardware, the developer benefits from having a greater understanding of exactly what the hardware is doing; there are no unexpected or undocumented side effects, no opportunities to be bitten by bugs in built-in or library functions. This argument may apply to CCS PCB, which as we have seen, tends to hide details of the hardware from the programmer; it is not always apparent what the program is always doing behind the scenes. But it doesnt really apply to XC8, which exposes all the PICs registers as variables, and the programmer has to modify the register contents in the same way as would be done in assembler. Although its not really apparent in the comparison table above, C compilers consistently use more resources than assembler (for equivalent programs). There comes a point, as programs grow, that a C program will not fit into a particular PIC, while the same program would fit if it had been written in assembler. In that case, the choice is to write in assembler, or use a more expensive PIC. For a one-off project, a more expensive chip probably makes sense, whereas for volume production, using resources efficiently by writing in assembly is the right choice. And if you need to write a really tight loop, where every instruction cycle counts, assembly may be the only viable choice. Although again, using a faster, but more expensive chip may be a better solution, unless your application is high-volume. If this is a hobby for you, then its purely a question of personal preference, because as we have seen, both the Microchip and CCS free C compilers, as well as assembler, are viable options.

In addition to providing an output (such as a blinking LED), PIC applications usually have to respond sensors and/or user input. In the next lesson well see how to use our C compilers to read and respond to switches, such as pushbuttons. And since real switches bounce, which can be a problem for microcontroller applications, well look at ways to debounce them, in software.

Baseline PIC C, Lesson 1: Basic Digital Output

Page 24