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Yoav Peles
Department of Mechanical, Aerospace and Nuclear Engineering Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
Objectives
When you finish studying this chapter, you should be able to: Obtain average velocity from a knowledge of velocity profile, and average temperature from a knowledge of temperature profile in internal flow, Have a visual understanding of different flow regions in internal flow, such as the entry and the fully developed flow regions, and calculate hydrodynamic and thermal entry lengths, Analyze heating and cooling of a fluid flowing in a tube under constant surface temperature and constant surface heat flux conditions, and work with the logarithmic mean temperature difference, Obtain analytic relations for the velocity profile, pressure drop, friction factor, and Nusselt number in fully developed laminar flow, and Determine the friction factor and Nusselt number in fully developed turbulent flow using empirical relations, and calculate the pressure drop and heat transfer rate.
Introduction
Pipe circular cross section. Duct noncircular cross section. Tubes small-diameter pipes. The fluid velocity changes from zero at the surface (no-slip) to a maximum at the pipe center. It is convenient to work with an average velocity, which remains constant in incompressible flow when the cross-sectional area is constant.
Average Velocity
The value of the average velocity is determined from the conservation of mass principle
= Vavg AC = m
Ac
u ( r ) dAC
(8-1)
Vavg =
Ac
u ( r ) dA
AC
u ( r ) 2 rdr R 2
2 = 2 u ( r ) rdr R 0
(8-2)
Average Temperature
It is convenient to define the value of the mean temperature Tm from the conservation of energy principle. The energy transported by the fluid through a cross section in actual flow must be equal to the energy that would be transported through the same cross section if the fluid were at a constant temperature Tm
E fluid = mc pTm = c pT ( r ) m =
m
Ac
c T ( r ) u ( r )VdA
p
(8-3)
Tm =
m
c pT ( r ) m p mc
Ac
c T ( r ) u ( r ) 2 rdr
p
Vavg ( R 2 ) c p
R
(8-4)
2 = T ( r ) u ( r ) rdr 2 Vavg R 0
The mean temperature Tm of a fluid changes during heating or cooling.
Idealized
Actual
For flow through noncircular tubes D is replaced by the hydraulic diameter Dh.
4 Ac Dh = P
(8-6)
laminar flow: Re<2300 Transitional flow: 2300 Re 10,000 fully turbulent flow : Re>10,000.
The thickness of this boundary layer increases in the flow direction until it reaches the pipe center.
Irrotational flow Boundary layer
Hydrodynamic entrance region the region from the pipe inlet to the point at which the boundary layer merges at the centerline. Hydrodynamically fully developed region the region beyond the entrance region in which the velocity profile is fully developed and remains unchanged. The velocity profile in the fully developed region is
parabolic in laminar flow, and somewhat flatter or fuller in turbulent flow.
Hydrodynamically fully-developed:
u ( r , x ) x
= 0 u = u (r )
(8-7)
Thermally fully-developed:
Ts ( x ) T ( r , x ) =0 x Ts ( x ) Tm ( x )
(8-8)
( T r ) r = R Ts T = f ( x ) (8-9) Ts Tm r Ts Tm r = R
Surface heat flux can be expressed as k ( T r ) r = R T s = hx (Ts Tm ) = k q hx = (8-10) r T T r=R s m h For thermally fully developed region From (Eq. (8-9))
( T
r ) r = R
Ts Tm
f ( x)
Fully developed flow
hx f ( x )
Developing region
Lh Lt ?
Entry Lengths ()
Laminar flow
Hydrodynamic
Lh ,laminar 0.05 Re D
(8-11)
Turbulent flow
Hydrodynamic Thermal (approximate)
Lh ,turbulent = 1.359 D Re
14
(8-13)
Lh ,turbulent Lt ,turbulent 10 D
(8-14)
= mc p (Te Ti ) Q
(W)
(8-15)
The mean fluid temperature Tm must change during heating or cooling. Either Ts= constant or qs = constant at the surface of a tube, but not both.
In the fully developed region, the surface temperature Ts will also increase linearly in the flow direction Applying the steady-flow energy balance to a tube slice of thickness dx, the slope of the mean fluid temperature Tm can be determined s p dTm q p dTm = q s ( pdx ) mc = = constant p dx mc Noting that both the heat flux and h (for fully developed flow) are constants
(8-19) :
(8-20)
dTm dTs = dx dx
(8-21)
(8-27)
Since the mean temperature of the fluid Tm increases in the flow direction, the heat flux decays with x. The surface temperature is constant (dTm=-d(Ts-Tm)) and dAs=pdx, therefore,
d (Ts Tm ) Ts Tm
hp = dx p mc
(8-28)
Integrating Eq. 6-28 from x=0 (tube inlet where Tm=Ti) to x=L (tube exit where Tm=Te) gives
Ts Te hAs ln = p Ts Ti mc
(8-29)
or
The temperature difference between the fluid and the surface decays exponentially in the flow direction, and the rate of decay depends on the magnitude of the exponent
p hAs mc
This dimensionless parameter is called the number of transfer units (NTU). Large NTU value increasing tube length marginally increases heat transfer rate. Small NTU value heat transfer increases significantly with increasing tube length.
(8-31)
= mc p (Te Ti ) Q
(W)
(8-32)
= hA T Q s ln
where
(8-33)
The velocity profile u(r) remains unchanged in the flow direction. no motion in the radial direction. no acceleration.
Consider a ring-shaped differential volume element. A force balance on the volume element in the flow direction gives
( 2 r dr P ) x ( 2 r dr P ) x+ dx + ( 2 r dx )r ( 2 r dx )r + dr = 0
(8-34)
Px + dx Px ( r )r + dr ( r )r r + =0 dx dr
(8-35)
Substituting Eq. 839 into Eq. 82, and performing the integration gives the average velocity
Vavg
R R 2 2 R 2 dP r2 = 2 u ( r ) rdr = 2 1 2 rdr R 0 R 0 4 dx R
R 2 dP = 8 dx
(8-40)
r2 u ( r ) = 2Vavg 1 2 R
umax = 2Vavg
(8-41)
Pressure Drop
One implication from Eq. 8-37 is that the pressure drop gradient (dP/dx) must be constant (the left side is a function only of r, and the right side is a function only of x). Integrating from x=x1 where the pressure is P1 to x=x1=L where the pressure is P2 gives ()
P2 P dP 1 = constant = dx L
(8-43)
32 LVavg D
2
(8-44)
A pressure drop due to viscous effects represents an irreversible pressure loss. It is convenient to express the pressure loss for all types of fully developed internal flows in terms of the dynamic pressure and the friction factor
dynamic pressure friction factor
PL = ( P 1P 2) =
P f
L D
P 2 Vavg 2
(8-45)
Setting Eqs. 844 and 845 equal to each other and solving for f gives
Circular tube, laminar:
64 64 f = = DVavg Re
(8-46)
Q pTx mc pTx + dx + Q mc r r + dr = 0
(8-49)
Substituting
= uAc = u ( 2 rdr ) = m
Tx + dx Tx Q 1 r + dr Qr ) = ( )( ) c pu ( 2 rdx dx dr
(8-50)
Or
T 1 Q u = ( ) 2 c p rdx r x
(8-51)
Constant Surface Heat Flux Laminar Fully Developed flow Substituting Eqs. 8-24 and 8-41 into Eq. 8.53
r2 u ( r ) = 2Vavg 1 2 R
(8-41)
s 2q T = = constant x Vavg c p R
(8-24) (8-53)
T T u = r x r dr r
s 4q kR
r 2 1 d dT (8-55) 1 2 = r R r dr dr
Boundary conditions
Symmetry at r = 0: At r = R:
T ( r = 0 ) r
T(r=R) = Ts
=0
C1=0 C2
s R 3 r 2 q r4 T = Ts 2+ 4 k 4 R 4R
(8-57)
Substituting the velocity and temperature profile relations (Eqs. 841 and 857) into Eq. 84 and performing the integration
Tm = =
m
c T ( r ) u ( r ) 2 rdr c T ( r ) m
p p
p mc
R
Ac
Vavg ( R 2 ) c p
(8-4)
2 = T ( r ) u ( r ) rdr 2 Vavg R 0
(8-58)
s R 11 q Tm = Ts 24 k
s h (Ts Tm ) q
(8-59)
24 k 48 k k h= = = 4.36 11 R 11 D D
hD Nu = = 4.36 = k
(8-60)
hD Nu = = 3.66 k
()
(8-61)
Laminar flow
Hydrodynamic Thermal
Lh ,laminar 0.05 Re D
Nu = 3.66 +
(8-62)
Nu = 7.54 +
1 + 0.016 ( Dh L ) Re Pr
23
(8-64)
f = ( 0.79 ln Re 1.64 )
3000<Re<5 106
(8-65)
For fully developed turbulent flow the Nusselt number (DittusBoelter equation) n = 0.4 heating 0.8 n Re > 10, 000 Nu = 0.023Re Pr 0.7 Pr 160 n = 0.3 cooling
(8-68)
Moody Diagram