Dr.

Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) PART 2A EUCLIDEAN SPACE

VECTORS IN PHYSICS AND GEOMETRY

Definition (Vectors) Vectors are quantities which are completely determined by their magnitude and orientation, but not their location (Velocity, Force, Torque etc.). They are represented by oriented arrows with specified length.

Definition (Scalars) Scalars are quantities which depend on magnitude only (like mass or height).

Vectors are generally graphed by an oriented arrow with a specific length. To distinguish vectors and scalars, we will adhere to the following conventions:

Vector: u with magnitude u also called the norm of u Scalar: c with magnitude c which is just the absolute value

Definition (Equality of two Vectors and Scalars) Two vectors equal each other if they point in the same direction (parallel) and have the same magnitude (they dont have to have the same location). Two scalars equal each other if they can be represented by the same number.

Definition (Adding Vectors and Scalars) We define vector addition geometrically in which we place the initial point of one vector in the terminal point of the other vector and then connect the other initial and terminal points. Notice that the result of addition is a vector and we can add more than two vectors.

We define addition of two scalars as the usual addition of two or more numbers.

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) We do NOT define addition between vectors and scalars

Definition: (Multiplication of a Vector by Scalar) If k is a positive integer and u is a vector, then ku is the vector u + u + u .(k-times), which is a vector pointing in the same direction as u but the magnitude is k-times as much. Similarly, we define ku for any positive number (not just integers) to be the vector pointing in the same direction as u but the magnitude is k times the magnitude of u.

If k is a negative number, then ku will have the same magnitude as if k was positive but it will be oriented in the opposite direction. This gives meaning to subtraction of two vectors: u - v = u + (-1)v

Note (Vectors form an additive Abelian Group) Let V be a set consisting of vectors and the vector addition the binary operation on V (this means that the result of adding two vectors as a vector). Then (V, +) forms an additive Abelian group because: a) The operation is associative: (u + v) + w = u + (v + w) b) The operation is commutative: u + v = v + u b) The additive identity is the zero vector, denoted by 0 with the property that u+0=u c) For every vector u, we have a unique inverse vector u = -1u and we have u + (-u) = 0

Definition (Linear Combination of two vectors) A linear combination of two vectors is defined as w = a u + b v where a, b are scalars and u, v are vectors. In physics linear combination is sometimes called superposition. For example, 2u + 3v is the vector obtained by adding twice the vector u to three times the vector v.

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) COORDINATE VECTORS

Definition: (Coordinate Vector) Let A = (a, b) be a point in the plane. Place an arrow with the initial point at the origin 0

= (0,0) and the terminal point at A. Call this vector a . It points from the origin to the

point A. We say that this vector has coordinates (a,b) and write a = (a,b).

So, there is a one to one correspondence (bijection) between points in the plane and vectors. We will just regard the pair (a,b) as the vector, called the coordinate vector. In a

similar way we can define a vector in xyz space as an ordered triple: a = (a,b,c) and we can generalize this further.

Definition (Vector Addition and Scalar Multiplication)

a) Vector addition (just add the corresponding coordinates)

u = ( a, b) v = (c, d ) u + v = ( a + c, b + d )

b) Scalar multiplication (multiply each coordinate by the scalar) u = ( a, b) v = (c, d ) k u = (ka, kb)

Definition (Equality of two Vectors). Two vectors equal each other if their corresponding coordinates are equal (a,b) = (c,d) if a = c and b = d

Problem: Suppose that u = (2, 3) and v = (3, 5). Find the coordinates of the vector w = 3u -2v Solution:

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) W = 3(2,3,) -2(3,5) = (6,9) (6,10) = (0, -1)

Problem: Let a = (1,2,4) and b = (3, 4, 6). Let x = (m, n, l). Solve the vector equation 3x + 4a = 5x b

Solution: (Rewrite carefully in coordinates, watch carefully step by step) 3(m, n, l) +4(1,2,4) = 5(m, n, l) (3,4,6) ..scalar multiplication (3m, 3n, 3l) +(4,8,16) =(5m,5n,5l)-(3,4,6).vector addition (3m + 4,3n + 8, 3l + 16) = (5m 3 , 5n 4, 5l - 6)....equality of vectors 3m + 4 = 5m -3 3n + 8 = 5n 4 3l + 16 = 5l 6 and m = -2/7 and n = -4 and n = 6

And the solution vector is x = (-2/7, -4, 6)

Problem (Group property of vectors) Show that vector satisfy the following properties a) Associativity u + (v + w) = (u + v) + w b) Commutativity: u + v = v + u c) Existence of the identity element 0 = (0, 0) called the zero vector. d) Existence of inverse elements u = (u1 , u2 ) u -1 = -u = (-u1 , -u2 )

Note: the above properties say that the set of vectors form an Abelian Additive Group

Solution: The first two are easy. To show that the zero vector is the (unique) identity, we have to show that u + 0 = u (since addition is commutative we dont need to check the other direction) u + 0 = (u1 , u2 ) + (0, 0) = (u1 , u2 ) To show that that u -1 = -u = (-u1 , -u2 ) is the inverse, just notice that u + (-u ) = 0

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) And now we can define subtraction of two coordinate vectors as adding the additive inverse, namely u - v = u + (-v)

Problem: (Finding the coordinates of a vector pointing from point A to point B) Since the location of a vector is irrelevant, we can carry the vector from the point A to the origin. The resulting endpoint will give us the coordinate. Suppose that we have points A = (k, l) and B = (m, n) a) Construct a vector a from the origin to the point A, so that a = (k, l) and vector b pointing from the origin to the point B, so that b = (m, n) b) Then notice that the vector b a is the vector pointing from A to B c) So, the vector from A to B is u = b a. We also write this as uuu r u = AB = B A = (k m, l n)

Problem: Find the coordinates of a vector pointing from A = (1,2,4) to the point B = (3,5,7)

Solution: u = A B = (1,2,3) (3,5,7) = (-2,-3,-4)

MAGNITUDE (NORM) AND DIRECTION OF COORDINATE VECTORS

Definition: (Magnitude (or norm) of a vector) The magnitude (norm) of a vector u = (a,b) is defined as: u = a 2 + b 2

Definition (Direction of a vector) The direction angle of a vector u = (a, b) is the angle between the vector and the x-axis, namely: tan q =
b a

One has to be careful about taking inverses because we know that the range for b p p arctangent function is the interval - , On this interval we can write q = arctan a 2 2

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem: Show that if the vector points in the second quadrant, the direction angle is given by q = arctan
b +p a

Problems: a) find the magnitude and direction of vector with coordinates (2, 4).

b) find the magnitude and direction of vector pointing from the point (1, 2) to (3, 5). c) Find the coordinates of vector with magnitude 5 and direction angle 45 Answer:
5 2 2 5 2 b = 5sin 45 = 2 a = 5cos 45 =

d) Find the unit vector pointing in the same direction as vector u = (1,2) Answer: Notice that u = 5 , thus the unit vector has coordinates ( 1 2 , ) 5 5

In general, to find a unit vector of length l pointing in the same direction as vector u, use

1 u u

Problem: Prove that the above formula really gives a unit vector in the direction of u.

Solution:
u* = 1 1 u = u =1 u u

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem: (Finding a vector with a given magnitude pointing in the direction of a given vector) Find a vector of with magnitude 5 pointing in the direction v

Solution: We have u = 5 and now we need to upgrade the scalar into a vector pointing in the direction of v (without changing the magnitude) we need to multiply it by a unit vector in direction v. So we have:

v v =5 v 5

Problem (basis of the coordinate vectors in space)

Solution: The basic vectors here are: i = (1,0,0) j = (0,1,0) k = (0,0,1) Every vector can be expressed as a linear combination of the above vectors: Let u = (a, b, c) be a 3-vector. Then we can write: u = a i + b j + c k

Problem (Properties of norm (magnitude)) Show that the following properties hold a) u 0 b) u = 0 u = 0 c) u + v u + v ..which is the triangle inequality

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) SCALAR (DOT, INNER) PRODUCT We will use the concept of work to define the dot (scalar) product of two vectors Let F be a force vector acting on an object over a distance s. Then, if the force is parallel to the motion, the work done by moving the object over the distance a is given by the product W = Fs. If the force is not parallel but has an angle q (from the direction of motion), then only the horizontal component contributes to the motion, we have
W = F a cosq

We will denote the above formula as W = F s (F dot s)

Definition (Dot Product of two vectors) In general for two vectors u and v, we define the dot product as u v = u v cos q where

q is the angle between them.

Problem (Computing dot product for coordinate vectors) The above definition is not very convenient for coordinate vectors. Use the Law of Cosines to show that: u = (u1,u2 ),v = (v1,v 2 ) u v = u1v1 + u2v 2

Solution: Draw a triangle with sides a , b , b - a and use the law of Cosines:

b - a = a 2 + b - 2 a b cos q and re-write into coordinates and the formula will

2 2

follow.

Problem: Calculate the dot product of vectors u = (2, 4) and v = (-1, 2) The answer is u v = 2(-1) + 4 2 = 6

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem (Properties of the dot product) Verify on an example or proof that the dot product is a) Commutative: u v = v u b) Non-degenerate: u u 0 and u u = 0 u = 0 c) Vector Distributive: (u + v) w = u w + v w

Solution: a) Easy
2 b) u u = (u1 , u2 ) (u1 , u2 ) = u12 + u2 0 and equals zero if they are both zeros

c)

(u + v) w = (u1 + v1 , u2 + v2 ) ( w1 , w2 ) = (u1 + v1 ) w1 + (u2 + v2 ) w2 = u1w1 + v1w1 + u2 w2 + v2 w2 = u w + v w

Problem (angle between two vectors) Derive the following formula (which works in space too)

cos q =

u v u v

For example, check that the angle between the two above vectors is:

q = arccos

6 = arccos(.6) = .927 rad 20 5

Problem (Cauchy Schwarz inequality)

u v u v , when does it become an equality?

Problem: (Relation between norm and dot product) Show that u = u u

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem (Orthogonal vectors) Explain why if the dot product is zero, the two vectors must be perpendicular? Perpendicular vectors are also called orthogonal.

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Problem: Use the dot product to show that the basis vectors are orthogonal.

Problem: Show that orthogonal vectors are linearly independent

Solution: Let u, v be orthogonal and consider the equation au + bv = 0. Dot the equation with vector a
au + bv = 0 au u + bv u = 0

By orthogonality, bv u = 0 and we get au u = 0 and (assuming that u is not a zero vector), this implies that the scalar a = 0. Now, do the same for b. And you are getting trivial solution again, which means that they are independent.

Problem: (Pythagoras Theorem) Prove the Pythagorean Theorem. Having a right triangle ABC then c 2 = a 2 + b 2

Solution: Create vectors

Problem: (Parallelogram Law)

2u
2

+2 v

= [ u +v

+ u -v ]

where u, v are the sides and u + v and u v are the

diagonals

Problem: Prove the generalized Pythagorean Theorem for n-vectors: u + v = u + v u v = 0

2 2 2

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) PROJECTIONS:

11

Problem: Show that if u is a vector and n is a unit vector, then the dot product gives the projection of u onto n.

Solution: (Draw a picture)

u n = u n cos q = u cos q and this is the projection.

We can derive the formula for projection of vector u onto vector v (even if they are both non unit vectors)

w2 = u - w1

Pr ojv u = w1 = c v

Notice that Pr ojv (u ) is a vector pointing in the same direction as v (therefore it is a scalar multiple of v).

Method1 (Using trigonometry) a) Let the angle between u and v be q b) Then we have cos q = the projection. c) To upgrade the magnitude of the projection into a vector, we multiply by the unit vector in the direction of v. This means Pr ojv (u ) = Pr ojv (u )
Pr ojv (u ) u Pr ojv (u ) = u cos q and this defines the norm of

v v = u cos q v v

d) And now get rid of the reference to the angle by simplifying it using the dot product:

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces)

Pr ojv (u ) = Pr ojv (u ) v v u v v u v = u cos q = u = 2v v v u v v v

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So the formula for projection is:

Pr ojv (u ) = u v v
2

Method 2 (Using properties of dot product) Let Pr ojv u = w1 = cv be the projection vector. Then the vector (u cv) is orthogonal to v and thus
(u - cv) v = 0

But (u - cv) v = u v - c v = 0 c =
2

u v v
2

The projection vector is then Pr ojv (u ) =

u v v
2

Problem: Calculate the projection of vector (1,5) onto vector (1,2)

Solution:

Pr oj(1,2) (1,5) =

(1,5) (1, 2) (1, 2)

2

(1, 2) =

11 11 22 (1, 2) = , 5 5 5

Notice that we have a decomposition of vector u into two orthogonal vectors: a) w1 = Pr ojv u b) w2 = u - w1 c) u = w1 + w2
11 22 11 22 In our example, we have: (1,5) = , + (1,5) - , 5 5 5 5

Suppose that n is a unit vector. This means that n = 1 . Notice that:

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces)

Pr ojnu = un n = (u n)n = u n cos q n = u 1cos q = u cos q 12

13

So, the dot product of a unit vector and a given vector is already a projection of that vector onto the unit vector. Observe that Pr ojnu = u n

DIRECTION COSINES The above observation leads us to determine the orientation of 3-vectors using the direction cosines: These are the cosines of angles the vector u is making with the coordinate axes. In particular, let u = (a, b, c) be a vector. Then u i = u cos q . From here we can calculate the angle between the two vectors: cos q i = u i u1 = u u

In a similar way, we can calculate the other angles: cos q j = cos q k = u j u2 = u u u k u3 = u u

The above cosines are called the direction cosines and they describe the direction of 3vectors. Notice that ( cos qi ) + ( cos q j ) + ( cos q k ) = 1
2 2 2

Problem: Show that ( cos qi ) + ( cos q j ) + ( cos q k ) = 1

2 2 2

Solution: (Easy, just plug in the formulas to the above expression)

As an example, consider the vector u = (1,0,2). Find the direction cosines and check the sum of their squares adds up to 1.

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) GENERAL EUCLIDEAN SPACES R n

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First, for the R 3 = {( x1 , x2 , x3 ) : xi R} which is a math way of saying that the R 3 space is the set of all ordered triples of real numbers. In other words, vectors with 3 coordinates.

Theorem: The maximal number of independent vectors in R 3 is 3

Proof: (Fill it in)

The basis vectors are i = (1,0,0), j = (0,1,0) and k = (0,0,1) 3) The norm (magnitude) of the vector u = (a, b, c) is u = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 4) The orientation is given by the direction cosines: cos qi =

u i where i = 1,2,3 u
3

5) The dot product is u v = (u1 , u2 , u3 ) (v1 , v2 , v3 ) = u1v1 + u2 v2 + u3v3 = ui vi

i =1

6) The angle between two vectors is given again by q = arccos

u v u v

Now we can generalize easily: General Euclidean R n - space: The basis vectors in n-space are:
e1 = (1,0,.......0) e2 = (0,1........0) en = (0,0,........1)

If u = (u1....un ) is a n-vector, it could be expressed as a linear combination of the basis vectors, ie, there exist scalars ai such that u = ai ei
i =1 n

We define the norm of u as u =

u
i =1

2 i

We define the dot-product as u v = ui v i

i =1

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) We define the n-dimensional angle between u and v as q = arccos We define the projection vector Pr ojv u = u v v
2

15

u v u v

We define the direction cosines of u as: cos q ei =

u ei u

The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality has the form u v u v Which, written in terms of coordinates is equivalent to

u v
i =1 i

u v
2 i =1 i i =1

2 i

Two vectors are called orthogonal if their dot-product is zero. The space which consists of the vectors with the above properties is called the ndimensional Euclidean space (or, simply n space)

Problem: (General Triangle Inequality) As an exercise, using the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality, prove a + b a + b

Solution:
a + b = (a + b) (a + b) = a a + a b + b a + b b = a + 2a b + b and apply the
2 2 2

Cauchy Schwarz on the middle term

Problem: (General Pythagoras Theorem) Prove for n-vectors: u + v = u + v u v = 0 Solution:

u +v
2 2 2 2

= ( u + v ) (u + v ) = u u + u v + v u + v v = u

+ v

+ 2u v

(which is the Cosine Law)

and the result follows from there.

Problem: (General Parallelogram Law) Prove u + v = [ u + v + u - v ]

2 2

1 2

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) We have: u + v = u + v + 2u v and substitute v for v and get
u -v
2
2 2 2

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= u

+ v

- 2u v

and add the two equations and you get the result

VECTOR (CROSS) PRODUCT Next, we will define, in R 3 the cross (vector) product of two vectors using the physics concept of torque. Thats the force you apply when you are unscrewing screws. Suppose that you have a lever fixed at one end and a force acting on it at the other end and measure the angle q as an exterior angle. The perpendicular component of the force gives the rotational thing and its magnitude is given by F sin q and the magnitude of torque is the product of the length of the lever r and the force. In other words, we have t = r F sin q and again, we need to upgrade it into a vector. We want the vector point up and be perpendicular to both vectors (lever and force).
t = F r sinq n where F is the force acting on a lever of length r with exterior angle q
u r

and n is a unit vector perpendicular to both F and r, with direction satisfying the righthand-rule (like a screw). The vector n is chosen is such a way that it satisfies the rule of right thumb. This means that when you calculate uxv , place your hand in such a way that you rotate u into v with your fingers. Then your thumb points in the direction of the cross product vector.

Definition (Vector or Cross product) Let u, v be two vectors in plane. Let n be a unit vector perpendicular to the plane. We define u v = u v sin q n where q is the angle between them. The magnitude is:

u v = u v sin q n = u v sin q
Geomerically, this gives us the area of the parallelogram spanned by the two vectors.

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem: Show that the cross product is anti commutative, meaning
(uxv) = -(vxu )

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The cross product is orthogonal to both vectors u, v and so, it is called a binormal vector.

Problem: Explain why (you can verify this on a particular example) a) (u v) u = 0 b) (u v) v = 0

Problem: Calculate the vector products between the basis vector i, j, k

Solution: We will show that ixj=k, jxk=i, kxi=j,kxj=-i, jxi=-k,ixk=-j which you can remember by drawing a circle and look at the cyclic pattern. For example, i j = i j sin90o k = k

Assuming that the distributive law applies (one would need to prove it), we can develop the usual computational formula for cross product:

Problem (Computation of the Cross product)

i j uXv = u1 u2 v1 v 2

k u3 v3

Solution hint: Let u = (u1,u2 ,u3 ) = u1i + u2 j + u3 k and v = (v1,v 2 ,v 3 ) = v1i + v 2 j + v 3 k Then uxv = a1b1(ixi ) + ....... + a3 b3 (kxk ) here we are assuming the distributive law
= (a2 b3 - a3 b2 )i - (a1b3 - a3 b1 ) j + (a1b2 - a2 b1 )k

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem: (Properties of the Cross product) Verify or prove the following:

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a) u x v = -(v x u) anticommutativity b) u x (v + w) = u x v + u x w..left-distributivity c) (u + v) x w = u x w + v x w..right-distributivity d) k(u x v) =(ku) x v = u x (kv e) u x u = 0 (cross product of parallel vectors is zero) f) 0 x u = u x 0 = 0 g) (u v) w = (u w) (v w) this property helps us to see that the cross product is a binormal vector. Namely: h)
(u v) u = (u u ) (v u ) = 0 (u v) ^ u (u v) v = (u v) (v v) = 0 (u v) ^ v

Problem: Show that two vectors.

1 u v gives the area of the triangle (in 3 space) spanned by the 2

Solution: Imagine that you have three points, A, B, C not on the same line. Then they form a triangle. Define the vectors:
u = B- A v=C-A

Then, from trigonometry we have: A(triangle) =

1 1 u v sin q = uxv 2 2

Problem Show that a b gives the area of a parallelogram spanned by the vectors a, b

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem: Show that the area of a plane triangle with vertices ( x1, y1 ),( x2 , y 2 ),( x3 , y 3 ) is
x1 1 given by A = x2 2 x3 y1 1 y2 1 y3 1

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TRIPLE (MIXED) PRODUCT We can define a triple (Box ) product as a ( b x c ) = (a x b ) c

Geometrically, the magnitude of the box product gives the volume of a parallelepiped spanned by the three vectors (it is a generalization of the parallelogram)
(axb ) c = a b c cos q = base height = volume

To see this, notice that

Problem: (Computational Formula for the Tripe Product)

We proceed as follows:

i j a (bxc ) = a b1 b2 c1 c2
b = a1 2 c2

k b b3 = a [ 2 c2 c3

b3 b b b b , - 1 3 , 1 2 ] .which is a dot product c3 c1 c3 c1 c2

a3 b3 c3

a1 a2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 - a2 + a3 = b1 b2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2 c1 c2

Problem: (Calculating the volume of a parallelepiped spanned by 3 non planar vectors) Find the volume of a slanted box (parallelepiped) determined by vectors a = (1,2,-1), b=(-2,0,3), c=(0,7,-4)

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces)

1 2 -1 V = a (bxc) = -2 0 3 = 23 0 7 -4

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This gives a geometrical interpretation of a 3 x3 determinant. We can use the triple product to find out whether 3 points are co-planar (in the same plane). Suppose that you are given points A, B, C. Create vectors. If the triple product is zero, then the vectors are coplanar. This has to do with the fact that we proved that vectors are linearly independent if the determinant is not zero.

LINES IN PLANE AND SPACE First recall that if a line goes through point ( x1 , y1 ) and has a slope m, then in order for the point X = (x,y) be on that line, we need that
y - y1 = m y - y1 = m( x - x1 ) which is x - x1

the point slope form and it is equivalent to the more usual slope intercept equations y = mx + b. This in turn is equivalent to the normal equation of line: ax + by + c = 0 Approaching this from our linear algebra standpoint, the above equation is a degenerate system with 1 free variable. Letting y = t we solve for x and get:
ax + tb + c = 0 x = -c - tb assuming a 0 which are the parametric equations. a

VECTOR AND PARAMETRIC EQUATIONS OF LINES Let us find the vector equation of a line in plane and space given by two points A and B: Associate vectors with all points. (So, think about the points as vectors) Let X be any point (vector) on the line. In order for X to be on the line, we must get to it by starting at the point vector A and then adding a scalar multiple of the vector B A. This means X = A + t (B A) which is the vector equation. Written in terms of coordinates, we obtain the parametric equations:
x = a1 + t (b1 - a1 ) y = a2 + t (b2 - a2 )

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces)

z = a3 + t (b3 - a3 )

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Problem: Write parametric equations of line going through A = (1,1,1) and B = (2,3,2)

The answer is:

x = 1 + t (2 - 1) = 1 + t y = 1 + t (3 - 1) = 1 + 2t z = 1 + t (2 - 1) = 1 + t

By eliminating the parameter t, obtain the symmetric equations

x - x0 y - y 0 z - z0 = = a b c

The above formula follows by eliminating the parameter from the system
x = x0 + at y = y 0 + bt z = z0 + ct

Problem: Convert the symmetric equations

x +3 y -2 z+3 = = 4 -3 7

into parametric form:

Solution: Setting each fraction to t and solving for the variables we obtain:
x = -3 + 4t y = 2 - 3t z = -3 + 7t

LINES THROUGH A POINT AND PARALLEL OR PERPENDICULAR TO A VECTOR.

Normal and General equation of lines in plane Suppose that we have a fixed point P = ( x0 , y 0 ) in the plane and a vector n = (a,b) and we want to find equation of line through this point and perpendicular to the vector n (so that the vector n is a normal vector) If X = ( x, y ) is any point on the line, then the vectors ( X - P ) is perpendicular to n.

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Hence, the vector equation would be n ( X - P ) = 0

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Re-writing the vector equation in coordinates yields the normal equation:

0 = n ( X - P ) = (a, b ) ( x - x0 , y - y 0 ) = a( x - x0 ) + b( y - y 0 )

which is equivalent to the general

form ax +by = c and (a,b) are coordinates of the normal vector.

So, for example, in the equation 2x + 3y = 4, we know that the vector (2, 3) is the normal vector.

Problem: Use the general equation of the line to show that the slopes of two perpendicular lines are negative reciprocals of each other.

Solution: Consider the line ax + by + c = 0 with normal vector (a, b) and slope m = a b

The perpendicular line has (a, b) as its direction vector and thus, for example, the vector (-b, a) is its normal vector. Thus, a perpendicular line has an equation bx + ay = d = 0 with slope m =
b which is negative reciprocal of the previous case. a

Problem: Show that the equation of line in plane given two points ( x1, y1 ),( x2 , y 2 ) is also given by
x1 x2 x y1 1 y2 1 = 0 y 1

Solution: Plugging each point to the general form of the equation yields 3 x 3 system:
ax + by + c = 0 ax1 + by1 + c = 0 ax2 + by 2 + c = 0

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) and the solution to this homogenous system exists only if the coefficient determinant is zero.

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Lines in plane or space through point and parallel to a given vector: Suppose that line l goes through the point P = ( x0 , y0 , c0 ) and parallel to the vector v = (v1 , v2 , v3 ) . Let X = (x, y, z) be a point on the line. Then we must be able to arrive at X by starting at the point P and adding to it a multiple of the vector v.

So, the vector equation is: X = P + tv where t is some scalar. Rewriting into coordinates gives the parametric equations: x = p1 + tv1 y = p2 + tv2 z = p3 + tv3

PLANES:

a) Normal and General Equations of Planes Given a point P = ( x0 , y 0 , z0 ) and a normal vector n (a, b, c) We again have that, if X = (x, y ,z) is arbitrary point on the plane, the vectors (x p ) and n must be perpendicular. Thus we have again n ( x - p ) = 0 which is the vector equation. And writing this vector form in terms of coordinates, we get the normal form
a( x - x0 ) + b( y - y 0 ) + c ( z - z0 ) = 0 ax + by + cz = d

which is equivalent to the general form:

Problem: Find equation of plane given three points: A = (0,0,1), B = (2,0,0), C=(0,3,0)

Solution First, we will find the normal vector (here comes the cross-product)

Let u = B A = (2 , 0 , -1) and v = C A = (0 , 3 , -1)

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces)

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i j k Then, the normal vector n = u x v = 2 0 -1 = (3,2,6) 0 3 -1

And then the general equation is 3 (x-0) +2(y 0) +6 (z-1) = 0, or 3x +2y +6z =6

Problem: Show that the equation of plane given by 3 points is given by the analogous determinantal equation as with lines. Namely: Given points A = ( x1, y1, z1 ) , B = ( x2 , y 2 , z2 ) ,
x x1 x2 x3 y y1 y2 y3 z z1 z2 z3 1 1 =0 1 1

C = ( x3 , y 3 , z3 )

the equation is

b) Vector and Parametric Equation of planes: Suppose that the plane is given by 3 points A,B,C Consider the direction vectors u = B A and v = C A Let X = (x, y, z) be any point on the plane. Then we must have the following vector equation: X = A + t(B A) + s (C A) Which, upon re-writing into coordinates becomes parametric equations:
x = a1 + tu1 + sv1 y = a2 + tu2 + sv 2 z = a3 + tu3 + sv 3

Problem: Find the parametric equations of plane given points: A = (1, 2, 4), B = (3, 5, 1), C = (1,2,3)

Answer:
x = 1 + 3t = 0 s y = 2 + 3t + s z = 4 + 3t - s

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Problem: Parametrize the plane with equation: x + 2y +z =0 Just solving the system, you obtain
x = -2 s - t y=s z =t

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Problem: Parametrize the intersection of two planes given by:

2x + 4 y - 2z = 0 3x + 5 y = 1

VARIOUS DISTANCES AND ANGLES (Application of Projection)

a) Distance from a point to line: S

PS sin q = PS - Pr ojL ( PS )

q
P

It should be clear that the distance from the point S to a line L is the length of the orthogonal component where P is any arbitrary point on the line. In other points, the distance is given by: D = PS - Pr ojL PS . Let s be any direction vector on the line.

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) Example: To find the distance between the point S = (1,1,5) and the line given parametrically as: x = 1+t y=3t z = 2t

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a) Choose 2 arbitrary points on the line: t = 0 gives a point P = (1,3,0) t = 1 gives a point B = (2,2,2)

b) The direction vector is: d = P B = (1,3,0) (2,2,2) = (1,-1,2)

c) And calculate the projection and the distance D:

Pr ojd PS =

(0, -2,5) (1, -1, 2) (1, -1, 2)

2

(1, -1, 2) = (2, -2, 4)

D = (0, -2,5) - (2, -2, 4) = (-2, 0,1) = 5

(Notice that the vector PS = P S)

This is the shortest distance. We could have solved the above problem also using Calculus. Can you figure out how?

b) Distance between a point and a plane Draw a picture to see that the shortest distance between a point S in space and a given plane is the length of projection of the vector PS (where P is any arbitrary point on the plane) onto the normal vector. In other words: Pr ojn PS = (P - S ) n n
2

D = Pr ojn PS =

(P - S ) n n
2

n=

(P - S ) n n
2

n =

(P - S ) n n

Dr. Tomas Kovarik: Linear Algebra: Part2 (Vectors in Euclidean Spaces) So, the steps are: a) Choose an arbitrary point P on the plane b) Determine the normal vector n c) Apply the above formula

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Problem: calculate the distance between the plane 2x + 3y z = 2 and the point S = (1,0,1).

c) Distance between a line and plane If the line is not parallel to the plane, then the distance is zero of course. If the line is parallel, then choose an arbitrary point on the line and then calculate the distance like in part b d) Distance between two lines in space: In plane, if the two lines are parallel, then it is easy to calculate the non-zero distance. How would you do it for lines in space?

e) Angle between two planes. We will define the angle between two planes as the angle (in the first quadrant) between their normal vectors. So, find the normal vectors and then use the formula:
nm n m

q = arccos

(Note that in this formula, the numerator must be a none-negative number, because we are measuring the angle in the first quadrant, by definition).