Civil Religion in Israel Author(s): Myron J. Aronoff Source: RAIN, No. 44 (Jun., 1981), pp.

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As canbe seenin Figure 1, thecivil religion ofIsraelfails to integrate even theentire Jewish population ofthestate, Myron J.Aronoff hasdoctorates insocial tional much lesstheMuslim and Christian andtherationalized religion(s) anthropology (from minority and whoarealmost all Arab.NoneManchester) thatis expressed dominant ideology science political it doesincorporate themajority secularized theless, (from UCLA)and is cur- characteristically through rently Chairman of theDepartment of oftheJews andperhaps a proportion of cultural symbols, epics,andceremonies Political Science at Livingston College, theDruzepopulation ofIsrael.It doesso (cf.Gluckman, 1963:135). Rutgers He is theauthor University. of in different the on a highly variable Civil religions societies, basiswith variagreat Power andRitual in theIsraelLabour to different in different tionin adherence principles, of one society civil religion Party 1977). Thisarticle was periods (vanGorcum, to different symbols, oftime, andthesamecivil religion response myths, presented at a symposium on Plurality in epics,andparticipation in different civil at thesamepointin timefordifferent Religion organised byM. Schoffeleers for members Yet thesymbolic ofthesociety framework of willbe character- rituals. inAmsterdam izedby therange the IUAESIntercongress theIsraeli of attributes civil between religion in itsvarious forms lastApril. idealpoles.For exandincarnations these twoanalytic provides a common is more frame ofreference becausecivilteligion andunity ample, forIsraelis In order thecomplex to explain range of constructed with a humanly various andvarying conspicuously and religious religious in Israel views andrelate them to cultural form tendto lack ideological it willgenerally persuasions. It doesso in the theeven more complex variety ofideoabsenceofa general theforce ofimmutability of traditional ofreligious consensus logical I find perspectives, ituseful to ideological values. On theother religion. handit willtendto and/or adaptthenotion of civil I treat religion. Basedon theprevious Ottoman millet forgranted thanwillmore be moretaken civil religion as a special typeof dominant rationalized Israeli system aredivided citizens on a ideological expressions that ideological superstructure which is rooted arenotclothed basisofreligious communities (Jewish, expressions in symbolic inreligion andwhich incorporates signifi- which Muslim, Christian, andDruze),each invoke a transcendent reality and cantelements ofreligious symbol, myth, maybe having itsownsystem ofreligious courts evena supernatural power.'By andritual thatareusedselectively and arepaidby thestateand placing thecollectivity at thecenter ofits whoseofficials transformed their through incorporation meaning which havejurisdiction in matters ofpersystem, civil religion can order intothecivil religion. Although most sonalstatus. Each ofthese mainreligious theenvironment andshapetheexperipolitical systems tendto havedominant encesonlyof thosewhosepersonal contain further subdivisions, iden- divisions they do notall necessarily areformally ideologies, recognized, is merged tity to their communal identity. someofwhich havecivil religions e.g.,RomanCatholic, in thesensethatI am Eastern Orthodox Civil success religion's is measured byits and Protestant employing theterm. divisions within Christianto accomplish thisfusion butit is ability Ifwe were andAshkenazi to think in terms (European) and ofideal to succeed clear thatit is only likely under ity, types along an analytic a continuum, Chief a limited setofcircumstances; Rabbis(which (Oriental) generally Sephardi a dominant society with civil religion haveno precedent in traditional Judaism). itssuccess willonlybe partial' (Liebman wouldfallsomewhere between one in divisions which arerecognized in andDon-Yehiya:6). Therefore, thesuccess Other which thetraditional religion wasthe communities outside ofIsrael, ofa civil andmobil- Jewish religion in integrating dominant ideological in superstructure, Conservative, and izing sectors ofthepopulation andgiving suchas Orthodox, which religious myth andritual were arenotofficially in to thepolity legitimacy is partial andvari- Reform, recognized virtually with synonymous thoseofthe able with regard to different individuals, Israelbecauseof theOrthodox political is thepresump- sectors there andin which polity, ofthereligious ofthepopulation, monopoly of andperiods establishment. tionoftheimmutability of thesymbolic time, and and forthesameindividuals Individuals included within eachof these anda society universe; in which there is in different groups contexts. religious categories thosewho range from an absolute differentiation between tradibelieve in thedogmas strictly ofthereligionto those whototally reject them. to various According estimates, between one-fourth and one-third of theJewish ofIsraelidentify population TWITCHINGS OF THE THIRD REICH Gunther's TheRacialElements of themselves as Orthodox orreligiously in European History is being serialized decisions One ofthefirst important of observant. Thelarge either majority keep English no needto give translation; thenewAssociation des Frantaise certain oftradition aspects are and/or not such becauseit appears that hasbeento appoint a details, Anthropologues religiously observant at all. Yet most do arehelped to survive financially relate 'journals' to report on whether ornot committee their Israeli identities to Jewish bythosewhocollect them as curiosities. history, Dr IlseSchwidetzky's opinions on race tradition, culture, ethics, and/or to investigate published mainly before theendofWorld The AFA's decision religious symbols. Liebman and Donin L Affaire Schwidetzky must be viewed War 2 weresufficiently culpable for her Yehiyaargue that'ifanyone factor outrages thecontext oftheanti-semitic ofa French to be considered unworthy forthedevelopment accounts of Israeli in France lastyear. scientific honour today.Wehavesummar- committed civil anditsparticular religion character, from Having read various extracts izedthearguments against Dr Schwidetitis thecontinued Jewish ofthe identity Dr Schwidetzky's we havenot writings inRAIN 40 and41 zkyandherdefence vastmajority ofthepopulation, thedesire her yet seen anything that disproves in (under 'Other News')andwillreport ofthemajority ofIsraelis to express that ofherposition explanation as summarduecourse on theAFA's findings. identity it to symbolically and transmit of A in the RAIN. ized December issue It is emnphasized thattheAFA'saimis their andtheir to filnd children, inability full analysis wouldhaveto determine notto houndan elderly scientist butto in thesystem oftraditional Judaism an (rewhether a wordsuchas Umsiedlung examine of a chapter in thehistory andvehicle fortheir adequateexpression havehad thesame must anthropology which demands analysis. In settlement) Jewish identity' (Ibid, 17). of deadly for euphemism an article we published lastyearby Ulrich connotations SincetheIsraeli civil religion is strongly herin 1943 as for in 1981. The identifiled historians in West Braukamper, 'Ethnology with Jewish history, tradition, in studied flatness oftonewith which, Germany Today'(RAIN 33, August and culture it is notsurprising thatthe 1940,shereviews a bookof so-called - though 1979) itwashinted notstated overwhelming majority of theArabpopuis in its - that research on theJewish question thedevelopment of German ethlationof Israeldoesnotidentify with it. as an ownwaypeculiarly disturbing, nology hasstillnotrecovered from the With theexception of a segment of the Whether abuseofacademic objectivity. setback of Nazisma. In someother counminority within theArabminority, D)ruze or notsheshould the havebeengiven tries thedistortion of both today, theArabs ofIsrael, be they Muslim or butitis too BrocaMedalis one thing; for andsocialanthropology physical Christian, religious ornonreligious, tend political thatin Dr Schwidetzky's to range purposes remains an urgent issue. easyto assume from non-Zionist to anti-Zionist lessfrailty Eventheanti-seiilitic fantasies of Nazi shoesone wouldhaveshown in their orientation. The more integrated thansheadmits. arestillaliveinextreme pseudo-science andacculturated in Israeli society and J.B. circles. Forinstance, Hans right-wing

CIVI RELIGIONI

COM1MENT

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CIVIL

RELIGION

Nonpartisan

Zionist

RELIGION

Nonpartisan Religious
Zionist

Partisan Zionist Partisan Religious Zionist

IDEOLOGY

Nonpartisan\ Religious Non-Zionist

\ \ \ \ \ Prtisan }

Partisan Non-Zionist

\ \

// R~~~eligious ~~~Anti/non- // // \~~~Zionist / ~~~~~Partisan \ / ~~~~Anti-Zionit \

andIdeology. Civil Religion, Religion, between 1. Relationships Figure to thesizeor andno reference structural relationships, purely shows Note:Thisdiagram be readintoit. should groupings ofanyindividual importance

culture theIsraeli Arabs become, the prets traditional religious symbols within more likely they areto takea moremili- a nationalist andidentifies framework, tant stand against thedominant civil national goalswithin a religious frame of religion. Thisis true fora segment ofthe reference. Themoreextreme nationalist Druzecommunity as wellas theChristian elements within theNational Religious andMuslim Arabs. Party (e.g.,theYoungGuard)and the The dominant civil religion is rejected militant GushEmunim (Blockofthe oftheJews bya minority as well.ExFaithful), whosemembership overlaps treme religious likeNeturei militants with theyoung militants oftheNRP but Karta(Guardians to oftheCity)refuse is notidentical with it,areattempting to thelegitimacy recognize significantly oftheStateof reinterpret andrevitalize of thecivil religion. to carry Israel, andrefuse Israeli identity aspects There aremilitantly anti-Zionist votein elections or serve in the cards, liketheP.L.O. which is consider Zionism army. They blasphemous organizations in Israel, buthas supporters among on thegrounds thecoming illegal thatonlywith Israel's Arabpopulation. Someopenly oftheMessiah willJewish be redemption acknowledge suchsupport, suchas more achieved. There areother Orthodox radical members of theAssociation of Jewish communities living in Israel, such ArabUniversity Students. Another milias theEda Haredit (The PiousComtantly anti-Zionist Arabnationalist group, in segregated munity) locatedmainly theSonsoftheVillage, ofJerusalem rejects sections suchas Meah anyform Sharim ofArabJewish andalso in BneiBrakwhose cooperation suchas that adherents areclosein their viewto represented in Rakah.Rakah, which has Neturei Karta, butwhoselessmilitant bothArabandJewish leadership butis followers moreclosely approximate the supported primarily by Arabs, is a Comnon-Zionist ofAgudat views Yisrael. munist Party which accepts but Israel, to theindependence rejects Yisrael Agudat prior itsJewish character. Overtheyears ofIsrael to Zionism, wasmore hostile but there havebeena number ofpredominaccommodated itself to theJewish state antly Jewish non-Zionist political moveandworks within itsinstitutions mainments andparties, theCanaanites, Maki as much taining as it can,e.g., autonomy (thedefunct Jewish predominantly Comitsprivate, butStatesubsidized school munist Party from which Rakahsplitoff andDon-Yehiya system. Liebman (27) in 1965),Moked(which wasformed by pointoutthatthefollowers ofAgudat of theremnants ofMakiand themerger Yisrael tendto 'minimize theimportance various newleftgroups), and UriAvneri's ofIsrael as a component in their collective Ha OlamHaZeh-Coach Chadash. In 1977 identity'. The followers oftheNational of these someoftheleaders and followers Religious Party (Mafdal) adhere to a defunct with groups merged left-wing ofZionist version ideology which interZionist dovesto form a political Shelli,

party which has twomembers presently in theKnesset. All oftheother Zionist moveparties, ments, andlists(of which areover there twenty) thesocialist ranging from Labor Alignment to thecapitalist Likudlistand theNational including Religious Party share an adherence to and support of the basicelements ofthedominant civil religion. To be sure, eachparty interprets thesymbols to their according ownideological goalsandgroup interests. Theyare differentially affected bydifferent symbols andmyths. Each group has itsown uniqueshrines andheroes. Yet they all share common symbols, and rites, legends myths. Although itmeans very different things to thedifferent groups and different individuals within thegroups, Zionist civilreligion constitutes a corpus ofcollective cultural meanings which unites mostofa nation thatis otherwise deeply divided. The dominant Israeli civilreligion is notclearly in a coherent articulated statement ofdogma andrelated symbol, myth, andritual. It hasnotonlychanged over time, butevenat anygiven in time, point different constituencies (individuals and groups) selectively interpret various aspects ofthecivil religion attributing different and at times evenconflicting to them. meanings I shallattempt to sketch thebroadoutlines of thecivil religion bydiscussing someof themore important symbols, myths, and legends, rites which aresummarized in Figure 2. The central ofExileand Redempmyth tionderives from Jewish religious tradition.Zionist civil religion interprets the messianic vision ofZionin terms of contemporary nationalism. As it became elaborated it provided themotivation and thelegitimization forthereturn ofthe Jews to their historic homeland and the creation ofthemodern stateof Israel. There aretwokeysymbols in Israeli civil theWestern religion, Wall inJerusalem andtheHolocaust with itsmajorshrine, Yad Vashem. The Western Wallis a major condensation symbol which symbolically encapsulates 'everything thatis Jewish. . . historical, Israeli national andreligious - boththegrandeur and thedegradation, thesuffering, theyearning andthe achievement' (Liebman, 1978:9). On the first dayafter thecease-fire in June1967 thegeneral publicwasallowedto view theWall.Thousands of Israelis walked with uncharacteristic patience andsolemin a linewhich nity wound from thenewer Jewish of thecitythrough sections the narrow winding of theancient streets walledsection occupied byJordan since 1948.Walking carefully on a pathwhich hadbeencleared oflandmines bysappers. Israelis representing every ethnic group, socio-economic class, andideology (religious andnonreligious) waited their turn to enter thenarrow passage immediately facing theWallwhere they prayed, kissed thestones, placednotesin the cracks between thestones, or simply observed in awe thescenebefore theml. It is impossible to convey in words the moodand thepower of theshared experienceat thattime which formany was mystical or transcendent. Sincethen thle Government bulldozed several to hlouses

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Religion Civil ofIsraeli Attributes Figure 2. Selected Myth/Legend Exile andRedemption History (Condensed) Jewish Legends Holocaust Legends Masada Zahal Legends andMyths Legends Biblical andArchaeological Biblical andLegends History Diaspora andLegend Myth Religious National Legends Symbol/Shrine Israel Wall(Jerusalem) Western Yad Vashem shrines) (andsecondary Masada Yad Lebanim cemeteries Zahal/military memorials ZionandTombofthePatriarchs Mount oftheBook(Dead Sea Scrolls) Museum Museum Diaspora to eachholiday) Various (specific Army Flag,StateSeal,Leaders, Offices, Rite/Ritual Aliyah (Immigration) andTourism Pilgrimage, Prayer Day andHeroes Remembrance Martyrs ceremonies andTourism Army rites Memorial memorial Day andother andTourism Pilgrimages Educational andTourism andTourism Educational Rituals Holiday Religious Ceremony National Holiday

alongthe oftheconvoys thereligious diminishing theme. For of the ingremnants in front a plazaimmediately make every Virtually a colleague to Jerusalem. example, ofminetoldofhis of highway oftheMinistry andofficials Wall, has a in Israel childreturning community small from nursery school Jewish havemadesegregated Affairs Religious sons andsaying, fallen 'Daddy,I know thattheEgypto pray.Relig- memorial fortheir monument menandwomen for areas to arein tians wereourenemies on Passover; the aredrawn they and tourists Frequently iouspilgrims anddaughters. Many Greeks wereourenemies on Chanukah; theworld. around and from theWall doubleas youth which buildings the Persian was our theWallbefore whoviewed people calledYad le Banim. andHamanthewicked centers community feelit was on Purim. But,Daddy,whowas Defense enemy wereundertaken alterations respects, In certain Zahal,Israel's It thanpresently. ourenemy on arbor day?'On theother then as a impressive more andperceived is projected Forces, dayofthe meaning a different eachperson hand,eventhemostsolemn hasfor oftheJewish oftherebirth symbol religious Yom Kippur, has acdetermeanings in different peoplein itsnational homeland calendar, different andeven an additional national significance I shallnever forget andto guarantee quired Personally itself contexts. to defend mined sincethe'War ofAtonement' in 1973. and people. experience ofcollective of theJewish thesense thesurvival Somepurely national celebrations, like arefrethecrosssection defenders modern Israel's which pervaded identity Independence Day,havebeendeliberately me on quently with associated it with viewed which symbolically ofthenation to religious tradition, ofthepast.Forexample, tiedsymbolically heroes legendary day. first that forexample by theholding ofan interintothe ofZahalaresworn units certain is another powerful TheHolocaust Biblecontest in conjunction atopMasada, national rites in special torchlit and army suffering, ofJewish symbol history, it. with where desert in theJudean to the thefortress linked is intimately which survival Fromthebeginning ofthemodern of the themight zealotsresisted d'etreof theStateof Jewish andraison creation Zionist movement, national andreligious culwhich in a revolt legions is Yad Roman shrine 'ThemajorHolocaust Israel. havebeenintertwined. The Symbolizing symbols suicide. mass intheir Wall minated secondonlyto theWestern Vashem, oftheHebrew language, which and dedication revival courage, resistance, armed civil placein Israeli as themostsacred had beenonlya language ofprayer and a document- to independence, (Ibid.). It combines thearchaeological religion' for rites and theadopreligious centuries, forHolocaust centre ationandresearch ofMasadabecamean event excavation names bynewimmigrants exhibits portray- ofgreat andimportance. tionof Hebrew a museum with interest national studies, a tieto uponsettling in Israel, symbolized and oftheHolocaust, aspects ingvarious hobby is a widespread Archaeology aliyah torch bordering a burning in Israel thepast.Theuse oftheterms with obsession on a national a memorial chamber for (having spiritual implications) aware- ascent thenamesofeachdeath illuminating serves to constantly generate which to Israel immigration andyorida(descent to view nessof,andinterest impossible in,thelinkofthe camp.It is practically ora spiritual falling from grace tantamoved. Jewish this placeandnotbe profoundly thelandofIsrael. peoplewith mount to desertion) for from emigration to this Different is brought dignitary Every visiting havegenerperiods historical Israelareother examples ofsymbolic on hisor items as one of thefirst shrine who heroes ownlegendary atedtheir expressions ofthecivilreligion. Most countries symbolize For heritinerary (muchas in other andvalour. courage to historic statesymbols arerelated and on the to laya wreath aretaken defense they heroic Trumpeldor's example, Forexample, thestate religious tradition. There are at Tel-Hai soldier). tomb oftheunknown and period, in thepre-state an eight branched com- theheroic eachyearwhich twodaysofevents commander sealis themenorah, oftheyoung feats theRomans candelabra stolefrom which and as Martyrs memorate theHolocaust at Entebbe ofthehostages oftherescue before theydestroyed Day. Thebeginning (whodiedin theraid), Remembrance Heroes in thesecondTemple became legends or facsimile ofwhich is used by a two their riteis signalled ofthis memorial to symbolize it,a replica Each serves owntime. oftheJewish Festival all which during wailof sirens minute for in thecelebration andself-sacrifice ofcourage thespirit of Lights, Chanukah. The flag features Israelandevery- their activity stopsthroughout generation. hasbothancient The observance at attention. one stands ofsymbolically theStarofDavidwhich There is a widevariety historical andmorecontemporary signifithe approximates ofsucha riteclosely civil to Israeli sitesrelated important blueandwhite These stripes. ritual. ofreligious Zion canceagainst auraandsolemnity areMount A fewexamples religion. haveassociations traditional and memorials inJerusalem, with museums There areother theTombofthePatriarchs colours andartifacts, (for observance oftheBook religious e.g. to thevictims of theHolocaust theMuseum inHebron, blue and prayer Yad Mordecai). shawls (tallit) arefrequently at Kibbutz example, contains theDead Sea Scrolls, which wordforsynamemorial Museum in Tel Aviv (cf. andwhite. The Hebrew thenewDiaspora day is also a special There ofthesymbolic is beitknesset. Parliament warsand Israel's Israel's whofellin, Lewisforan analysis forsoldiers gogue - heldtheday Each one are is calledtheKnesset. Suchexamples of thelatter). signifilcance terrorism battles against between associations illustrative andarebyno means evokes different merely Day. The main before Independence to an exhaustive full and spiritual pastlinks list. with Israel's historic orcomprehensive national memorial ceremony, ofthe thesojourn ofa recent Themainconclusion military, theLandof Israel, by State, rites attended military 'exile'in the andDonon tele- Jewish their research peopleduring is broadcast project by Liebman andreligious officials, state. Practic- Yehiyaon civil at 'diaspora', in Israelsuggests andthemodern religion areceremonies there vision. In addition in has increase thatthere hasbeena steady Jewish holiday in thecountry. traditional cemetery military allyevery every Judaism oftraditional thepenetration additional heldfor andgiven rites beennationalized There memorial arespecial in recent civil suchas the partisan movements andmeanings. intoIsraeli religion years. various newinterpretations and/or Theyargue thatreligious symbols have the stress shrines Manyoftheinterpretations arememorial and there Irgun; element important oftheJewish peopleforfreedom becomean increasingly mili- struggle forvarious thecountry throughout culture providing meaning and thenation- in Israeli Sometimes andindependence. thosewhofellin units representing tary to many ostensibly nonto thepointof identification and rust- alisttheme is exaggerated e.g.theburned-out wars, Israel's

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WHYTIKOPIAHAS FOURCLANS thecivil otlerwords, religious Israelis. 3In andexpression religion provides meaning to one'sJewish justas one's identity, by AntonyHooperand Sir RaymondFirth,F.B.A. and Jewish identity provides meaning to one'sIsraeli expression identity.' Occasional Paperno. 38 ofthe andDon-Yehiya, (Liebman 1979:17). It Institute RoyalAnthropological andat leastpartial is theintertwining the ofthetwowhich constitutes fusion ofthedominant Israeli ISSN 0080-4150, 76 pp., paperback, character unique or academicbookthe Institute price?4 from civil religion. N.J., Highlands, Atlantic in NorthAmericaby Humanities Press, sellers.Distributed of ForsomeIsraelis theingathering wherever theyreside copiesat a 25% discount 07716. Fellowsof the R.A.I. mayorder the (?3, cashwithorder, theJewish thediaspora, peoplefrom Department). thePublications from ofthemodern its creation stateof Israel, enormous oddsin several Antony survival against oftheTikopiadata,taking structuralist analysis an ingenious Hooperadvances For others up an idea put forward etc.aredivinely wars, inspired. of any interpretation earlierby EdmundLeach. Rejecting oftheJewish thepresence peoplein its area symbolic and rituals he argues thatthe myths as quasi-history, Tikopiatradition homeland historic maynotbe attributed expression replies Firth Raymond in Tikopiasocialstructure. kinrelations of cardinal to divine buthas a mystical withan appreciative intervention, of Hooper'sinferences, on theplausibility commentary ifcritical ortranscendent is kindled concluding quality which assumptions whichappliessomestructuralist Appendix witha challenging andreinforced associabytheconstant of kings and queens.Becauseof itsnoveltheoretical succession historical to theEnglish ofIsrael's treatment evoked tions in thesymbolism willbe ofspecialuse inteachdata,thispublication ofwell-known empirical butit civil There is a fundamental religion. to Tikopiaethnography, contribution It is not onlya further inganthropology. on which Israel's civil underlying belief a intosharprelief and throws analysis, exampleof structuralist is also a noteworthy data. religion is based,i.e. thehistoric, religious, mostimportant of ethnographic - theinterpretation modern problem oftheJewish moral and/or right peopleto andindependent state 'Tikopiapackage' a national identity homeland. The assumption initsancient ofthat right is taken forgranted among on Tikopia: thefollowing Occasional Papers The Institute hasalso published To be surethis those whoshare thebelief. of the thework modification: ofritual A study & J.Spillius. R. Firth no. 19 right is challenged by others whoreject it; in 1929 and 1952 (?1) in Tikopia gods (1963) ofthecivil andvarious ideological versions (?3.50). figures string & H. Maude:Tikopia R. Firth no. 29 to assert andlegitimate religion aregiven (1970) this right in thefaceofsuchchallenges. oftheunderlying thenature However, of nos. 19, buta 'package' from the Institute, individually Thesetitlesmaybe ordered ofbelief and meanings are 29 and the new no. 38 willbe mailedfora specialprice structure which to the of ?6 (cashwith order for taken thecivilreligion Institute). within granted other thanFellows, to North residents American is not available This offer differ from therationalized ideological for?4.50 postpaid. ofthe25% discount and order whomaytakeadvantage elaboration ofit. Ifthecivil itself religion becomes andtherelighighly rationalized 56 QueenAnneStreet, Institute, RoyalAnthropological iouscontent is diluted, as wasthecase LondonWlM 9LA (tel.01-486 6832) when BenGurion to formulate attempted in themanner forgranted influence andnonbetween theJewish taken hisversion ofmamlachtiut (Statism), then tension forpolitical it can be manipulated and ofthepopulation which segments it becomes moreofa dominant ideology. Jewish it wouldappearthat Logically purposes? imageofIsrael. challenges theliberal If Liebman andDon-Yehiya haveaccurofa concepts such themoretakenforgranted civilreligious aspects a trend identified ofincreasing ately pene- Fundamental would they oftheexiles'haveprofound culture as the'fusion are,thelessamenable tration oftraditional thecivil Judaism, hand, On theother andultimately implications forethnic be to manipulation. of Israel's character religious dominant they andrationalized themoreexplicit have in Israeltodaywhich hasbeenstrengthened in recent classrelations ideology is theopportunity thegreater For become, serious political consequences. years. I advance thisas a of formanipulation. theemergence Lewistraces aboutcivilreligion Writing in America, example, hypothesis. to the working 'Oriental' Jews category DavidLittle (1974:185) said,'The found- theethnic fits which is a concept Civilreligion He argues aforementioned concept. that, helda viewoftthe ingfathers roleof bridging position an intermediary within Oriental is a Jew category religion andmorality in politics that, with 'theethnic on the religion transcendent ofcollective imagina- immutable phantom, a figment allitspower, served to obscure certain ideosecular bywhich cultural onehand,andrationalized tion, a symbolic vehicle perplexities and difficulties, andto disamenis less it As such other. on the logy of masking sociodifferences capable theability courage developing to confront and restructuring arecognized' (Lewis: able to manipulation inequality andcope with them.' He focuses particu- economic butis moreso ideology, thanis secular 28). larly uponthedisparity andtensions Thisis so bereligion. The tensions and contradictions within thanis traditional between religious beliefs, civicresponstranscendent it evokes though cause even the are capable of being civil religion andmoral ibility, beliefs. Simflarly, the is nature constructed itshumanly different ways images, interpreted in significantly Israeli civil religion contains important of religion. is that than more transparent and orientaby groups whose interests inherent ifnotcontradictions tensions, of to synthesize elements to It attempts tions areat odds.One ofthechallenges within haveprofound it,which implicaupon to play and ideology, both religion to observe and analyse anthropology is tions. There an is inherent contradiction as wellas hisrational different individuals man'snonrational theextent to which between someoftheparticularistic almost inevitably nature, and in so doing are andgroups in different contexts religious valuesofOrthodox Judaeism andeven fundamental strains contains by their andconstrained andtheuniversalistic humanism ofliberal motivated that I hopeto haveshown contradictions. of understandings andinterpretations deniocracy which although ostensibly and is useful ofcivilreligion theconcept in thesociety. cultural meanings within Zionism, periodically shared .synthesized It has of developing andrefining. are worthy contexts extent andin which becomemanifest in many different policy To what and understand helpedmeto clarify myths, andrituals thesamesymbols, areas.In fact, thewiderange ofissues and of Israeli society To whatextent arethebasic certain aspects shared? related to therelationship between the doubtthat I seriously Whereas to be immutable politics. beliefs perceived Jewish religion andtheStateofIsraelare cultural I do not has a civilreligion, society or to whatextent every forgranted; as capableofpolarizing theJewish popu- ortaken studied of thesocieties How doubtthatmany andrationalized? evaluated lation in somecontexts as theinvocation arethey already either miglht or secularity byanthropologists ofcivil religious doestherelative sacredness imagery is capableof a typeof be developing have,ormight ofthesymbolic to providing a unitary symbolic relate reference framework cultural basedor oriented pointin other religiously contexts. It obviously Forexample, cultural does the change? ideowhich is,oris becoming, framework provides an unambiguous source of to which a symbolic framework is degree
S
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or dominant. logically prominent ConIranisjustone conspicuous temporary A more example. conceptually refilned ofthenotion version ofcivil religion I haveproposed which might prove a useful analytic toolin understanding such phenomena. Myron J.Aronoff

Gluckman, Max.1963.Order andRebellion in Religion andCivil Religion, Chapter Oneof London:Cohen& West. a draft 7hibalAfrica. manuscript tentatively titled Civil Arnold. 'Phantom Lewis, Ethnicity: "Oriental Religion andTraditional Judaism inIsrael. Jews" inIsraeli Society', unpublished manuRamat-Gan: Bar-Ilan University. script. Tel Aviv University. Little, David.1974.TheOrigins ofPerplexity: Liebman, Charles. 1978. 'TheMyths That Civil andMoral Religion Belief inthe TheJerusalem Unite'. Jerusalem: Post ofThomas Thought Jefferson. In Russell International Edition: May9, 1978:8-9. E. Richey andDonaldG. Jones (eds.), andDon-Yehiya, Eliezer. 1979.Traditional American Civil Religion. NewYork:Harper andRow.

REHABILITATION OF A DENOTIFIED COMMUNITY

rTHE EX-CRIMINALLODHAS OF WESTBENGAL
Theauthor, P.K. Bhowmick, isProfessor ofAnthropology at Calcutta University andhaspublished booksincluding many ofWest Loclhas Bengal (Punthi Pustak, Calcutta, 1963) and SomeAspects of Indian Anthropology (Subamarekha, Calcutta, 1980). This paperwasdelivered at the Edinburgh meeting of theSociety for Applied lastApril. Anthropology in broaddaylight. in 1961,there Earlier, wasa clashbetween theLodhason the onehandandtheMahatos and Santals on theother. III Lodhasat present do notliveexclusively in thejungle areas, buthavespread out intoother deforested regions also and work there as farm, labourers. Buttheir maineconomy is still basedon: collection ofminor forest products, suchas leaves for preparing leaf-plates fordining, leaves for preparing country-cigars orbidi,and faggots forsale;collection ofedibleroots andfruits for household consumption and selling thesurplus; collection (by a fewof oftussore them) cocoonsand selling these forcash;catching snakes, lizards andsellingtheir hides, theflesh oftheseanimals being consumed; fish catching andtortoises bothfordomestic consumption andfor sale;and finally, daily labour either in agricultural fields or at anyother placein theneighbourhood. Butit is saidby other peoplethatthey arevery lazy.Though livebelowsubthey sistence level, they havea very low aspirationto improve their condition ofliving. Besides, they arevilified withthecommitment ofrobbery, dacoity, theft and in theneighbourhood, burglary andthe policerecords arefulloftheir extra-legal activities. to bring Attempts them backto agricultural activities during recent years haveinmany placesnotbeensuccessful.

II studied Anthropologists thistribe in 1951-56.Theyarea peoplewith a preagricultural economy mainly dependent on forest products, either consuming these fortheir sustenance orexchanging orselling them in themarket to procure It was26 September 1979. The peopleof other essential commodities fordailyuse. the whole ofBengal anditsborder regions Gradually oftheentire control the forest, were theGreat celebrating Puja Festivals. homeland oftheLodhas, gotintothe In parties they werevisiting thetemples handsoftheKings and Zaminders who andPujapandals andenjoying thefestivi- secured it on a fixed revenue from the ties. British Administration. Theagricultural, there Suddenly camea crowd number- orrather land-grabbing, communities thus ingseveral thousands, lethally armed and penetrated intotheseforest landsby drums. beating Theybrought with them a clearing theforests andconverting them few ofcountry cartfuls liquor.Theywere intoagricultural fields. The forest thus a mixed oftribals. group Theycameto becamegradually andthelords reduced, wreak on a group vengeance of 'criminals' ofthese forests becameencroachers in whowere in a vaststretch ofsugar- theeyesofthelaw andwerestrictly hiding recaneplantation alongthebasinofthe strained by theForest Guards and others river Subarnarekha. Thebeating of drums from using or destroying theforests. Thus echoedin thejungleon theriver banks. they wereclamped intoa narrow environThenoiseanduproar almost rent thesky ment andas they had no other meansof when themobfound andheldforty-five livelihood, had onlyone alternative - the menthey werein pursuit of.Theytied - to adoptfor pathofextra-legal activity them with twisted straw ropes likeanimals their bareexistence. Thisforced criminandbeheaded ofthem thirty-nine one ality andstigmatization fora prolonged IV after another. Thebodieswerethrown period havecuta deepgorge intheir intotheriver andcarried off to theBay minds andthepeoplearenowrolling into The Lodhasarea problem-ridden people, byitsstrong current. The rest weretaken ithelplessly. buttheir problems havenotbeenclosely intocustody. The angry mobwasretaliatTheir successive anti-social activities studied by theAdministration which now ingagainst another tribal group fortheir created a serious law andorder problem wants to tackle these anduplift the having committed dacoity andrapein andultimately in 1871 thethenBritish Lodhas.Recent study has revealed that their villages. Thenthey wentbackshout- Administration declared them to be a their problems aregenerally ofthefollowingall thewaylikea victorious army. Criminal Tribe.Sincethen were they ingnature:Thesevictims weretheLodhaswho under serious policesurveillance. Their i) Economic and territorial displacelivein therugged terrain of theBengalmovements wererestricted andanysort ments i.e. loss oflivelihood which has Bihar-Orissa border where there is an ofcrime in this locality, whether comcausedthem to lose self-confidence. of forests. abundance Their totalpopula- mitted bytheLodhasorothers, was notspecialized ii) Being in anyprotionis about20,000in West Bengal. This always attributed to them. Theywere fession whatsoever, they could notfit group is stigmatized with criminal prosenttojailswhere in thecourse oftime themselves intotheexisting greater pensities andthisstigma hasmadethem they picked up acquaintance with other economic structure. despised, hatedandridiculed. In thefew confirmed andskilled dacoits. These of 'criminality' iii) The stigma has nonths before this incident, had they gradually penetrated throughout Lodha lowered their social status and in prestige committed a series of dacoities androbsociety. Thusmostof them became thesociety, andthis is acting as a barto beries andin a fewcaseshadmolested criminal-minded, 'antisocial'anddanger- their earning a livelihood. womiien belonging to theSantaland other ous elements. After independence, all the iv) Frequent policeoppression, tribal groups. The lawandorder situation Criminal Tribes of Indiawere considered punishment andtorture haveloosened greatly deteriorated at thisplace.The to be ex-criminal, andin 1953 theCrimi- their group cohesion and madethem to suppress orapprehend policefailed nalTribes Actswererepealed so thatall migratory. Arrests andconfinement in theem, andultimately thepeopletookthe suchgroups arenowdesignated as 'denoti- jail haveshattered their family bondage, lawintotheir ownhands. The tribals fiedcommunities'. an atomized generating orindividualistic declared gira, a traditional form of Santal It becomes clearon investigation that mentality. waragainst others, bymaking a knotfrom territorial andeconomic v) Overall displacements poverty has exposedthem thebarkofa Sal tree, andbybeating havedisorganised this andupset society its to rank exploitation byneighbouring kara,their traditional wardrums. equilibrium. TimeandagaintheLodhas andmadethem groups surrender to many In another incident in 1968,eighteen borethebrunt ofoutside invasions, and undesirable situations forthesakeofsurLodhavillages wereseton fire by the hostile historical forces havenotpermited vival. Santals and four or five peoplewerekilled them to liveas settled agriculturists. vi) Being to sellstolen compelled pro-

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