The Algorithms of Arithmetic by Nathan D.

Lane

The Algorithms of Arithmetic

By Nathan D. Lane

The Algorithms of Arithmetic by Nathan D. Lane

Table of Contents
1 Introduction to Algorithms of Arithmetic 1.1 What is an Algorithm? 1.2 What is Arithmetic? 1.3 What to Expect 1.4 Who is this Document For? 2 Numbers 2.1 What Are Numbers? 2.2 Number Systems 2.3 Whole Numbers 2.4 Sequences 2.5 Conclusion 2.6 Exercises for Chapter 2 3 Addition 3.1 What is Addition? 3.2 Beginner Algorithms of Addition 3.3 Skip-Counting Review 3.4 Properties of Addition 3.5 Conclusion 3.6 Exercises for Chapter 3 4 Subtraction 4.1 What is Subtraction? 5 Multiplication 6 Division 7 Fractions

The Algorithms of Arithmetic by Nathan D. Lane

1 Introduction to Algorithms of Arithmetic

1.1 What is an Algorithm?
An algorithm is an effective, repeatable method of doing something. In the case of this document it is an effective, repeatable method of solving a mathematical problem. Because algorithms are repeatable, that is that by repeating an algorithm similar conclusions may be obtained, their value is great in mathematics. Mathematics is a field of fact and algorithms may be used effectively to produce mathematical facts. In this document arithmetic is used loosely to identify mathematical problems of a particular class. In particular arithmetic in this document refers to mathematical problems requiring the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, abstract concepts such as real numbers, negative numbers, fractions, and variables, and concepts that are easily applied to real-world problem spaces including money, time, and patterns. My primary goal in creating this document is to provide some context for mathematical algorithms and describe some mathematical algorithms that have been proven over and over again, both of which may be used to formulate solutions quickly for simple and complex arithmetic problems. The algorithms I introduce are simple and easily repeatable. Over time practice makes perfect is a principle that will be realized in mathematics. I will also attempt to point to and provide resources for such practice.

1.2 What is Arithmetic?

Arithmetic is the oldest most elementary branch of mathematics, [combining] ...the traditional operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division with smaller values of numbers.[1] In this document I will attempt to discuss as many of the facets of elementary arithmetic in as much detail as is necessary in order to fully understand the algorithms I am presenting. I will begin with the simple and then move toward more complex details, yet keep the algorithms as simple as possible. Since arithmetic includes the operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, I will work with these operations discretely and avoid the algebraic operations as much as possible, except where necessary to describe a concept. I will also used some of the ideas identified in number theory, and I will maintain their simplicity, as number theory as a whole is outside of the scope of this document.

1.3 What to Expect

Throughout the following chapters I will introduce concepts that build upon each other. At the end of each chapter I will supply a set of exercises that will help you to better understand the concepts identified throughout the chapter. The exercises are meant to give you practical practice and aid in
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teaching each concept. Each chapter is divided into sections similar to this chapter. Each section will identify a single subconcept that fits into the primary concept of the chapter. Later chapters will build on concepts from previous chapters. I will try and link chapters and sections together where it applies, so that if previous concepts are forgotten, then they can easily be referred back to.

1.4 Who is this Document For?

I have written this document primarily for anybody struggling to understand the basic algorithms in arithmetic that have proven, at least to me, that anybody should be able to understand and be able to do simple math. This document should be mostly suitable for children, teenagers and adults. I use some strong mathematical language, and I try to maintain contextual clues, so that understanding the language isn't too difficult for anybody with a reasonable vocabulary. I will provide a glossary at the end of each chapter in order to define more complicated terms. This document should also be suitable for anybody wanting to review arithmetic or to learn new algorithms for solving arithmetic problems, as I have learned them over my many years of education from elementary school through college. This document will not introduce every algorithm available, only those that I feel have benefited me. I am taking a student-teacher approach to teaching in this document, which means that as a student of arithmetic, I have identified some concepts that have been important to me, and I am teaching them. I am generally not following any outline of any already published document, manual, or book.

The Algorithms of Arithmetic by Nathan D. Lane

2 Numbers
2.1 What Are Numbers?
Numbers are the atomic unit of arithmetic. Their sequence is discrete and infinite both positively (numbers greater than zero) and negatively (numbers less than zero). Numbers may also become fractionalized, meaning that their wholeness may be divided into parts, called fractions which may be represented as decimals, or numbers with a whole part, a decimal point, and a fractional part. Thus one half of one whole is possible by dividing one into two parts: 1 2
Figure 2.1.1. One half is representative of one whole being divided into two parts. In this illustration this is represented by a one, which represents the whole, being written over a two, which represents the number of parts, divided vertically by a horizontal line.

Numbers are canonically arranged in an ordered positively progressing sequence beginning at the smallest value and increasing toward positive infinity, as in the following sequence: 0, 1, 2,3, 4,5, 6, 7,8, 9, ,
Figure 2.1.2. Numbers are normally arranged starting at zero and increase indefinitely to an infinite end-point.

Numbers may also decrease toward negative infinity in an ordered negatively progressing sequence, as in the following sequence: 0,1, 2, 3, 4,5,6, 7,8, 9, ,
Figure 2.1.3. Numbers may also start at zero and decrease indefinitely to a negatively infinite end-point.

Numbers are meant to represent quantities, values, or measurements, thus I may have three oranges, or twenty dollars, or a clock may represent the time as three o'clock. Three oranges is indicative of a quantity. Quantities usually identify a bulk of objects. Twenty dollars (which may also be represented canonically by $20.00) is indicative of a value. Values may represent a bulk of objects or a single object depending on the context of the value. For example thirty-five cents may be represented in a number of ways: one quarter and one dime (25+10=35) three dimes and one nickel (10+10+10+5=35) two dimes and three nickels (10+10+5+5+5=35) thirty-five pennies (35=35)

Measurements are representative of a relative value. For example on Earth, our planet, we identify that
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there are twenty-four hours in a day, or in other words it takes twenty-four hours for the Earth to rotate. Thus we can measure the time, three o'clock, as a point in the period of time that the earth takes to rotate, three hours after the peak of the night (midnight) or the peak of the day (noon). There are infinite contexts to which a number may belong. Context is always important, thus when solving problems that deal with a specific context, such as the combined weight of multiple objects, it is important to include the context of the problem in the solution. Since a weight may be indicated by pounds, kilograms, and so on, expressing the solution to a problem involving weight should always include the context, such as pounds, kilograms, and so on.

2.2 Number Systems

When we talk about number systems we talk about systems of symbols that represent quantities, values, or measurements. Our basic number system in use today is called the base-ten-number-system or the decimal number system. Base-ten refers to the number of symbols used to construct a number. There are ten symbols in our standard system of numbers, which we sometimes call digits: 0 1 2 3 4 56 7 8 9
Figure 2.2.1. The decimal number system has ten symbols which are used to represent numbers. The symbols are called digits and may be arranged to identify any number in the system.

Other number systems also exist. When we talk about computing we speak of the binary or base-two number system. Sometimes we also talk about the hexadecimal or base-sixteen number system. In the fifties and sixties many schools taught math using the octal or base-eight number system. Again these number systems are only differentiated by the number of symbols used to represent a value. For example a base-eight number system uses eight symbols to represent values. A base-eight number system might include the symbols: 0 1 2 3 4 56 7
Figure 2.2.2. The base-eight, or octal number system uses only eight of the ten numerical symbols of the decimal system. Only eight distinct symbols are used to identify all numbers in the system.

Thus a numerical value written as 100 using our base-ten number system would be written as:

82

81

80
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The Algorithms of Arithmetic by Nathan D. Lane

Sixty-fours Eights 1 4

Ones 4

Table 2.2.1. This table identifies the first three place-values of the octal number system: sixty-fours, eights, and ones. The number such as 8 2 are algebraic sentences that identify a concept called exponents. Exponents will be discussed more later. For now simply know that they are used to identify special cases of multiplication.

This is read as one-sixty-four-and-four-eights-and-four-ones. This can later be proven by addition, multiplication, and algebra as the arithmetic sentences: ( 164 )+( 48)+( 41 ) = 64+32+4=100. At the moment this is simply meant to be an example. If it is confusing now then there is no need to try and understand it. Because the base-ten system is recognized internationally as the standard number system to use for arithmetic, we will only focus on using it. It is much simpler, and utilizes the ten digits, zero through nine, nicely.

2.3 Whole Numbers

We call the ten symbols that are in the base-ten number system digits. Digits have place-value when combined to represent numbers, which is also derived from our number system. In the base-ten number system the place-values are multiples of ten. For example let's dissect the number 1,520:

Thousands Hundreds Tens Ones 1 5 2 0

Table 2.3.1. This table shows how to dissect the number 1,520 into its place-value containers. In the number 1,520 there is are one thousand, five hundreds, two tens, and zero ones. 1,520 is the number of feet in a mile.

That is to say that the canonical number 1,520 (one-thousand-five-hundred-and-twenty) is representative of one thousand, five hundreds, two tens and zero ones. Knowing this is important in arithmetic because it is a fundamental of arithmetic algorithms. Places indicate place-value, and placevalue is a driving component of the ideas of borrowing and carrying. We will discuss these terms later as the need arises. Place value increases by an order of ten from right to left as in the diagram below:
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109
1,000,000,000

108
100,000,000

107

106

105

104

103 102 101 100

10 1

10,000,000 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100

Table 2.3.2. From right-to-left each significant place-value is identified by ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, ten-thousands, hundred-thousands, millions, ten-millions, hundred-millions, and billions. Place-values are infinite in number, just like numbers.

2.4 Sequences
In the base-ten, or decimal number system numbers are ordered from zero to nine and then a second digit or place-value is added to the left, starting with one and increasing again to nine as the place-value on the right moves from zero to nine. Digits or place-values are continually added as the need arises. I will show you an example of this. 0, 1, 2,3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9,10, 11,12, 13, 14,15, 16,17, 18,19, 20, ...
Figure 2.4.1. This figure shows counting from zero to twenty. Notice that there are patterns in numbers when counting by one.

In the above sequence we see that, going from left to right, we start with the number zero and then increase by one as we move onto one, two, three, and so on up to nine. Then we reach the number ten. Ten starts over again with the number one, now in the tens position, and zero again in the ones position, and then we progress again, from zero to nine, as in: ten, eleven, twelve, and so on, up to nineteen. Then we reach the number twenty, which again is a single increment in the tens place (from one to two) and we start again at zero in the ones place. Continuing on in this pattern we progress through the numbers like so: 0, 1, 2,... , 9 10, 11, 12,... , 19 20, 21, 22, ... , 29 ... 100,101, 102,... , 109 110,111, 112,... , 109, ...
Figure 2.4.2. Here we show several sequences from zero to nine. Notice the patterns.

This pattern continues through the entire number system as we approach infinity.

The Algorithms of Arithmetic by Nathan D. Lane

2.5 Conclusion
In this section we have learned about number systems and different bases. We learned that a base is representative of the number of symbols used in a number system. For example, base-ten refers to the fact that we use ten symbols, zero through nine, in the base-ten or decimal number system. We also learned about place-value and that understanding place-value is important in order to understand the concepts of borrowing and carrying, which will be discussed later. Finally we learned that numbers follow a uniform pattern in counting both towards positive infinity and negative infinity.

The Algorithms of Arithmetic by Nathan D. Lane

Exercises For Chapter 2

For exercises 1-10 use the table below:

109
1,000,000,000

108
100,000,000

107

106

105

104

103 102 101 100

10 1

10,000,000 1,000,000 100,000 10,000 1,000 100

Table 2.e.1. From right-to-left each significant place-value is identified by ones, tens, hundreds, thousands, ten-thousands, hundred-thousands, millions, ten-millions, hundred-millions, and billions.

Write the number using the symbols: 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 in base-ten or decimal format. 1. Write the number two-hundred-and-forty-nine. 2. Write the number nineteen-thousand-three-hundred-and-ninety-one. 3. Write the number one-billion. 4. Write the number thirteen-million. 5. Write the number two-hundred-and-sixty-three-thousand-and-ten. Describe the place-value for each digit in the following base-ten numbers. For example, given the number 490 we can derive that there are: four hundreds, nine tens, and zero ones. 6. 1,345 7. 16 8. 171 9. 10,900,036 10. 1400 Write the next three numbers in each sequence: 11. 13, 14, 15, , , 12. 121, 122, 123, 124, , , 13. 19, 18, , , 14. -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, , , 15. 1099, 1100, 1101, , ,
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3 Addition
3.1 What Is Addition?
The subject of addition or the combination of values, sets, or groups of things, abstract or tangible, is probably the simplest of all arithmetic operations above the basic understanding of numbers, number systems and number sequences. The symbol used to identify the addition operation is the equilateral cross, +. When reading an addition sentence you read the addition symbol as plus.
3+ 4
Figure 3.1.1. This addition sentence is read as three plus four.

Numbers can represent values, measurements or quantities. Numbers may also represent sets or groups of things. The numbers in an addition sentence are called addends. When we talk about things, we refer to them as units. When we talk about units with reference to the above addition sentence we might say, three somethings plus four somethings. The word somethings denotes units. You may substitute any object, or noun, for the word somethings, such as apples. Then we say the addition sentence as, three apples plus four apples.

Figure 3.1.2. We can formulate the addition sentence to indicate units, as in three apples plus four apples.

3.2 Beginner Algorithms in Addition

Units can make the addition sentence more tangible or real for beginners, thus making the problem of solving the addition sentence somewhat more real. For example, change the addition sentence three plus four to if I have three apples and somebody gives me four more apples, then how many apples do I have? Counting is an important algorithm which enables beginners to solve addition sentences, however counting is usually limited to what is available for counting, such as ten fingers, a few marbles, or anything that is similar. As an example a beginner might recognize that the answer to the addition
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sentence, three apples plus four apples, is the sum or count of all of the apples illustrated, and thus they count each of the apples in the illustration, starting at one and finishing once all of the illustrated apples have been counted.

Figure 3.2.1. Counting all of the apples illustrated is one algorithm beginners learn in order to solve addition sentences.

Another algorithm of counting for beginners who can count on from a certain value in a set of numbers might begin at the value of the first addend of the addition sentence, three, and then count up four times from there. He may accomplish this by holding up four fingers and starting with the number three, count up using each of his fingers: [three,] four, five, six, seven. This method, is more aligned with the skills expected in problem solving, and enables more advanced beginners to solve problems requiring addition more quickly.

Figure 3.2.2. Starting at the distinct value of the first addend in the set of all of the addends and then counting up is another algorithm beginners discover in order to solve addition sentences.

Yet another example of counting, that shows more intuition, is to identify which addend in an addition sentence is greater in value, and starting with that number count up the number of units left. In the case of the example above the intuitive counter would identify that the addend four is greater in value than the addend three, thus starting with four and counting up three times: [four,] five, six, seven. This algorithm works with addition sentences because the operation of addition is commutative, which means that the addends in an addition sentences, can be placed in their original presented order or they can be placed in reverse order, and the same answer results.

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Figure 3.2.3. Recognizing that one quantity is higher than the other, and starting there for counting is a higher-level algorithm for beginners that can count.

Ideally a reader of the addition sentence, three apples plus four apples, would recognize three apples and four apples as two discrete groups of apples, for which we know the quantities. Then because the answer was memorized, the reader would deduce that three apples plus four apples equals seven apples.

Figure 3.2.4. Recognizing that three and four are discrete groups of apples and adding them together as a memorized pattern is ideal. Likewise a beginner with such a skill could recognize the commutativity of addition and memorize that four plus three is the same addition sentence.

It should be the goal of all beginners to have memorized all combinations of addition for single-digit addition or to learn skills that enable the beginner to deduce the result of an addition sentence. This means memorizing the answers to all addition problems, 0 +0 to 9+ 9 , this being the fundamental level of addition. This level of intuition may result in a mixture of memorized concepts such as skip-counting and the addition of well-known values such as zero, one, two, five, and ten. Reasoning about how numbers are formed through the memorization of simpler math problems may result in a finer tuned set of skills in solving addition sentences. For example, given the original addition sentence, three apples plus four apples, one might deduce that four is actually two plus two, resulting in the new addition sentence, three apples plus two apples plus two apples. Because the number two is a standard value used in skipcounting, the beginner may deduce that skip-counting twice by twos from three would result in the correct answer, and thus the beginner begins: [three,] five, seven, coming up with seven apples for his answer.
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3.3 Skip-Counting Review

Skip-counting is defined as counting by increments larger than one in either a positive or negative direction. Common skip-counting patterns for many beginners include skip-counting by twos, skipcounting by threes, skip-counting by fives, and skip-counting by tens. Often beginners will start skipcounting with zero, whether zero is used as a term in the skip-counting or not. Thus a beginner who skip-counts by twos will start: [zero,] two, four, six, eight, ten, and so on. Similarly a beginner who skip-counts by threes will start: [zero,] three, six, nine, twelve, fifteen, and continue on.

Figure 3.3.1. Showing a skip-counting-by-two diagram with the zero that is usually implied. The even numbers have a gray background.

Skip counting can eventually be mastered to a degree that enables even a beginner to transpose the skip counting. For example while a beginner will typically start skip-counting by twos with the number zero, resulting in counting only even numbers (numbers that are a factor of two), transposing the skipcounting by one in the positive direction, resulting in starting with the number one, is still valid skipcounting by twos. The result of this transposition is the sequence one, three, five, seven, nine, eleven, and so on. Skip-counting is the natural result of the beginning realization of patterns in a number system. These patterns are the result of adding the same number over and over again, starting with zero or another number. For example, skip-counting by twos using even numbers results when we start with zero and then add two, and then add two again, adding two as many times as is required. 0 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 ... 0 2 4 6 8 10 ...

Figure 3.3.2. Showing that skip-counting by twos is a result of adding two to zero repeatedly and calculating the result.

If we take a simple graph of the numbers from one to one-hundred laid out in a ten-column and ten-row
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grid, then we can visualize some of the patterns that occur as a result of skip-counting. Following are some of these visualizations. The gray squares represent the counted numbers, while the white squares represent the numbers skipped over in the various skip-counting sequence.

Figure 3.3.3. Showing pattern created by skip-counting by twos using even numbers.

Figure 3.3.4. Showing pattern created by skip-counting by twos using odd numbers.

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Figure 3.3.5. Showing pattern created by skip-counting by threes.

Figure 3.3.6. Showing pattern created by skip-counting by fives.

Figure 3.3.7 Showing pattern created by skip-counting by tens. 17

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The simple skip-counting that has been identified here, while valuable and useful, is only helpful in a limited manner, because it only enables the beginner to realize the next closest value through skipcounting if the current value is one of the gray squares. For example, if an addition sentence reveals that skip-counting by twos is valuable, as in the sentence three plus four or the derived addition sentence three plus two plus two, then we can use the skip-counting by twos using odd numbers skipcounting diagram by starting on the gray number three and skip-counting by two two times: three, five, seven.
Figure 3.3.8. Showing skip-counting by twos starting with three in order to solve the addition sentence: three plus two plus two (originally three plus four).

If however we are given an addition sentence such as four plus five, then none of the given skipcounting diagrams are immediately helpful, because there is no skip-counting diagram that shows a gray number four that also shows skip-counting by fives. This sort of problem can be solved by combining other operations, through memorization of addition facts, and through other counting algorithms. For example if a beginner understands that five is the same as two plus three, then he could rewrite the addition sentence as four plus two plus three, replacing the five with two plus three. Then since there is a skip-counting by twos diagram that has a gray four (skip-counting by twos using even numbers), the beginner can use this diagram in order to get to the next element of the addition sentence, (four plus two equals six) plus three . Finally we end up with the new addition sentence six plus three, so we look at the skip-counting by threes diagram because our final addend is three, and realize that six is a gray number on that diagram. Thus we can use skip-counting by threes to solve the remaining problem: [six,] nine. Six plus three equals nine.
4 + 5= ?

4 +( 2+ 3)=?

Use skip-counting by twos using evens.

6+ 3=9

Use skip-counting by threes.

4 +5= 9
Figure 3.3.9. showing the progression from the initial addition sentence of four plus five to the conclusion of four plus five equals nine, using skip-counting.

Alternatively we could use the commutative property of addition and reorder the addends in the addition sentence to read five plus four. We could then similarly break down the addition sentence into
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five plus two plus two (because two plus two equals four) . Since two is a skip-counting pattern and there is a skip-counting diagram for skip-counting by twos that includes a gray five (skip-counting by twos using odds), we can use that diagram to skip-count up to our answer: [five,] seven, nine. 4 +5=? 5+ 4=? 5+( 2 +2 )=?

5+ 4= 9 4 + 5= 9
Figure 3.3.10. Showing another algorithm for solving the simple addition sentence: four plus five using skip-counting.

Using skip-counting in order to solve addition sentences is a valuable algorithm for beginners and advanced mathematicians alike. Skip-counting is a valuable tool for the beginner, and it should not be overlooked or under-utilized.

3.4 Properties of Addition

The operation of addition has several properties, one of which has been briefly revealed. That is the commutative property. The addition operation is commutative because the addends may appear either in their originally presented order or in reverse order in the addition sentence to result in the same outcome. In figure 3.1.5 above we revealed this briefly by showing that a beginner, who understands when one value is greater than another value, you can start counting at that value and count up fewer times in order to arrive at the answer to an addition sentence. In that example the beginner swapped the order of the addends, three and four, and the meaning of the addition sentence did not change. That is to say that 3+ 4 and 4 +3 have the same meaning, because of the commutative property. In fact we can prove that addition has the commutative property by answering both addition sentences:
3+ 4= 7 4 + 3= 7 so 3+ 4= 4 + 3
Figure 3.4.1. Showing that addition has the commutative property.

Here we see both variants of the addition sentence, 3+ 4 and 4 +3 . We also see that both variants of the addition sentence equal seven, and thus conclude that both addition sentences are equal in value,
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and contain the same symbols only in a different order, resulting in addition having the commutative property. The next property of addition that I would like to discuss is the associative property. When we say that addition is associative we mean that when we add more that two addends together, their order does not matter. So far we have talked about adding two operands together as in the addition sentence, 3+ 4 , but arithmetic does not only allow for two addends in an addition sentence, which we have already seen a little bit. In fact there may be an infinite number of addends in an addition sentence, every two addends are usually separated by an addition symbol. For example, let us say that we start with three apples and then add four more, and then add three more apples:

Figure 3.4.2. An addition sentence with more than two addends: three plus four plus three.

Now we have an addition sentence that contains three addends: three, four, and three. All of these need to be added together in order to solve the addition sentence. Now let's note that this addition sentence can be figuratively broken down into three different addition sentences that illustrate only part of the addition sentence, as shown in the following diagram:

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Figure 3.4.3. Three addition sentences derived from the addition sentence in figure 3.4.2: three plus four, four plus three, and three plus three.

In figure 3.3.3, we identified three different addition sentences that could be derived from the addition sentence in figure 3.3.2, using the commutative property and taking each operand from the original addition sentence. But you should note that there are not actually three addition sentences in figure 3.3.2, rather there are only two, as identified by the fact that there are only two addition symbols in the addition sentence. Why did we identify three different possible addition sentences by the commutative property then? The reason we identified three new addition sentences is because there are three addends, which means that there are three ways to start an addition sentence that has two addends. If we think about combinations with order, meaning if we were to re-combine the three addends based on the order they fall in the original addition sentence, then actually there would be six addition sentences. We won't go into much detail about this right now, but I will show you an example of this using the figure below.

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Figure 3.4.4. Combinatorics, which we will discuss later. Showing that when order matters, we can re-combine the addends from a three-addend addition sentence into six two-addend addition sentences.

Let's think of these possible re-combinations from the three-addend addition sentence into two-addend addition sentences as possible starting points for solving the three-addend addition sentence: 3+ 4+ 3 . Now let's take the first addition sub-sentence and start there. We already know that 3+ 4= 7 from the earlier figure 3.2.4. If we remove one of the threes and four from the addition sentence and replace it with seven, the answer to the addition sentence 3+ 4 , now we have a new addition sentence:

Figure 3.4.5. We know that 3+4=7, so we can replace the first part of the addition sentence, 3+4 with our answer, 7. 22

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Now we have the new addition sentence: seven plus three. We solve the new addition sentence in the same way that we have done so far. Since this is an addition sentence, I want to impress upon you again that it carries the two properties that we have already discussed, namely it is both commutative and associative, meaning that the order of the addends, in this case seven and three, may be changed and the meaning and solution of the addition sentence will remain the same. For example we could rewrite the addition sentence 7+ 3 as 3+7 and the meaning and solution of the addition sentence will remain the same. Finally we solve the last addition sentence 7+ 3 as we did the previous addition sentence 3+ 4 , which results in ten.

Figure 3.46. The addition sentence, seven plus three, solved as ten.

3.5 Multi-Digit Addition

Now that we have discussed some basic algorithms of addition using single-digit numbers it is only natural to begin talking about multi-digit addition algorithms. Multi-digit addition builds on all of the principles that we have discussed thus far. To review, multi-digit addition still exhibits the two properties of commutativity and associativity, multi-digit addition sentences may contain more than two addends, multi-digit addition works with skip-counting, and multi-digit addition may be easier to understand in the real world when units are applied. Multi-digit addition also builds onto the principle of place-value. Remember that place-value is important when reading numbers and identifying their value. When we talk about multi-digit addition, we are referring to addition sentences that contain at least one multi-digit number. Thus the following addition sentence is considered to be the minimum multi-digit addition sentence:
10+ 0=10
Figure 3.5.1. Showing that ten plus zero equals ten is the minimum multi-digit addition sentence, because ten is a multi-digit number. The minimum requirement is that at least one addend in the addition sentence has more than one digit.

With multi-digit addition, it is often simpler to understand addition sentences when they are written in another format. Up until this point we have written all of our addition sentences using infix notation. Infix notation is when we have a number, then an operator symbol such as the plus symbol, then another number, and so on. Numbers with symbols in between each number. Multi-digit addition is
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usually more understandable when addition sentences are written in columnar form. An addition sentence is written in columnar form by stacking the addends of the addition sentence so that the placevalues of the digits appear in the same column. For example take the addition sentence: ten plus zero, which we previously wrote as 10+ 0=10 . We can now write this addition sentence in columnar form: 10 + 0 10
Figure 3.5.2. Showing columnar format for writing an addition sentence.

We can see in this example that the addends, ten and zero are aligned to the right side. This is because place-value is the smallest on the right side and increases in value from right-to-left. Here we have two place-values for each addend because the largest addend has two place-values. The place-values are ones and tens. Zero technically has a place-value for tens even though it is not shown. The value of the tens column is zero when it is not shown. Once we have rewritten the addition sentence in columnar form, and properly aligned the addends, we are now able to solve the problem using a columnar algorithm, which means that we will solve the addition sentence one column at a time. Beginners may wish to physically divide the columns by a line in order to see the correct line-up of addend place-values as in the diagram below. 1 0 + 0

Figure 3.5.3. Showing a line to split the place-values of the columnar form of the addition sentence: ten plus zero.

When we split the place-values of the addends in the addition sentence in columnar form, we effectively break the addition sentence into two single-digit addition sentences: 0 +0 and 1+[ 0 ] . I have placed brackets around the zero in the second addition sentence because the zero is not actually present and we don't write it either. In reality you could assume that the second addition sentence, 1+[ 0 ] is actually just the number sentence 1 . We begin solving addition sentences from right-to-left and then we write the result in the same column as the solved addition sentence below the horizontal line below the addends. 1 0 + 0

0 +0= 0

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1 0 + 0 0 1+[ 0 ]=1 1 0 + 0 1 0
Figure 3.5.4. Showing the algorithm of solving the addition sentence: ten plus zero, in columnar form.

Now that we have solved the simplest multi-digit addition sentence, let's take a look at a more complicated addition sentence: thirteen plus six. 1 3 + 6

Figure 3.5.6. Showing the addition sentence: thirteen plus six.

Remember that the first step is to split the addition sentence into columns that represent the digits of the addends place-values: 1 3 + 6

Figure 3.5.7. Showing splitting the addends into columns by the place-values of their digits.

Next we treat each column as its own addition sentence so that now we have two addition sentences: 3+6 and 1+[ 0 ] . We solve each addition sentence, starting with the addition sentence on the right and then moving from right-to-left, placing the result of each addition sentence into the addition sentence's column: 1 3 + 6

3+6 =9

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1 3 + 6 9 1+[ 0 ]=1 1 3 + 6 1 9
Figure 3.5.8. Showing the algorithm of solving the addition sentence: thirteen plus six, in columnar form.

The result of the addition sentence: thirteen plus six, is therefore nineteen. Now let us recall that addition has the property of commutativity, which means that the order of the addends in an addition sentence may be reversed and the meaning and the answer of the addition sentence remains the same. Having stated the property of commutativity again we can realize the answer to the multi-digit addition sentence: two plus seventeen, more easily:
2 +17=?

2 + 1 7

1 7 + 2
Figure 3.5.9. Showing how the property of commutativity applies to and helps in solving multi-digit addition sentences in columnar form. All three of these addition sentences mean exactly the same thing.

In both of the above columnar forms of the addition sentence there is an imaginary zero in the column to the left of the two. Placing the two under the seventeen makes the columnar form of the addition sentence slightly easier for many beginners to understand. Multi-digit addition in columnar form simplifies addition sentences significantly when there are multiple addends containing multiple digits. For example let's take the addition sentence: one-hundredand-thirty-one plus three-hundred: 13 1 +30 0
Figure 3.5.10. Showing the addition sentence: one-hundred-and-thirty-one plus threehundred, in columnar form.

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Now that we have our addition sentence in columnar form, we can divide it into columns according to place-value: 13 1 +30 0
Figure 3.5.11. Showing the place-value columns for the multi-digit addition sentence.

Now that we have divided the addends into place-value columns we can easily identify three singledigit addition sentences. These are much simpler to solve than the original multi-digit addition sentence. Remember that the single-digit addition sentences must be solved from right-to-left and their results must be placed in the column below the line. 1+0 =1 3+ 0=3 1+ 3 = 4 13 1 +30 0 43 1
Figure 3.5.12. Showing the algorithm of finding the answer to a multi-digit addition sentence with two multi-digit addends.

Using columnar form for rewriting addition sentences with multi-digit addends greatly reduces their complexity and provides a simple algorithm for determining their result. There is no reason to be frightened by the size of the addends because this simple algorithm is easy for anybody to use.

3.6 Multi-Digit Addition And Carrying

So far in talking about addition we have been solving multi-digit addition sentences, resulting in singledigit addition sentences that result in values less than ten, or in other words we have been solving single-digit addition sentences that result in single-digit values. For example, we have solved addition sentences such as 1+1= 2 , 3+ 0=3 , and so on. Often however it is the case that the single-digit addition sentences resulting from the multi-digit addition sentence solving algorithm we described in section 3.5 Multi-Digit Addition. When this case arises we must rely on carrying digits into the next place-value column. This may not be intuitive at first and I will attempt to discuss first how to do it, and then why it makes sense.

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3.7 Conclusion
In this chapter we have learned about the operation of addition in arithmetic. We learned that addition is both commutative, which means that addends may be in the original order or in the reverse order and the meaning and solution of the addition sentence does not change its meaning or solution, and associative, which means that if there are more than two addends, then it doesn't matter which part of the addition sentence is solved first. We also solved an addition sentence that contained more than two addends and showed you an algorithm on how to solve such problems, namely solving part of the problem first, and then solving the next put with the solution to the first part. Finally we showed you columnar form and how to solve multi-digit addition sentences using columnar form in order to simplify the work that needs to be done.

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Exercises for Chapter 3

Write the addition sentences below at least one other way that doesn't change the meaning or solution of the addition sentence. 1. 4 + 7 2. 9 + 3 3. 3 + 1 4. 0 + 5 5. 6 + 7 Write at least two two-operand addition sentences that can be formed from the addition sentence. 6. 5 + 4 + 3 7. 7 + 12 + 9 8. 8 + 1 + 1 9. 15 + 6 + 2 10. 213 + 71 + 309 Solve the addition sentence. 11. 6 + 8 12. 7 + 4 13. 5 + 1 + 3 14. 7 + 2 + 9 15. 8 + 8 + 3 + 3 Solve the addition sentence using columnar form. 16. 163 + 22 17. 3758 + 1221

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18. 23 + 5 19. 70 + 10 20. 791 + 205

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4 Subtraction
4.1 What is Subtraction?
Subtraction involves removing or separating objects, sets, values, or groups of objects from a usually larger group of objects.

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7 Fractions
7.1 What are Fractions?
When we talk about fractions, there are place values. Fractions may be represented by whole numbers, as in: 1 8 or as decimals, or using a decimal point, as in: 0.125 Both of these representations are for the value one eighth. The decimal point, usually represented by a single period, identifies a place value separator. On the left of the decimal place-values increase by a multiple of ten, and on the right of the decimal place-values decrease, or go down, by a multiple of ten. This is represented by the followind diagram: 102 1 101 0 100 7 Decimal . 10-1 1 10-2 2 10-3 5

The value in the table is read as one-hundred-and-seven-point-one-two-five. This number may also be represented by the whole numbers: 107 and: 857 8 The numbers are read as one-hundred-and-seven-and-one-eighth and eight-hundred-and-fifty-seveneighths. These numbers are equal through the rule of distribution, which will be discussed later. One important thing that you should notice from the table above is that place-values on the right of the
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decimal point begin with 10-1, which is different from the place-values to the left of the decimal point, which begin with 100. This is because generally ones are the smallest atomic number that can be represented wholly, or on the left side of the decimal point. Thus on the right side of the decimal point we begin counting in tenths. Moving from left-to-right on the right side of the decimal point placevalues become successively smaller. One tenth representing a single part out of ten parts of one whole, thus we identify one tenth as:

1 10

one divided-by ten

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Bibliography
1. Wikipedia, 2011, Arithmetic, introductory paragraph, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetic 2.

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