Chapter 14 Immunity

1) What would happen if extra fluid was allowed to accumulate in cells, tissues, organs, and vessels of the body?

Lymphatic Pathways:

-This pathway of returning fluid to the circulatory system (as well as assisting in the absorption of digested fats from the small intestine) is a closed circuit that parallels the circulatory vessels. -Lymphatic capillaries are found near systemic capillary beds, intertwine with blood capillaries, and extend into interstitial spaces. The walls are thin to allow the fluid (called lymph) to enter the small vessels. -Lymphatic vessels are more similar to veins than to arteries. They are thinner walled than veins and contain valves at intervals to help the fluid not back up. -The larger vessels merge at specialized organs called lymph nodes and merge further to form larger lymphatic trunks, which are responsible for draining the lymph. They are named for where they are in the body. Thoracic duct: larger and longer collecting duct; receives lymph from lower limbs, abdominal region, left arm, left side of the head, thorax and neck; empties into the left subclavian vein. Right lymphatic duct: receives lymph from right side of the head and neck, right arm, and right thorax; empties into the right subclavian vein. -Lymph then enters the venous system and joins the plasma portion of the blood. 2) What happens when a stinging insect injects venom into a break of the skin?

Tissue Fluid and Lymph: -Lymph is fluid from all tissues, so it depends on what tissue it originated from how lymph was formed. -Tissue fluid formed from blood plasma, composed of water and any dissolved substances that leave capillaries. It has the same general composition as blood plasma but is missing the plasma proteins. -Any tissue fluid that flows out of the capillaries increases the pressure in the interstitial fluid and encourages the flow of lymph into the lymphatic vessels. Unfortunately this means that lymph transports ALL bodies through lymph nodes. This includes any and all small proteins that leach out of the capillaries as well as bacteria, viruses, and foreign bodies. Lymph Movement: -Hyrdostatic pressure of tissue fluid forces the lymph into the lymphatic capillaries, but lymph movement is also largely affected by muscle contraction. Pressure is low, so the smooth muscles along the walls of larger lymph vessels as well as the pressure change during breathing help raise the pressure. -During inhalation, the thoracic cavity is in a low pressure state, but the contraction of the diaphragm increases the pressure, which both help force the lymph into the vessels from the interstitial spaces and tissue. -This continuous movement into the lymph vessels stabilizes the fluid volume in the capillaries. -Removing any lymph (e.g. surgery) causes an imbalance in lymph called edema. Without the right amount of fluid in the vessels, lymph can accumulate and sit. Lymph Nodes: -Lymph nodes are basically lymph glands, and they contain lymphocytes and macrophages that both fight infections.

-The nodes are roughly bean shaped with blood vessels and nerves joining each node at an indented section, called the hilum or the hilus. -The lymph vessels connect separately but they all leave from the hilum. -A lymph node is enclosed by a capsule of connective tissue and subdivides the lymph into compartments that contain lymphocytes and macrophages. These lymph nodules masses are the structural units of the lymph node. -The spaces inside the node are called lymph sinuses and provide a complex network of chambers that lymph circulates through. Macrophages are most heavily concentrated in the sinuses. -Lymph nodes occur in groups along the paths of the major lymphatic vessels but ate absent in the central nervous system.

-Lymph nodes have two main functions: filtering particles from lymph before returning the fluid to the bloodstream and immunity by the lymphocytes and macrophages. Lymphocytes attack invaders and bring them to the nodes, macrophages eat them.

Thymus and Spleen:

-The thymus is located in between the lungs, anterior to the aorta, and is a bilobed structure surrounded by connective tissue. -It tends to shrink during growth, especially after puberty. -The connective tissue extends into the thymus, subdivided it into lobules which contain lymphocytes. Most are inactive, but some mature into T cells. T cells leave the thymus and provide immunity for the body.

-The spleen is the largest lymphatic organ and is located in the abdominal cavity, inferior to the diaphragm and lateral and posterior to the upper curve of the stomach. -It is also divided into lobules like the thymus, but instead of lymph fluid the spleen contains blood. -Two types of tissue: White pulp: distributed throughout spleen in small collections; contains many lymphocytes. Red pulp: fills the remaining space of the spleen; surrounds the venous sinuses; contains red blood cells, lymphocytes and macrophages.

-The walls of the capillaries in the spleen are very thin so red blood cells can squeeze through them to enter the venous sinuses. Older red blood cells tend to rupture during this passage, and the macrophages phagocitize the debris, along with any bacteria or foreign bodies that come through the spleen. 3) If the thymus filters lymph, what does the spleen filter?

Defense Innate vs. Adaptive: -Pathogen: disease-causing agent; bacteria, virus, fungi, protozoans. -Two main ways to protect the body against foreign bodies:

Innate (nonspecific) defense: a mechanism that provides general protection; species resistance, mechanical and chemical barriers, fever, inflammation, phagocytosis; rapid response. Adaptive (specific) defense: also called immunity; precise targeting system; slow response time. -Innate: Species resistance: a particular species develops a set of disease unique to that organism. E.g. humans can get syphilis, but other animals like dogs cannot. 4) You know of some strains of diseases that are transferable between species. One of the most famous killed off a good 1/3 of the population in Europe. Another was causing panic three years ago. What are they?

Mechanical barriers: all mucous membranes and skin (I told you we love our mucous membranes) that line the passages of the digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive systems, along with the hair that traps foreign bodies. -Skin and the mucous membranes are called the first line of defense with the rest of the innate defense mechanisms forming the second line of defense. Chemical barriers: enzymes in body fluids that destroy foreign bodies. -Gastric juices; lysozyme in tears; salt accumulation on skin will kill some bacteria. -Interferons: hormone-like peptides secreted by lymphocytes and fibroblasts; bind to uninfected cells and stimulate the production of proteins that inhibit many different viruses (nonspecific). Fever: high body temperature stimulates the liver and spleen to hold iron from the blood, which is required by bacteria and fungi to maintain their growth and reproduction. -The Lyme disease bacterium DOES NOT required iron iron is switched out for manganese to evade the immune system. *cue the evil mustache twirling* 8

-Running a fever usually is your bodys way of dealing with an invasion, and trying to get rid of one with medicine might actually prolong the invasion. Inflammation: tissue response to injury or illness, results in swelling, pain, tenderness, and heat. -The redness comes from the blood vessels dialating, allowing more blood to flow to the area. -This reaction comes from walling off the site of the injury or illness so infection cannot spread. Increased circulation brings more phagocytes to take care of foreign bodies. -Infected cells release chemicals that attract leukocytes which also aid in attacking and phagocytosis. Pus is a byproduct of an accumulation of damaged tissue, bacterial cells, and the mass of leukocytes. -Blood clots are common at sites of inflammation, and the fibrin threads keep any foreign bodies of infected fluid from passing to the rest of the body. Phagocytosis: the process of eating and destroying any invading or harmful particles, usually occurs in the lymph fluid, or in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow if particles reach the blood.

-Neutrophils and monocytes are the bloods most active phagocytic cells.

-The mononuclear phagocytic system is made up of all the cells that break down invading bodies. -Adaptive: Also known as the third line of defense. Antigens: can be proteins, polysaccharides, glycoproteins, or glycolipids, but are located on the surface of cells. Antigens tell the lymphatic system which cells are self and which cells are not. -Hapten: small molecule that that combine with a larger molecule in order to stimulate the same immune response as the normal very large and complex antigens. Lyphocytes are first made in red marrow during fetal development, but they are undifferentiated. Half the cells reach the thymus and grow into T cells which then make up about 70-80% of all lymphocytes. The other 20-30% of lymphocytes remain in the red marrow until differentiation occurs and B cells are circulated into the blood. Cellular immune response: cell-to-cell contact where T cells attach to foreign antigen-bearing cells and interact directly with the bacteria, virus or fungi. -T cells also synthesis polypeptides called cytokines that enhance cellular responses to antigens. E.g. cytokines called colong-stimulating factors (CSFs) stimulate leukocyte production in red marrow, stimulate growth in B cells, and activate macrophages. 5) What is required before a T cell goes out to kill all foreign invaders?

-Antigen-presenting cells: any cell that carries processed fragments of antigens on their surface activates T cells when a macrophage dissolves a foreign body and some of the antigens move to the macrophages surface. -If a helper T cell recognizes the antigens on the macrophages it becomes activated and calls on a B cell to begin making the proper antibodies. -If a cell is displaying nonself antigens that cancerous cells do, a cytotoxic T cell can bind to the receptor and become activated 10

 proliferates and makes clones of itself and release a protein that destroys the membrane of the cells. These cytotoxic T cells make up most of the immune responses in the body, and are the targeted T cells by HIV. -Memory cells dont do any actual attacking, but they remain in the body with the memory of a specific antigen and can recognize it to stimulate a response if the antigen ever appears in the body again.

B cells attack a different way: 11

-When B cells are activated, they divide and form plasma cells, which then make antibodies, or immunoglobulins. -Blood carries the antibodies to the affected area, and the antibodies react differently depending on what antigens they detect to destroy the carriers called the humoral immune response. -Most B cells need a helper T cell to bind to the proper antigens. -When a helper T cell meets the right B cell, the helper T cell stimulates the B cell to proliferate, cloning itself, as well as attracting macrophages and leukocytes. 6) Are babies born with any kind of antibody (immunoglobulin)? If so, where did they get them?

7) Where do newborns get the signal to begin making the many different immunoglobulins they need?

Antibodies: -In general they bind to antigens and cause them to clump, or agglutinate. -Sometimes they cover the toxic surface of a foreign body and neutralize the effect. -Special antibodies reveal reactive sites on the membranes of foreign bodies and complements, specialized proteins, can more rapidly stimulate phagocytosis, attract macrophages, rupture membranes, or clump the antigen-bearing bodies. Primary immune response: activation of T and B cells after the first encounter with antigens. Secondary immune response: memory cells stick around after the immune system had begun to fight off invading cells and can quickly sound the battle cry if the same antigens show up again. 8) The cells in which immune response stay in the body longer?

Classification of adaptive immunity: 12

-Also known as acquired immunity. -Naturally acquired active immunity: person exposed to a pathogen develops a disease result of a primary immune response. -Artificially acquired active immunity: exposure to weak or dead pathogens that cannot cause full blown symptoms of the disease, but stimulate the immune system to recognize the antigens in the future done through vaccines. -Artificially acquired passive immunity: this comes from an injection of gamma globulins to produce a short-term immunity used to treat some poisons. -Naturally acquired passive immunity: a mother passes some of her antibodies to a newborn, which slowly disintegrate until the baby can make its own antibodies. Allergies: -An allergic reaction is similar to an immunity response except it can damage tissues. -Antigens that cause such a reaction are called allergens. -Classified by how long it takes to activate a response: delayedreaction comes from repeated exposure and takes up to 48 hours, while immediate-reaction comes from inherited antibodies sensing antigens (a few minutes). Tissue rejection can occur because the donator may not have compatible blood type, tissue type, or immunities to the receiver. Anyone getting a transplant might have to be on immunosuppressive drugs to lessen the chance of rejection. Autoimmunity is when the immune system fails to recognize self cells, forms autoantibodies to attack the antigens present, and destroys the bodys own tissues

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