Plasma Sources Sci. Technol. 9 (2000) 400–412.

Printed in the UK PII: S0963-0252(00)13449-8

Transmission line balanced inductive

plasma sources
G K Vinogradov
KEM Inc., 907-8, Shimoimasuwa, Shirane-cho, Nakakomagun, Yamanashi 400-0212, Japan
E-mail: 100510.3707@compuserve.com

Received 18 October 1999, in final form 29 February 2000

Abstract. A new class of transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources having
discrete inductive zones is reviewed. The problems of undesirable capacitive currents,
azimuthal non-uniformity and the energy efficiency of inductive plasma sources are
considered and basically solved. The main principles of operation, discharge performance
and the most interesting experimental observations are discussed.

1. Introduction 2. Inductive plasma sources

The implementation of inductive plasma sources has
spread widely in the last decade as high-density plasma
etching/deposition tools. It was stimulated by the captivating
idea of ‘pure inductive plasma’. However, from the
early times of J J Thomson (1856–1940) it was known
that inductive discharges generate substantial capacitive
currents from an inductor (coil) to the plasma. Inevitably,
capacitive currents must be sunk by a grounded electrode
or metal chamber. These currents impair the overall
performance of inductive plasma sources, producing wall
sputtering, discharge non-uniformities and arcing. Inductive
RF discharges start from the capacitive breakdown, which
generates harmful capacitive currents outside the plasma
source. Azimuthal discharge non-uniformities appear with
large inductive plasma sources, when the lengths of the
inductor winding increases up to the values comparable
to the wavelength of the excitation RF frequency [1–3].
Therefore, conventional inductive plasma sources have a
limited applicability as high-power, large-volume plasma
sources.
There have been different attempts undertaken in order
to suppress capacitive and transmission line problems by
various particular measures; however, they have not resulted
in any general solution. An opposite approach to these
unresolved issues is to not suppress the wave properties of
transmission lines but to use them to remove the problems.
Thus, a new class of plasma sources has been proposed:
transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources [4, 5].
The problems of undesirable capacitive currents, azimuthal
non-uniformity and energy efficiency have been basically
solved. Moreover, the new plasma sources show unique
robustness, flexibility and other valuable features, which are
rather unexpected and extraordinary. This paper is dedicated
to briefly overviewing the basic principles of the new plasma
generators, which have already been successfully taken up
by industry.
Since the mechanisms of gas discharge generation are not
self-evident but rather speculative, they do not provide a
simple basis for comparison of plasma sources. A technical
definition of inductive plasma sources using tangible terms
would be most convenient for our considerations. Therefore,
the following definition will be used:
The inductive plasma source (IPS) is a gas discharge
source having an inductor (inductive power applicator)
generating alternative magnetic fields in the discharge
volume.
This definition is broad and does not refer to any
particular mechanism of discharge ignition or self-support.
2.1. Capacitive problems
Capacitive currents generated in an IPS are usually
undesirable except for the initial gas breakdown. Playing a
twofold role in the discharge physics, the capacitive currents
are necessary for discharge igniton, but harmful as they
generate capacitive problems. All known IPSs, short helical
inductors, one-turn coils, helicon antennas and conventional
helical resonators (HR), are unbalanced capacitively. That
is, their capacitive equivalent structure is similar to the
asymmetric capacitive discharges with a large-area grounded
electrode (chamber) and a small RF electrode represented
by the inductor itself, as shown in figure 1. The capacitive
currents entering the plasma from the inductor generate
capacitive sheaths in the processing chamber that is on the
wafer.
Probe diagnostics of such systems frequently show low
plasma potentials in the chamber. It is usually supposed that
the discharge operates in ‘pure inductive’ mode. However,
the capacitive discharges with highly asymmetric electrodes,
i.e. small RF/large ground, also show very low plasma
potential [6]. The main voltage drop or a self-biased sheath

0963-0252/00/030400+13$30.00 © 2000 IOP Publishing Ltd


Figure 1. Inductive plasma source and its capacitive equivalents.
appears at the small-area electrode that is at the high-voltage
portion of the inductor. The RF voltage from the generator
is divided in proportion to the capacitive impedances of
the inductor–plasma gap and discharge capacitive sheaths.
Since the chamber capacitance is typically the largest, the
RF fluctuation of the plasma potential here is minimal. The
narrow entrance into the chamber provides the most powerful
plasma–ground sheath since it is in the closest vicinity of the
active discharge area.
The discharge power increases by increasing the inductor
current and, hence, voltage. Consequently, the capacitive
current from the inductors also increases. It is difficult to
suggest a priori to what extent the increase of capacitive
current is threatening for a particular process, since IPSs
have different geometries. Therefore, we discuss here some
widely spread IPSs.
2.1.1. Single-turn inductor. A single-turn loop is the
simplest inductor having the RF voltage distribution shown
in figure 2. A high-voltage end of the loop generates
the highest capacitive current and, hence, the strongest
plasma sheaths. Even this is not so pronounced in very
low-pressure discharges, but it does generate an azimuthal
non-uniformity and the discharge vessel suffers from wall
sputtering. This non-uniformity can be visualized at elevated
pressures (
1 Torr).
The single-turn inductor has minimum inductance
among inductive applicators, and the lowest inductive
coupling efficiency. Therefore, this kind of inductor should
be considered as the weakest inductive applicator with the
highest capacitive non-uniformity
2.1.2. Short helical inductor. A short helical inductor is a
common type of inductive applicator widely used for melting
metals, welding, plasma torches and for low-pressure glow
discharges. A winding of the short inductor is substantially
shorter than a quarter wavelength (λ/4) corresponding to the
Transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources
Figure 2. RF voltage distribution along the single-turn loop.
excitation frequency, so it can be analysed without taking
wave phenomena into consideration.
Modern low-pressure discharges for microelectronics
need very large volumes. The winding length of inductors
is growing as it is scaled up by the increasing wafer size.
The inductor winding length is increasing, but the ratio (coil
length)/(diameter) is decreasing so that it is deviating far from
an elongated solenoid shape. An inductive (transformer)
coupling efficiency of the short inductor is proportional to the
number of turns N in a helix. That is, the coupling efficiency
of the short helical inductor is about N times higher that that
of a single turn, so it can efficiently work on much larger
inductive loads, producing higher density plasmas.
The helical coils generate high sheath voltages in
the plasma sources, but they show much better azimuthal
uniformity increasing with the number of turns in the helix.
The total capacitive current from a helical inductor to plasma
is, certainly, higher than that of the single turn.
2.1.3. Pancake inductor. A spiral or pancake inductor has
long been known in inductive heating, welding and therapy.
The attractiveness of this inductor for gas discharges can
be explained by the possibility to design plasma sources
geometrically similar to parallel-plate capacitive discharges,
while generating high-density inductive plasma at low
gas pressures [7]. The pancake applicators are made as
Archimedes spirals or a collection of concentric co-planar
rings of decreasing diameter. A flat spiral generates stronger
magnetic field at the axis in comparison with a single-turn
loop.
The flat inductor is usually separated from the discharge
volume by a dielectric window, usually quartz, which is
transparent for both magnetic and electric fields. This
window must be thick in order to withstand atmospheric
pressure. The larger the discharge diameter, the thicker is
the window. The capacitive currents from the coil generate a
strong capacitive electric sheath at the window, especially at
the high-voltage portion of the coil which is usually located
near the centre. This sheath is a cause of window sputtering.
A flat split grounded shield is usually inserted between the
inductor and window to limit the capacitive current to the
plasma.
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Potential RF electric fields from helical IPSs can also be

shielded [8–10]. However, this way is not free from serious
drawbacks, because the electrostatic shield (ES):
(1) dramatically suppresses discharge ignition;
(2) increases the external size or decreases the useful internal
discharge volume; and
(3) impairs the inductive coupling by picking up some
portion of inductive current.
Figure 3. RF current I (dashed line) and voltage V (full line)
Consequently, the ES should be considered as a useful amplitude distributions on helical inductors: (a) ‘short’ inductor;
and practical but palliative remedy in treating the capacitive (b) quarter-wave HR; (c) half-wave HR; (d) full-wave λ-HR;
(e) half-wave dipole-HR with open ends. Coil ends are connected
problems of IPSs. to the shield (grounded), open and/or RF fed [4].
There are several ways of decreasing the sheath voltage
at the grounded surfaces in a capacitive discharge: increase
there is no simple way to built efficient inductors longer than
RF frequency, decrease an area of a RF driving electrode or
λ/4 just by increasing the coil length.
balance the RF excitation in respect to ground. The balancing
Figure 3 shows voltage and current distributions along
of symmetric RF capacitive discharges has been shown to be
the transmission line resonators, each having different
worthwhile for Langmuir probe measurements [11, 12]. The
electric lengths and termination. The zero-voltage ends are
fundamental excitation frequency in the balanced discharge
the grounded ends. When the line length exceeds λ/4, the
substantially decreases down to a few per cent. Therefore,
current changes a phase, that is a direction, crossing zero.
the symmetric capacitively balanced discharge has the sheath
A conventional half-wave HR shown in figure 3(c)
power at the ground substantially decreased. The balanced
has two inductive zones with opposite currents, that is
RF feed is used in some industrial discharges for generating
opposite magnetic momenta. This physical feature has
radicals in a volume.
never been recognized in respect to the mechanisms of
discharge excitation in the HR plasma sources. It was
2.2. Transmission line problems commonly assumed that all helical resonators are similar
The problem of large (long) inductors affecting the discharge discharge devices and which differs only by size, geometry
and resonating frequencies.
uniformity was recognized only a few years ago [1–3]. The
The resonating helical lines of different electric lengths
coil current is not uniform along the long winding, because
and termination must generate drastically different gas
its length becomes comparable to a wavelength of the RF
discharges having previously unknown electromagnetic
power, and it is no longer possible to ignore wave phenomena.
structures. For instance, it is possible to use the wave
Further increase in wafer size needs larger coils and, hence,
structures in order to design electrically and/or magnetically
the problem is becoming a threat for conventional inductive
balanced resonator IPSs using correspondingly adjusted
plasma sources.
wave segments.
The concept of electrical transmission lines [13] is
used to describe long electrical structures carrying electrical
power. The uniform transmission lines cannot only be 3. Helical transmission line plasma sources with
straight wires, but also spirals. A transmission line with multiple inductive zones
a coaxial helical inner and cylindrical outer conductor is
a coaxial helical transmission line [14]. About half a We have the following definition:
century of history of these lines started with the microwave Transmission line inductive plasma sources are those
devices called travelling wave lamps and klystrons. Many having large self-resonating inductors, which can be defined
theoretical and experimental problems have been solved in as transmission lines.
order to implement these devices into the technology of
microwave radars [15–19]; therefore, many of them are The electromagnetic structure of helical transmission
readily applicable. lines was described about 50 years ago [15–19], when a
Large inductor coils inevitably show the transmission considerable study was given to microwave electronics of
line effect: standing waves [1, 2]. One problem is that radar applications. A model, enlarged ten times, of the
the standing wave has to be taken into account in order actual helix was constructed and the field distribution, excited
to optimize the inductor geometry for compensating an by oscillations in the frequency interval between 375 and
azimuthal current distribution. Another problem, which 120 MHz, was investigated by means of a miniature sliding
has yet to be taken into consideration, is that enlarging and rotating probe [19]. The axial field at a distance r from
the axis was found to agree quite well with an expression on
the inductive coil beyond λ/4 does not increase the total
the assumption that the field is quasi-static:
magnetic momentum of the inductor, but rather decreases
it by generating an opposite portion of the magnetic field I0 (2πr/λh )
due to the phase change along the line. Therefore, any f (z, r) = f (z, r0 ) sin(2π z/λh )
I0 (2πr0 /λh )
further enlargement brings about wave phenomena, which
drastically change the physical nature of the inductor and, where z is the distance parallel to the axis, r0 is the mean
hence, its interaction with the discharge. In other words, radius of helix, I0 (x) is the modified Bessel function of zero

402

Figure 4. Lines of equal axial field strength approximately in a plane through the axis of a helix [19].
order and λh is not a free space λ but the reduced wavelength
in the helical transmission line.
Figure 4 shows the experimental field pattern of the axial
field with strong longitudinal variations, when the parameter
2π r0 /λh = 3.3 for λ = 82 cm and λh = 6.6 cm. This field
pattern is very far from a solenoid distribution. A resonating
part of the helical transmission line, which has a length
equal to any integer multiple of λ/4, should be considered
as a longitudinally non-uniform inductive applicator. The
longitudinal periodic structure is the key to controlling the
inductor–plasma coupling and the mechanisms of discharge
ignition and power distribution.
3.1. Transmission line capacitive balancing of inductive
plasma sources
A resonating section of the lossless transmission line has
standing waves of voltage and current as shown in figure 5,
where positive and negative amplitudes show phase and
anti-phase half-waves. Each phase voltage portion can
have an anti-phase counterpart. The total transmission line
segment is capacitively balanced or unbalanced in respect
to ground, depending on the number of phase and anti-
phase λ/4 portions comprising the segment. The method of
capacitive balancing of the transmission line resonators can
be designated as lambda balancing. That is, the capacitive
balance can be adjusted by adjusting the wavelength to the
electric length of the resonator or its resonant frequency.
Correspondingly, a minimum-length capacitively balanced
resonator is a λ/2 open-ended segment or a half-wave dipole.
A minimum-length close-end capacitively balanced section is
a full-wave or λ-resonator (λ-R) [20]. The resonators having
one end open and another closed are unbalanced.
Higher order resonances satisfy the capacitive balance
condition for the dipole sections having an electrical length
of nλ/2, where n = 1, 2, . . . . This class of resonators
has a zero-potential central point of symmetry for the odd
and maximum voltage central point for the even harmonics.
These devices do not belong to the conventional helical
resonators, which have both short or one open end. They
can be designated as a particular class of dipole-resonators.
The balanced resonators with both ends grounded, the
λ-Rs, have an electric length of nλ. These resonators all
have a zero-voltage centre of symmetry and are balanced
totally, that is not only capacitively but also magnetically:
Transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources
Figure 5. Voltage (full curve) and current (dotted curve) standing
wave amplitude distributions in the resonating section of a long
transmission line: capacitively balanced segments corresponding
to capacitively balanced inductive plasma sources are indicated.
the total magnetic momentum is to be about zero. The λ-Rs,
in an electrical sense, are a particular case of conventional
short-ended λ/2-resonators having an even number of λ/2
segments.
The main role of the magnetic portions of the
transmission line inductive sources is generating the circular
electric fields in the discharge volume. It is now well
understood that there are multiple anti-phase inductive zones
in the helical transmission lines. The conventional half-
wave HR has two separate inductive zones with opposite
magnetic momenta. This feature of helical resonators, which
is crucially important for the discharge physics, has only just
been appreciated [4, 5].
3.2. Discrete inductive zones in transmission line
inductive plasma sources
The number of inductive zones in a transmission line source
is equal to the number of mono-phase current segments or
current maxima. That is, for the quarter-wave HR (one open
end) having electric length of ( 41 +n/2)λ, where n = 0, 1, . . . ,
the number of inductive zones is equal to (n + 1). Only the
closed-ended inductive zone is a λ/4 zone, another n zones
are of λ/2 type.
The short-ended inductors having electric length equal
to ( 21 + n/2)λ, where n = 0, 1, 2, . . . , have the number of
inductive zones equal to (n + 2). The two end zones of these
inductors are of λ/4 type; the inside zones are all λ/2 type.
Any change of the electrical length by a λ/4 quantum
affects the basic field structure. It changes, in turn, the
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G K Vinogradov

inductor–plasma interaction because of both an inductive

and a capacitive transformation of the plasma source and,
what is also important, the three-dimensional self-consistent
conductive structure of the discharge plasma. The discharge
transformations change the electrical nature of the resonator
load and can show second-order phase transitions and
discharge self-organization at elevated gas pressures.
The dipole-resonators have the number of inductive
zones equal to the number of λ/2 segments in the resonator.
The dipole-resonators generate only λ/2 inductive zones.
Every even mode resonance is also magnetically balanced.
The λ-Rs with an electrical length of nλ have (n+2) inductive
zones, where two of them are always λ/2 type. Figure 6. A schematic cross sectional view of the experimental
Conventional quarter and half wavelength HR sources λ-R plasma source.
are particular examples of transmission line plasma sources
with one and two λ/4 inductive zones, respectively. Both
resonators are capacitively unbalanced. Being high-
Q (quality factor) resonators, they generate very high
voltages on the coils and, hence, generate the strongest
capacitive inductor–plasma–ground currents among all
helical inductors.
Helicon inductors, usually called antennas, are
sometimes very large. Commonly used antennas are half-
wavelength long wires shaped in several empirical ways.
Antennas longer than λ/2 have never been tried, because
optimization of antenna design has been carried out only
by trial and error [21]. The λ/2 wires of helicons, being
capacitively unbalanced, generate high-voltage capacitive
sheaths and capacitive inductor–plasma–ground currents.
This is, probably, the cause of high-energy electrons and
ions found in helicon discharges but not the cause of ‘wave
surfing’. The possibility of the balanced transformer RF
feed for a helicon discharge has been mentioned [22].
This reduces the maximum antenna–plasma voltage by a
factor of two, thus also reducing the undesired capacitive
current coupled to plasma by a factor of two [22]. The
transmission line properties of large helicon antennas are
not well understood. They can be dramatically improved Figure 7. Electrical equivalent schema of the λ-R inductive
by utilizing the described principles of transmission line plasma source.
balance.
a λ/2 coil keeping the same direction of the distributed
3.3. Two basic capacitively balanced transmission line electric current. This coil thus produces twice as large an
plasma sources induction field in comparison with the side quarter-wave
coils.
From a practical point of view, inductive plasma sources Two side λ/4 coils are both anti-phase in respect to the
should not have too large coils. That is, the most promising central λ/2 portion. The magnetic fields generated by the
realizations are the shortest capacitively balanced inductors, central coil and every side coil are repulsive. They produce
which are the half-wave open-ended Dipole-resonator and inductive electric fields and circular discharge currents in
the short-ended full-wave λ-R plasma sources. The full-wave opposite directions. Consequently, the inductive plasma
dipole-resonator has about the same size inductor as the λ- toroids produced by these currents can never collapse into
R, however, the grounded ends of the λ-R are convenient in one. That is, the plasma toroids are strictly localized in
practice. their corresponding inductive zones, and their positions do
not depend on the discharge parameters but are determined
3.3.1. λ-R inductive plasma source. The λ-R plasma solely by the standing wave structure.
source is schematically shown in figure 6 [5]. Figure 7 The capacitive structure is more or less self-explanatory.
shows the equivalent schemas of the λ-R discharge [24]. The Part of the push–pull balance electric field is shunted outside
inductor is represented as four similar λ/4 coils connected the discharge tube due to the high serial inter-turn capacitance
in series fed from two equivalent push–pull RF generators. Cs . Capacitive currents from the inductor flow to the
Three inductive excitation zones are located at the current discharge through a wide (about 40 mm) inductor–wall air
maxima. Two central λ/4 coils are in-phase, thus comprising gap denoted as Ci−w . The plasma–wall sheath is beyond

404

Figure 8. A comparison of the λ-R and conventional
quarter-wave HR inductive plasma sources.
the dotted line indicating the tube wall. The sheath is thin
and, hence, of low impedance because of high-density plasma
generated in the inductive zones. The bulk plasma strongly
shunts the push–pull capacitive currents thus decreasing RF
plasma potential fluctuations in the discharge centre up to a
few volts [23–25] at 2 kW discharge power.
The bulk plasma does not spread beyond the excitation
coil under the elevated pressure of about 1 Torr. At
low pressures, the plasma diffuse downstream the plasma.
However, even under these conditions the parasitic capacitive
sheath near the ground surface is invisible up to a few
kilowatts of the discharge power.
It would be useful to compare the λ-R source, comprising
of four equal λ/4 coils, versus the conventional quarter-wave
HR source under the same discharge conditions and similar
load configurations. Suppose the two plasma sources in
figure 8 have similar coil geometry.
Let us consider a cylindrical discharge load as a one-turn
closed resistive loop. In the λ-R source, this load is heated
by circulating currents generated by the four λ/4 coils. We
assume these coils produce equal additive inductive powers
in the discharge, which is consistent with our experimental
observations. The quarter-wave HR, in its turn, must generate
the same total power from a single λ/4 coil. Both voltage and
current on that coil must be doubled in order to transmit that
power. In other words, the high voltage on the λ-R source
coil must be at least twice as low provided the same inductive
power is generated in the discharge.
The capacitive currents of the λ-R source balances
reactively within the source volume and are also partly
absorbed in the discharge. This portion of the total discharge
power does not go outside the plasma source. In contrast,
the capacitive current of the quarter-wave HR source flows
from the bulk plasma into the ground capacitive sheath,
thus delivering an essential portion of the capacitive power
outside the source, that is on the chamber wall and processing
wafers. These are well known capacitive problems: wall
sputtering contamination and wafer damage. Very high
ground capacitive currents flow from a half-wave HR plasma
source even its RF voltage is lower than that of a quarter-
wave HR source. The most severe sputtering occurs on the
circumferential metal surface of the bottom flange of the
plasma source.
In summary, the λ-R not only keeps the capacitive
currents, and hence their power, inside the plasma source,
but also generates much lower capacitive current density in
the discharge wall sheaths in comparison with conventional
quarter- and half-wave HR discharges. These features
Transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources
Figure 9. Capacitive equivalent schema of the γ -dipole plasma
source.
partially explain why the transmission line capacitively
balanced plasma sources demonstrate incredibly high process
performance and stability.
3.3.2. γ -dipole plasma source. A γ -dipole IPS is a
resonating half-wavelength open-ended coil with a central
unbalanced RF feeder. This structure can be thought of
as created from a well known half-wave dipole vibrator
converted into a helix. The central feed from an unbalanced,
i.e. coaxial, cable is known as a gamma-match. This means
that both RF and ground ends of the coaxial cable are
connected at about the centre of the dipole. This is the origin
of the term γ -dipole plasma source.
The equivalent scheme of the γ -dipole discharge can
be shown as just a central half-wave segment of the
λ-R equivalent schema, as shown in figure 9 denoting
corresponding capacitors as capacitive impedances: Zs ,
inductor serial; Zi−w , inductor–wall; Zsh , sheath. The main
difference from the λ-R discharge is that the bulk plasma
has only the central inductive zone. All the discharge power,
inductive and capacitive, is concentrated in a single compact
area generating two to five times denser plasmas than the
λ-R discharge, which has a much longer discharge volume.
Certainly, the push–pull capacitive currents are essentially
shorter in the centre plasma and balanced. It is theorized
that the high-conductivity inductive plasma toroid provides
an electrostatic self-shielding. Any capacitive problems
in the aluminium downstream chamber could not be even
intentionally generated in the range of RF power up to
5000 W, with gas pressure between 1 and 50 000 mTorr, for Ar
or O2 discharges: no arcs, no sparks and no visible capacitive
sheath.
Taking into account about 100% energy efficiency of
this source as a resonator (measured unloaded Q ≈ 3200
at 27 MHz), we conclude that it can be classified as a super
inductive plasma source. Indeed, there are no more inductive
plasma sources which could theoretically or practically
provide a higher or even close power efficiency in generating
a bulk plasma.
3.3.3. RF matching. Helical transmission line plasma
sources, including conventional HR, can be directly matched
to a 50  coaxial cable [26–29]. Since the resonator itself
does not consume any RF power, the plasma is the only active
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G K Vinogradov
load. Therefore, an energy efficiency of these IPS is virtually
100% from a cable. The λ-R plasma sources used in the
commercial ‘λ-Strip’ equipment manufactured by KEM Inc
(formerly RAMCO, MC Electronics) typically is set up for
about 5–10 W reflected power from a 50  coaxial cable fed
by the maximum power (generator limitation) of 2, 2.7 or
5 kW at 27 MHz.
The author is aware of some unfortunate attempts to
build and evaluate the λ-R plasma sources using conventional
fixed frequency RF generators and matching boxes. It is
worth mentioning here that the resonator sources are not
similar to conventional inductive sources in respect to the
matching with fixed frequency generators. If the λ-R itself
does not match exactly the excitation frequency under the
plasma loaded conditions, that is it cannot be fed directly
from a coaxial cable, it will never operate in a λ-R discharge
mode with any matching devices. The external matching
elements do not change the electrical length and, hence, the
resonating frequency of the line; they can only compensate
an input impedance mis-match to some extent at the point of
connection (tap position). An apparent matching observed in
this case is just an indication that the matching box and the
plasma source together comprises a resonating system. It can
be very far from the resonator’s eigenfrequency. Therefore,
the resonators having a resonance frequency different from
that of the RF generator cannot be matched in principle.
Conventional inductive sources can use an external matching
network because their inductors themselves do not resonate
at the excitation frequency. They are only a part of the whole
resonating system, which includes an external matching box.
In a practical situation the RF frequency usually varies
in a range of about 1–2% in order to match a resonator IPS.
That is, the wavelength matches the coil length. The exact
tap position cannot be calculated because of the effect of
the discharge conditions. It is typically located at about
a 0.1–0.3 turn distance from the ground point of the coil
in our experiments. This distance can be easily found by
experimenting. It is shorter in the case of highly conductive
plasmas (Ar, N2 ), and longer for highly resistive media like
electronegative molecular plasmas (O2 , CF4 ).
3.3.4. Ionization and dissociation efficiency. There are
many opinions concerning the ionization and dissociation
efficiency of different plasmas: capacitive, inductive,
microwave, dc, etc. The fundamental problem of the
similarity of different plasmas and the overall efficiency of
the plasma sources are two problems of differing natures.
In other words, the specific plasma efficiency, which is
a fundamental concept, and the total discharge efficiency,
which is a technical concept, do not correspond to each
other. Many research works have been aimed at proving that
‘inductive plasmas’ show superior efficiency in comparison
with ‘capacitive’ or ‘microwave plasmas’ in respect to ‘RF
or dc plasma’. Some workers have tried to prove superior
ionization in a particular plasma source and others superior
dissociation for a similar source depending on the application
purpose. However, there are very few scientifically approved
methodologies and little experimental evidence [30, 31].
We assume a simple but rather solid basis to compare
different discharges: the total absorbed power in the bulk
406
plasma. It is well known that the electron density in a
bulk uniform plasma is roughly proportional to the specific
absorbed power. Both ionization and dissociation rates are
about proportional to the electron density provided the EEDF
is unchanging. Two plasma sources being fed from similar
RF generators can be reasonably compared by the portion of
the total power absorbed in the bulk plasma without regard
for the mechanisms of plasma generation.
The total losses of the RF power occur mainly in
three places: (1) a matching box, about 10–50% [32];
(2) capacitive losses outside the plasma source, that is in the
process chamber (considered as losses because undesirable),
about 10–30%; (3) capacitive sheaths inside the plasma
source, about 10–20% (for ion acceleration, i.e. for surface
bombardment). The third channel is not a completely lost
energy, because some part goes for the electron heating by the
sheaths. These estimations are to be considered as qualitative
ranges only, but are useful for overall comparisons of different
plasma sources.
The transmission line sources operate without a
matching box and do not produce capacitive plasmas outside
the source. Taking essentially lower voltages on the
capacitive sheaths inside the source into consideration, one
can obtain a correct idea about the energy efficiency. By and
large, a balanced transmission line plasma source achieves
a higher or much higher energy efficiency in comparison
with any other RF inductive source [24]. Consequently, such
plasma sources should demonstrate noticeably higher process
rates in comparison with other inductive sources with the
same RF power consumed from a RF generator. On the other
hand, the same performance can be achieved with smaller RF
generators.
4. Some experimental observations
The experimental set-up and some results on the probe and
optical emission diagnostics and visual observations have
been described in details elsewhere [4, 23–26]. Figure 6
shows the main configuration of the λ-R plasma source,
which was also used for generating half-wave HR, three-
half-wave HR and 2λ-R modes. The γ -dipole source was
used with a 235 mm diameter, 300 mm long quartz tube,
as shown in figure 10. It was fed from a coaxial cable at
about the centre point of the coil. The ground was connected
a few centimetres away from the fed point (more details
will be shown in figure 14). The same coil with one end
ground and another open was also used for quarter-wave
HR experiments. It should be mentioned, however, that the
resonance frequencies of helical resonators, which are short
segments of ideal long transmission lines, do not correspond
well to the integer multiples of the fundamental frequency.
This has been explained by the deviation of the magnetic field
configuration from the ideal infinite line. Two transmission
lines were used in order to compare six plasma sources, each
of which can also generate particular discharge modes. Some
tests were performed on the industrial 200 and 300 mm wafer
ashers.
The 0.005–2.25 kW RF power at 10–80 MHz frequency
was supplied to the resonators by using a 50  coaxial
cable directly from a wide-band tube amplifier IFI-410 with

Figure 10. A schematic cross section of the γ -dipole plasma
source.
Figure 11. Axial RF magnetic field in the λ-R plasma source.
a sign wave signal generator HP-8648A. Commercial RF
generators of 4.5 or 5 kW RF power (Kyosan and Adtec), at
27 MHz, were used in some experiments. RF signals from the
discharges were monitored by a digital 2 GS/s oscilloscope
TEK360P
4.1. Capacitively balanced plasma sources
4.1.1. λ-resonator. Visual observations of the
transmission line discharges impress by direct visualizations
of their electromagnetic structure. Both capacitive and
inductive current channels are well seen in large discharge
volumes.
Figure 11 shows the experimentally measured resonance
axial RF magnetic field under the plasma-unloaded condition
in the standard 235 mm discharge tube of the λ-R source
[33]. It is seen that the magnetic field is essentially stronger
near the wall. There are three distinct inductive zones:
two λ/4 and one central λ/2. One can see an additional
weak zone in the bottom aluminium flange. This field is
generated by a return current induced by the bottom part
of the inductor in the nearest conductive flange. The field
structure corresponds to the theoretical models. The RF
fields are substantially shielded inside the conductive bulk
plasma, when a gas discharge is ignited. The axial magnetic
fields generate corresponding circular electric fields of the
localized inductive discharges. The location of the inductive
zones is therefore strictly fixed and does not depend on the
discharge parameters. Magnetic field zeros correspond to the
high-voltage maxima on the helix.
Interestingly, the configuration of the RF electric fields
in the λ-R is similar to the picture indicating helicon waves
[21]. Indeed, looking at figure 12, showing azimuthal and
radial field patterns along the axis, we assume this similarity.
This is a standing wave field pattern of the λ-R.
Transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources
4.1.2. γ -dipole plasma source. The γ -dipole discharge,
having the simplest balanced electromagnetic structure,
dopes not demonstrate so many visual phenomena. The
vertical localized capacitive currents, similar to those
observed in the λ-R discharge [4, 5], can be easily generated
in argon gas under a pressure of 10–50 Torr. A very distinct
longitudinal split of the luminous channel of the inductive
plasma toroid can be observed with the power increase.
A further increase makes the plasma toroid flatten to a
50–60 mm wide belt shape. It is also possible to generate a
stable floating and swinging plasma toroid, whose diameter
is noticeably, about 30%, smaller than the discharge tube.
We have never observed such wonderful creations in other
discharges. This observation is, probably, explained by a
wider profile of the magnetic field lines generated by the
dipole coil in comparison with the inside λ/2 segment of
longer inductors compressed by the opposite magnetic fields
of the adjacent coil segments.
In the lambda coil, for example, the central magnetic
field is removed to a great extent from the axis to the wall.
Therefore, the central plasma toroid in the λ-R coil cannot
decrease its perimeter without loosing a large portion of the
magnetic flux necessary to support the inductive currents.
In the γ -dipole plasma source, the toroid can shrink its
diameter because the lost portion of magnetic flux is almost
compensated by the lost length of the current channel.
4.2. Capacitively unbalanced plasma sources
The unbalanced quarter-, half-, and three-half-wave HR
plasma sources were tested under a wide range of conditions.
They generate well the visible capacitive discharges onto
the ground surface. Such visualization under the elevated
pressure shows the discharge currents and the spatial
distribution of the RF power. It is clearly seen that the
capacitive power comprises an essential portion of the total
discharge power.
The quarter- and half-wave HR discharges generate one
and two inductive toroids, respectively. They are located at
the coil ends in correspondence with the RF current standing
wave pattern.
In the pressures range of about 0.6–0.8 Torr the
capacitive currents and the chaotic arcing in the downstream
metal chamber are typical. The aluminium flange supporting
the resonator suffers from sputtering. This flange probably
sinks the main portion of the capacitive current from the
source which is very close to the highly conductive area.
The arcs at 2–3 kW RF power are so strong that they produce
aluminium oxide particles from the locally melted spots on
the aluminium surface.
The three-half-wave HR discharge is interesting for
phenomenal inductive–capacitive interactions. Vertical
saddle-type inductive plasma toroids, shown in figure 13,
can be observed in the three-half-wave HR discharge much
easier than in the λ-R discharge. The mechanism of these
amazing discharge creations is explained as follows. A
dense magnetic flux between the neighbour coil segments
with opposite currents crosses the helix and discharge wall.
Consequently, part of this flux can be captured by a closed
conductive path like a plasma toroid located on the wall.
407
G K Vinogradov
Figure 12. Standing wave field patterns in the λ-R plasma source.
Figure 13. An example of the standing wave plasma structure:
evolution of saddle-type inductive toroids.
The three-half-wave HR discharge generates four
inductive toroids: two full-wave and two quarter-wave. It is
worth mentioning that this discharge has smaller capacitive
problems than the conventional λ/2 or λ/4 HR discharges.
The three-half-wave HR is only partially unbalanced for
about 30%, because it has totally balanced λ-segment.
4.3. Capacitive currents from inductive resonator
plasma sources
It was found that the plasma potential fluctuations of the λ-R
discharge are rich with very high-frequency harmonics of
the excitation frequency [23]. The λ-R discharge does not
usually generate the second harmonic the strongest, as in the
case of a balanced capacitive discharge, but rather the third,
or sometimes, even the fifth. This phenomenon could be
expected from the analysis of the electric equivalent scheme
of the transmission line discharges that have more than two
rectifying capacitive sheaths which are not symmetric with
respect to the ground.
We have measured the RF fluctuations of the
plasma potential, using the dc insulated capacitive probe
[25], and capacitive plasma–ground currents [33] for
several transmission line discharges of similar geometrical
configurations and discharge parameters in order to assure
similar conditions. The RF potential of an electrically
408
Figure 14. Experimental arrangement for RF capacitive current
measurements; γ -dipole plasma source.
floating wafer separated by a capacitive gap from the ground
platen was also examined. Some preliminary results will be
shown below.
The experimental set-up for capacitive current measure-
ments is shown in figure 14. The current was monitored
using a current monitor PearsonTM model 5895 operable in
a frequency range up to 70 MHz within about ±10% unifor-
mity. The transmission characteristics of this monitor were
calibrated using a network analyser HP-8712C up to about
250 MHz, in order to estimate a very high frequency range.
The transformer shows up to a ten-decibel increase in trans-
mission at higher frequencies following a deep valley at about
70–90 MHz.
4.3.1. RF capacitive inductor–ground current. Fig-
ures 15 and 16 show, as a function of absorbed power, the total
rms capacitive current inductor–ground through the bottom
of the plasma source for three discharges: half-wave HR, λ-R
and γ -dipole. This capacitive current represents the major
part of the total capacitive current. The power deposited in
the process chamber by the capacitive currents is about two
orders of magnitude smaller in the balanced plasma source in
comparison with the unbalanced source. Figure 16 shows a
qualitatively similar picture for a lower pressure discharge in
argon. The capacitive current in the λ-R discharge does not
grow with the power increase. These experiments support
previous suggestions about the nature of capacitive compen-
sation in transmission line discharges.
Returning to figures 15 and 16, we should recall that the
comparisons were made at different excitation frequencies.
Both λ-R and γ -dipole discharges were operating at 27 MHz,
while the half-wave HR was at about 17 MHz. Since the
voltage drop on the capacitive sheaths should be higher at
the lower frequency, this increases the ratio of the power

Figure 15. RF capacitive currents in oxygen gas discharges for
three transmission line plasma sources: half-wave HR, γ -dipole,
λ-R.
Figure 16. RF capacitive currents in argon gas discharges for
half-wave HR and λ-R.
deposited on the capacitive sheaths in different plasma
sources.
4.3.2. Harmonic composition of capacitive currents.
The ground capacitive currents of some inductive plasma
sources were measured [34]. The harmonic composition
of the RF fluctuations of the plasma potential has not
been studied in capacitive discharges [12], although it was
analysed in the feed RF power of inductive sources [35].
The harmonic composition demonstrates a very complicated
nature, which has yet to be explored. This is likely, since
there were no ground electrodes inserted in the symmetric
capacitive discharges [11, 12] as our large grounded chamber
bringing about longitudinal asimmetry.
Figures 17 and 18 show typical RF signals for λ-R
and γ -dipole discharges picked-up by an oscilloscope. The
fundamental harmonic always dominates in unbalanced
discharges. The balanced λ-R and γ -dipole discharges
demonstrate FFT spectra, where the third or sometimes even
the fifth, but not the second, harmonic is the highest. This
is not expected to be from an analogy with the symmetric
capacitive discharge.
These resonator discharges can even redistribute the
capacitive power into the tenth (!) frequency harmonic as
shown in figure 18. Remarkably, in this particular case the
highest tenth harmonic is very clear in the inductor itself.
Transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources
Figure 17. Oscillograms of the (a) voltage on the resonator,
(b) total ground capacitive current and (c) FFT spectrum of the
capacitive current in the λ-R; O2 , 0.1 Torr, 2 kW RF power
absorbed in the discharge. Note, the time scale is 50 ns.
Figure 18. Very high frequency harmonics appear not only in the
plasma but in the resonator itself: (a) voltage on the inductor;
(b) the total ground capacitive current of the γ -dipole discharge;
(c) FFT spectrum of the capacitive current. Note, the time scale is
25 ns.
This probably means that this high harmonic coincides with
one of the high resonating modes. Therefore, it is amplified
in the resonator itself.
The high-frequency harmonics of the capacitive current
or plasma potential fluctuations do not coincide with
the eigenfrequencies of the inductors. The discharge
capacitive harmonics are just integer multiples of the
fundamental frequency, which are generated solely, to a
first approximation, by the rectifying capacitive sheaths.
The resonating modes of the inductors depend not only on
the mode number (that integer multiple) but on the spatial
configuration of the electromagnetic fields of any particular
mode. The shorter the inductor, the stronger is the deviation
of the eigenfrequencies from that determined by the integer
multiple. This is the reason why the resonating modes do not
coincide with the strictly fixed discharge harmonics generated
on the equivalent plasma sheath diodes.
In the case of frequency coincidence between a high
fundamental integer multiple and a high self-resonating
mode, the resonator redistributes power into this mode.
409
G K Vinogradov
Wave phenomena of this sort have not yet been observed.
The redistribution of power is especially noticeable in very
low gas pressure discharges at 1 mTorr, not only in the
balanced but also in the unbalanced resonators. However, we
never observed this phenomenon at about 1 Torr and higher
pressures because of a high resistivity of the bulk plasma
damping high-order resonances. This study is currently in
progress.
4.4. Practical realizations of γ -dipole and λ-R plasma
sources
Several capacitively balanced plasma sources were built and
tested in the course of research and development. Plasma
sources for 200 and 300 mm wafer processing were examined
in a wide range of discharge conditions. The smallest source
has a 180 mm diameter discharge tube, the largest one a
330 mm diameter. Table 1 is composed in order to compare
the two basic balanced plasma sources.
The discharge power was limited to 5 kW by the available
27 MHz generator. We have tested the smallest plasma source
for the 5 kW power absorbed in the discharge (reflection
below 5–10 W). This gives a scaling idea for the maximum
power of larger sources. Plasma diagnostics have been
carried out on the 235 mm λ-R plasma source [23, 25]. Other
sources were not tested systematically. All the sources were
examined in real scale (200 and 300 mm wafers) industrial
equipment. This also gave a reliable basis for comparison
and justified our estimations by the processing results.
The very low level of the discharge power equal to about
5–20 W given in the input power range is real and well
measured with a systematic error of 20%. The balanced
resonators allow one to sustain a very low power stable
bulk capacitive discharge in the regime of a high impedance
current generator. From another side, the highest pressure
of the range is realized in inductive or multiple contracted
capacitive discharges depending on the gas.
A variety of industrial applications, high radical and/or
high ion flux, can employ transmission line balanced
discharges. It is not difficult with these sources to achieve
controllable convex, flat or concave ion or radical density
profiles. At present, these plasma sources are used in super-
fast damage-free automatic photoresist ashers/etchers. As an
example, the photoresist ashing rate in a 100% O2 discharge
on the 300 mm wafer is up to 10 µm min−1 at 250 ◦ C
within about ±3% typical uniformity using the λ-R plasma
source, so that the total throughput is limited solely by the
wafer transfer system. The γ -dipole source overcomes this
performance for about 50–60% with the same RF generator.
Other damage-free isotropic processes are also realized:
super-fast isotropic etching of silicon (12–16 µm min−1
at 100 ◦ C); light etch of p-Si/BPSG (25–50 nm min−1 ,
uniformity ±2%); highly selective low-k materials ashing,
back side nitride etching, etc.
5. Schematic comparison of inductive plasma
sources
There are many technical papers about inductive plasma
sources. It is, however, very difficult for the end user
410
to compare them and select the most suitable one for
particular needs, because there is no basis for comparison
but rather explanations of experimental or process data
and plasma heating mechanisms. Some authors use
the arguments concerning fundamental plasma parameters,
directly applying them to the discharges, which apparently
are much more complicated objects then the idealized
uniform plasmas. Similarly, some fundamental results
derived from the simplest ideal situations or particular
noble gas discharges, for example the EEDF, are directly
applied to interpret complicated chemistries with even more
complicated heterogeneous processes. Therefore, only
an overall discharge performance of different inductive
plasma sources is considered here, mainly from a practical
engineering point of view. They are considered as electric
means for delivering the input power from a RF generator
into the bulk plasma. This comparison is based on the
experimental facts and objective considerations as well as
the author’s personal experience.
Table 2 shows a schematic comparison and the total rank
of several real and hypothetical inductive plasma sources
applied to a reference 235 mm diameter cylinder discharge
tube mounted on the downstream metal processing chamber.
Some of these sources, including a short inductor, quarter-,
half- and three-half-wave HR, λ-R and γ -dipole have been
tested on the same discharge tube and chamber providing
direct evidence for a comparison.
The capacitive damage relates to the semiconductor
processing and is usually estimated using antenna structures
with MOS capacitors well known in microelectronics. The
ignition function is estimated as the minimum RF power
necessary to initiate the gas discharge at a 100 mTorr pressure
in argon. The power window means the whole range of a
stable discharge; it certainly does not overlap with the whole
pressure range. The same is true for the pressure window,
it does not cover the whole power range. The azimuthal
uniformity is estimated experimentally by electrostatic
probes and by a qualitative comparison of integral distributed
circular inductive currents and azimuthally distributed high
voltage in the inductors.
The size limit just means a qualitative estimation of the
possibility to enlarge the current plasma source (from the
reference 235 mm) or scale it down. This is the most uncertain
parameter and it is not included in the total rank. The specific
power is qualitatively estimated from the total power losses
outside the plasma source for matching, and inside mainly for
the capacitive sheaths. The discharges were compared on a
one-by-one basis inside one parameter column. The relative
error of the total rank should be considered within about two
points. The total rank here does not mean that the last two
transmission line balanced plasma sources are the best option
for any particular application. It does mean that the sum of
all marks for these sources is at a maximum.
6. Conclusion
I have covered in this paper only the most interesting,
in my opinion, aspects of the subject, which are not yet
fully understood. The transmission line plasma sources,
as a whole, represent a new class of gas discharge devices
 Transmission line balanced inductive plasma sources

Table 1. Two basic types of transmission line balanced plasma sources.

γ -dipole λ-Resonator
Inductive structure One toroid Three separate toroids
Plasma diameter (mm)a 180 235 200 235 280 330
Coil height (mm) 70 65 230 230 260 250
Coil diameter (mm) 240 330 260 330 340 400
Pressure range (mTorr)b 1–50 000
Excitation frequency (MHz) 27
Input power, experimental (kW)c 0.005–4.5
Max. power, estimated (kW) 10 20
Discharge volume (l)d 2 3 7 10 16 21
Max. specific power (W cm−3 ) 2.5 1.6 0.6 0.5 0.3 0.2
Electron density (1 × 1011 cm−3 ) 30 20 5 4 3 2
Plasma potential (V) 17–25
Applications STRIP,ETCH High ion density
STRIP, CVD High radical density
a
Discharge tube diameter.
b
Depends on gas.
c
Limited by available RF generator.
d
Inside the coil.

Table 2. Schematic comparison of 235 mm diameter inductive plasma sources. ‘x’, negative ranking; ‘o’, minimum positive ranking.
Capacitive Bulk
Inductors problems, Power Pressure Azimuthal Size limit energy Specific Total
(coil, antenna) damage Ignition window window uniformity down/upa efficiencyb power rankc
Single turn x oo oo o x ooo/o x oo 7/3
Pancake coil x oo ooo o o o/oo oo oo 11/1
E-shielded oo x oo oo oo o/oo o ooo 12/1
Helical short coil x oo ooo oo oo ooooo/oo ooo ooo 15/1
Helical resonator x oooo ooo ooo ooo ooo/oo ooo ooo 19/1
E-shielded HR oooo x ooo oooo ooooo oo/o oooo oooo 24/1
Helicon x ooo ooo x oo oo/oo ooo ooo 14/2
λ-Resonator oooo oooo ooooo oooo ooooo oo/ooo ooooo ooo 30/0
γ -dipole oooo oooo ooooo ooooo ooooo oooo/ooooo ooooo ooooo 34/0
a
Down- and up-side scalability from the current 235 mm discharge size.
b
Energy transfer into the bulk plasma.
c
‘Size limit’ is not included.

with controllable characteristics for dry processing. The
concepts of transmission line balance and discrete inductive
zones opens an interesting prospect for new inductive plasma
sources for laboratory and industrial use.
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