From The Reservoir Limit To Pipeline Flow

From the Reservoir Limit to Pipeline Flow: How Hydrocarbon Reserves are Produced
11/10/2011
www.GEKEngineering.com
Rock Occurance and Production

Although carbonates are a smaller volume of rock present, they dominate oil production totals (Mid East fields). Why?
Estimate of Rock Occurance and Hydrocarbon Production
60
50
40 Occurance Production
30
20
10
0 11/10/2011
shale
sandstone www.GEKEngineering.com
carbonates
What routes are open to flow?
Individual formations and flow channels within each formation may vary widely in their ability to allow flow of fluids across the reservoir. Permeability variances between horizontal and vertical are usually very large.
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What is the accuracy of the Information?

Where are the fractures and large pores in the rock?
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A cross section of a reservoir

This type of illustration helps to understand reservoir complexity, compartments, potential pays and water sources. Permeabilities in these pays are reported at 1 to 9 Darcies.
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Source Karamat Ali, BP Pakistan
Segments
Rock properties and reservoir character, quality, Reservoir fluid qualities how they change during movement and over time with depletion. Reservoir flow paths and compartments impact on fluid flow The effects of pressure drop and back pressure on fluid flow in the reservoir Well Placement and Impact of Wellbore-to-Reservoir contact Fluid behavior in approach and entry to the wellbore Lift type and optimization of flow from bottom hole through the tubing Operations effect on the flow rate
Choke settings Restrictions Separator operations Pipeline Start-ups, operations, shut-downs, stabilizing actions
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Pore Size vs. Permeability

350 SDA-01 Balakhany X (SP2) Hg permeability mD SDA-01 Fasila B (SP3) Hg permeability mD SDA-02 Balakhany VIIIC Hg permeability mD SDA-02 Fasila D (SP4) Hg permeability mD K mD Power (K mD)
300
y = 1.3661x 2.4865 R2 = 0.982
250
permeability (mD)
200
Large connected pores and natural fractures dominate the permeability of a formation.
Are the flow channels generally known for a reservoir? How can they be found?
150
100
50
0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 mean hydraulic radius (m m)
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Reservoir Fluids What a PE needs to understand.
What phases are present? Where are they? Do the fluid compositions or quantities change? How? How do fluids and fluid changes affect permeability?
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PVT Properties (Pressure Volume Temperature)

Oil Formation Volume Factor how many reservoir barrels it takes to equal a stock tank barrel after the oil volume shrinks during production due to loss of associated gas. Bubble Point Pressure the pressure at which free gas is seen in a reservoir with no gas cap. GOR gas to oil ratio of produced oil. API Gravity (density): APIo = [(141.5/SG)-131.5] Dynamic Viscosity the viscosity at reservoir conditions (temperare and associated gas decrease viscosity making the viscosity in the reservoir lower than the viscosity at surface).
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What happens to the oil viscosity during production? Why?

Reservoir Fluid Viscosity as a Function of Pressure at 60F
10
Oil Viscosity (cP)
8 6 4 2 0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

10
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Pressure (psia)
Oil Types
Paraffin Base
Straight chain hydrocarbons. Natural gas condensates, waxes, lube oils.
Naphthene Base Oils

Ring or cyclic structure, but single bonds. Usual API gravities below 25o API. Dominates the longer chain, heavier weight oils.
Saturated Hydrocarbons
Olefinic Series double bonds in a straight carbon chain. Aromatic Series double bonds in a ring
11/10/2011 www.GEKEngineering.com
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
11
Oil Types
Paraffin or linear carbon chain
Aromatic or cyclic structure carbon chain
Asphaltene (Naphthene) normally cyclic groups with Nitrogen and Sulfur components (Heavy)
www.GEKEngineering.com 12
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Hydrocarbon Liquids
Crude Oils Condensates (API 40 and above) NGL natural gas liquids LPG Liquified Petroleum Gas LNG Liquified Natural Gas
Range of compositions from C2 to C6+
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13
Reservoir Brines
A vast array of water based fluids from fresh water with very low resistivity to super saturated salt water. Tracking the composition of waters and the changes with time can be beneficial to determine the source of water production and leaks. Tracking the composition of flow back after a workover or a stimulation that uses an injected brine can signal when the job has cleaned up.
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15
Water Analysis Over Time

Deep Water GOM
Date 12/23/04 01/13/05 02/11/05 03/24/05 04/28/05 05/19/05 07/21/05 08/11/05 11/10/05 NaCl 112,000 104,000 101,000 97,000 Cl 67,961 63,107 61,286 58,859 60,400 59,320 68,075 68,075 58,065 34,000 32,000 31,000 31,700 28,100 36,210 32,440 29,000 Na Ca 4,400 3,300 3,000 2,800 2,680 2,164 3,441 2,800 2,400 Mg 680 600 560 550 650 612 759 766 470 pH 6.80 8.50 7.46 7.84 7.90 7.85 7.68 7.84 7.97 HCO3 230 230 450 166 195 225 137 220 176 Ba 110 100 99 90 94 82 109 99 81 SO4 45 61 20 37 10 7 4 11 15 1.3 1.3 0 5.8 1 1 1 1 130 130 120 127 117 147 132 110 102,000 96,400 91,140 109,700 105,000 90,508 Fe Sr TDS
11/17/05
12/29/05 01/05/06 01/19/06
58,064
58,064 60,066 61,067
29,000
29,000 32,000
2,400
2,300 2,600 2,700
480
490 510 520
6.35
7.39 7.87 7.41
219
195 214 195
85
75 89 93
0
0 0 1
14
2.3 1 0
120
110 120 130
90,574
90,440 95,832 95,909
Brine Reactivity Factors

1. Ion type (usually cations) in fluids moving through the matrix pores (some impact on fluids in fractures but to a lesser extent) 2. Size of the cations 3. Charge on the cation 4. Effective salt concentration higher salt concentrations are usually more effective in controlling mineral concentrations. Due to cation exchange, salt concentration is lost from the brine with rock contact. 5. pH low pH fluids have generally less effect on clays than high pH fluids. 6. Clay location detridal clays (in the matrix body) are usually less reactive than authogenic (in the pore throat forms). 7. Clay type Smectite typically has a high reactivity while kaolinite and chlorite usually have low reactivities. 8. Clay form some clays like illite may have forms like the hairy or spider web deposits that can be more reactive due to higher surface areas. 9. Coatings on clays such as heavy oil fractions can prevent many reactions unless removed by soaps or solvents. 10. Time in contact.
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16
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17
Reactivity of Clays
Mineral
Sand (up to 60 microns) Kaolinite Chlorite Illite
Typical Area (M2/g)

0.000015 22 60 113
Cation Exchange Capacity Range (Meq/100 g)

0.6 3 - 15 10 - 40 10 - 40
Smectite
82
80 - 150
Size ranges for clays depend on deposit configuration. CECs affected by coatings and configurations.
Load Water Recovery

Range 5% to 60%+ : the amount of load fluid recovery depends on the formation properties, the fluids properties, the pressure and the time span between pumping and flow back. Assists some surfactants (not all), alcohol, nitrogen gas. Detriments high vertical permeability, high interfacial & surface tension, long shut-in times, low energy, small pore throats.
Scale Deposition Causes

Change in flow conditions make the scale minerals super-saturated and an upset causes precipitation
Temperature change Pressure change Outgassing of CO2 Change in pH Evaporation of water
Mixing incompatible waters Contact with existing scale scale crystal growth from ions in the water.
Rock Structure
Lithology or mineralogy describes the solid or matrix portion of the rock, generally the primary mineralogy, e.g., sandstone, limestone, etc. Mineralogy analysis often describes the chemical composition of the components of the rock: sand (SiO2), limestone (CaCO3), dolomite (CaMgCO3), anhydrite (CaSO4), clays, etc. SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope) analysis shows the shape and form of the minerals.
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20
Evaluation of Damage and Barriers

Production Logs
Fluid type and entry or exit at specific intervals, Mechanical condition of parts of the well or equipment, Fluid movement (and holdup) along the wellbore.
Production History
Rates and types of fluids, decline %, water increase, etc. Sudden changes, flood arrivals, workover tracking.
Deliverability Tests
Isochronal, flow-after-flow, four point tests describe the flow from the formation.
Buildup & Draw-down Tests Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Investigates damage extent and depth (?), drainage radius, boundaries, etc. Requires some critical assumptions.
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Complexity in the Reservoir
Simple Reservoir ? Only in a text book.
How can this reservoir be produced? What type of completions and what flexibility are needed to effectively deplete the reserves.
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XX Reservoir sanction case geologic model

thin eroded formation
sheet sandstones internally homogenous laterally/vertically connected post depo erosion
Eroded
sheet sand sheet sand
sheet sand
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23
Pay Quality
Terrace
Ramp
100
10
11
12
13
The XX is a clean and very fine grain bedded to amalgamated sand. Where present, thin shale occurs as interbeds capping turbidite bed complexes. XX architecture ranges from channelforms and parallel lobes to shingled complexes. Erosion has removed much of the XX on the ramp causing moderate to significant baffling which limits the effectiveness of the waterflood.
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Attribute Gross h (TVT feet) Net Pay (TVT feet) Net-to-Gross Porosity Sw
Range 3-82 3-77 .88-.99 .25-.31 .10-.30
Average 47 43 .91 .29 .18
24
Inflow What is the flowpath from near wellbore into the reservoir
Convergent Flow less and less pore space as fluids near the wellbore higher friction, higher turbulence.
Even with a fracture, flow towards a single point becomes restrictive as the inflow point is neared.
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Permeability
Permeability, k, is the ability of the rock to transmit fluids. Permeability is controlled by the size of the connecting passages between the pores. Secondary porosity, particularly natural fractures and solution vugs dominate permeability often are 100x the matrix permeability. Permeability is NOT a constant it changes with stress, fluid saturation, produced fluid deposition, stimulations, damage from fluids, etc.
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Relative Permeability
Note that the permeability to the starting fluid decreases with invasion of a second phase, and that permeability to the invading phase gradually increases with saturation of that phase.
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27
Permeability Measurements
Absolute Permeability the ability of a rock to transmit a single fluid when it is saturated with that fluid. Effective Permeability the ability of the rock to transmit one fluid in the presence of another when the two fluids are immiscible. Relative permeability the ratio between effective permeability to a specific fluid at partial saturation and the absolute permeability.
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Source AAPG Basic Well Log Analysis, Asquith. G., Krygowski, S.
What is the pressure drop in the Perforation Tunnel

Pressure drop through the perf, psi
The perforations open a very small area in the casing.

If that area is filled with sand, the pressure drop increases significantly.
SPE
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Flow rate in bbls per perf per day
29
Differential pressure, DP, is actually a pressure balance
100 psi
25 psi
10 psi
15 psi
1000 psi or 68 bar
Press. Drop
Column Densities: Gas = 1.9 lb/gal = 0.1 psi/ft Dead oil = 7 lb/gal = 0.364 psi/ft Fresh water = 8.33 lb/gal = 0.433 psi/ft Salt water = 10 lb/gal = 0.52 psi/ft Gas cut flowing oil = 5 lb/gal = 0.26 psi/ft
= 1900 psi in a 10,000 ft well = 3640 psi in a 10,000 ft well = 4330 psi in a 10,000 ft well = 5200 psi in a 10,000 ft well = 2600 psi in a 10,000 ft well
Where does the pressure drop or DP come from?
10,000 ft or 3050 m 4600 psi or 313 bar

11/10/2011
4600 psi reservoir pressure -2600 psi flowing gradient for oil - 150 psi press drop - 100 psi through the choke - 25 psi through the flow line - 10 psi through the separator - 15 psi through downstream flow line -1000 psi sales line entry pressure ---------------------30
DP =
700 psi drawdown pressure
Liquid Height Over The Pump Does it matter?

More fluid height over the pump? Holds more back pressure. Restricts the inflow? May keep gas collapsed!
The ideal fluid height over the pump depends on fluid and wellbore characteristics.
Less fluid over the pump?

Lower BHFP. At higher gas content, pump may become gas locked. Too little fluid increases the potential for pump-off.
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Completions - Tubing Performance

unstable region, well may not flow under these conditions. increasing GOR helps at low rates (like a natural gas lift). Too much gas hinders (friction). increasing water cuts mean more pressure is required to flow at same rate. initial tubing performance curve (0% w/c, initial GOR).
increasing friction increasing hydrostatic pressure
Liquid Flowrate
TUBING PERFORMANCE RELATIONSHIP
How Wells Produce Production Rate and Tubing Sizing

The pressure drops are plotted against flowrate to give
inflow performance relationship or IPR the tubing performance curve or lift curve
Bottom hole flowing pressurr
Tubing Performance Curves: Calculated by computer or taken from tables, to predict the pressure loss up the tubing. Depends upon rate , type of fluid (oil vs gas), gas-oil-ratio, water content etc. for different tubing sizes.
31/2"
Pw
If bottom hole flowing pressure is the same as the reservoir pressure the well will not flow As the bottom hole pressure is reduced the well begins to flow - pushed by the reservoir pressure. The greater the drawdown the greater the flow.
Pr
Natural flowrate: in this particular case the well will flow naturally at this rate with this tubing in the hole.
drawdown
41/2"
51/2"
The lift curve = 'required pressure' (For a particular sized tubing)
Pump pressure (If a higher rate is required)
The IPR = 'Available pressure'
Flowrate Barrels of Oil per Day
Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) and tubing Performance Curves

Gas breaks out and expands as it flows up the wellbore

Expansion of gas occurs as the gas rises from the bottom of the well. The expanding gas can entrain and carry liquid with it if the flow rate reaches critical velocity (the velocity necessary to lift liquid). 2500 ft
Remember the volume of the gas bubble (and indirectly the velocity of the upward flowing fluid) is controlled by the pressure around it. This pressure is provided by the formation pore pressure and controlled by the choke and other back pressure resistances.
11/10/2011 www.GEKEngineering.com
1075 psi
5,000 ft 2150 psi

34
Flow pattern changes with gas expansion. One or more flow patterns may be present in different parts of the well. Flow patterns may explain differences in lift, corrosion and unloading.
Mist Flow external phase is gas with a small amount of liquid Channel or annular flow Slug or churn flow Depth and Pressure Piston flow Bubble flow Single phase liquid flow
Effect of increasing GLR on Flowing Bottom Hole Pressure (FBHP) As gas is added, the FBHP decreases due to gas cut liquid. When too much gas is added, the friction from the flowing volume increases.
FBHP
decreasing flowing fluid gradient
Increasing friction
11/10/2011
Increasing Gas Injection or GLR www.GEKEngineering.com
36
Chokes
Variable Chokes - good for bringing wells on gradually and optimizing natural gas lift flow in some cases.
Prone to washouts from high velocity, particles, droplets.
Solutions - hardened chokes (carbide components), chokes in series, dual chokes on the well head.
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Size of a Bubble Rising in a Liquid Column
292
cm3
surface
14.7 psi (1 bar)
2 cm3
5000 ft 2150 psi (146 bar) (1524m)
1 cm3
10000 ft (3049m)
4300 psi (292 bar)
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What will the expansion of the bubbles produce at surface? www.GEKEngineering.com 38 Energy and friction.
3-Phase Horizontal Separator
Gas
Impingement Plate
Mist Eliminator
Inlet Liquid
Large interface to promote gas separation
Oil
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Water, to disposal well www.GEKEngineering.com
39
Conclusions
The Flow System from reservoir to pipeline
Every pressure drop lowers production Pressure drops:

11/10/2011
Converging flow Damaged permeability or natural fractures Low flow capacity fractures Perforations that are partly plugged Liquid in the wellbore Choke backpressures Friction in tubulars Facility backpressures

From The Reservoir Limit To Pipeline Flow

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From The Reservoir Limit To Pipeline Flow

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From the Reservoir Limit to Pipeline Flow: How Hydrocarbon Reserves are Produced

Rock Occurance and Production

What routes are open to flow?

What is the accuracy of the Information?

A cross section of a reservoir

Source Karamat Ali, BP Pakistan

Pore Size vs. Permeability

y = 1.3661x 2.4865 R2 = 0.982

0 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 mean hydraulic radius (m m)

Reservoir Fluids What a PE needs to understand.

PVT Properties (Pressure Volume Temperature)

What happens to the oil viscosity during production? Why?

Oil Viscosity (cP)

8 6 4 2 0 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000

Naphthene Base Oils

Aromatic or cyclic structure carbon chain

Range of compositions from C2 to C6+

Water Analysis Over Time

Brine Reactivity Factors

Typical Area (M2/g)

Cation Exchange Capacity Range (Meq/100 g)

Load Water Recovery

Scale Deposition Causes

Evaluation of Damage and Barriers

Buildup & Draw-down Tests Pressure Transient Analysis (PTA)

Complexity in the Reservoir

Simple Reservoir ? Only in a text book.

XX Reservoir sanction case geologic model

sheet sandstones internally homogenous laterally/vertically connected post depo erosion

Range 3-82 3-77 .88-.99 .25-.31 .10-.30

Average 47 43 .91 .29 .18

Source AAPG Basic Well Log Analysis, Asquith. G., Krygowski, S.

What is the pressure drop in the Perforation Tunnel

The perforations open a very small area in the casing.

Flow rate in bbls per perf per day

Differential pressure, DP, is actually a pressure balance

1000 psi or 68 bar

Where does the pressure drop or DP come from?

10,000 ft or 3050 m 4600 psi or 313 bar

700 psi drawdown pressure

Liquid Height Over The Pump Does it matter?

Less fluid over the pump?

Completions - Tubing Performance

increasing friction increasing hydrostatic pressure

How Wells Produce Production Rate and Tubing Sizing

The lift curve = 'required pressure' (For a particular sized tubing)

Pump pressure (If a higher rate is required)

The IPR = 'Available pressure'

Flowrate Barrels of Oil per Day

Inflow Performance Relationship (IPR) and tubing Performance Curves

Gas breaks out and expands as it flows up the wellbore

5,000 ft 2150 psi

decreasing flowing fluid gradient

Increasing Gas Injection or GLR www.GEKEngineering.com

Prone to washouts from high velocity, particles, droplets.

Size of a Bubble Rising in a Liquid Column

14.7 psi (1 bar)

5000 ft 2150 psi (146 bar) (1524m)

4300 psi (292 bar)

3-Phase Horizontal Separator

Water, to disposal well www.GEKEngineering.com

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