Dissertation - Theatre Sound Design, Installation & Operation

Final Report:
An investigation into the use of specific technologies to design and install sound for theatre.
By Greg Brown
09002037
BSc (Hons) Music Technology
A project submitted in partial fulfilment of the award of the degree of BSc(Hons) Music Technology from Staffordshire University Supervised by Mr. Simon Waite
Faculty of Arts and Creative Technologies
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An investigation into the use of specific technologies to design and install sound for theatre Greg Brown | 09002037
1 Abstract
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1 Abstract
Hardware and software is rarely developed inherently for use within theatre, therefore sound designers within this field have to keep track of technology being produced for use in other production areas, such as music production and the film industry. This document describes how to efficiently use the technology available to create, install, and operate an effective sound design for theatre. Through extensive research into hardware and software, followed by simulation of creating, installing and operating, the best solutions of the use of technologies are found. Simulation involves working closely with a theatre company to create a sound design for a piece of theatre and working with a different venue to install a sound system into a theatre for a run of performances. A contingency plan was also used to create a piece of theatre involving all aspect of sound design. Hardware and software was used to assist the planning, creation, installation and operation of sound within theatre this includes looking at technology such as sound recording equipment, digital audio workstations, audio restoration tools, sound reinforcement hardware, acoustic modelling software, theatre communication, techniques for reinforcement and playback technology.
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2 Acknowledgements
2 Acknowledgements
I would like to thank the following people for their help and support during this project:
Si Waite Staffordshire University, FYP Supervisor Richard Lloyd Technical Manager, The Sands Centre, Carlisle Sue Moffatt Director, The New Vic Borderlines, Newcastle-Under-Lyme Jody Draper Actor and assistant for contingency plan
I would also like to thank all the administrative staff & technical crew at The Sands Centre and of Enchanted Entertainment, as well as the technical staff of the Music Department at Staffordshire University for making this project possible.
3 Table of contents
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3 Table of contents
1 Abstract......................................................................................................................... 3 2 Acknowledgements ....................................................................................................... 4 3 Table of contents ........................................................................................................... 5 4 Introduction .................................................................................................................. 7 5 Aims and objectives ..................................................................................................... 10 6 Research...................................................................................................................... 11
6.1 Creating a sound design for theatre ..................................................................................................... 11 6.2 Technology for sound and music creation and editing ......................................................................... 13 6.3 Technology for design and installation ................................................................................................ 18 6.4 Technology for testing and adjusting a sound system .......................................................................... 26 6.5 Playback and operation technology ..................................................................................................... 29
7 Method ....................................................................................................................... 32
7.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)........................................................................................ 32 7.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)..................................................................................... 33 7.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University) ......................................................................................... 34
8 Results ........................................................................................................................ 36
8.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)........................................................................................ 36 8.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)..................................................................................... 39 8.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University) ......................................................................................... 41
9 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 45 10 Evaluation ................................................................................................................. 46

10.1 Theatre Sound Design (New Vic Theatre) ........................................................................................... 46 10.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre) ................................................................................... 46 10.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University) ....................................................................................... 47 10.4 Further research ................................................................................................................................ 47
11 Bibliography .............................................................................................................. 48 12 Webography .............................................................................................................. 50 14 Appendices ................................................................................................................ 51
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4 Introduction
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4 Introduction
Sound effects for theatre, up until 80 years ago, were created live onstage or backstage and musicians would play an underscore live. In the late 1920s recording and playback was introduced with the cueing up and fading of multiple sound effect records. Over time the hardware, software and quality has developed to that of today. Directors will no longer settle for mere library effects, pulled off the shelf and played on public address-type systems; they now expect the quality of that in cinema. (Peaslee, Richard. Feb 1992 as cited in (Kaye & James, 1999))
Over one hundred years ago, actors and stagehands would use voices, props or mechanical noisemakers to create every sound onstage or offstage. Mechanical noisemakers include wind machines, rain boxes, thunder sheets, or thunder runs where, the effect was created by cannon balls being dropped into troughs and rolled, these would be built into the theatre and run above the audience heads. (Leonard, 2001).
Figure 1 - Mechanical Theatre Sound Effects (Leonard, 2001)
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4 Introduction
Sound for theatre requires hardware and often software to achieve a high quality production. A major problem is that very little of this technology is developed primarily for use within theatre. It is more profitable to produce software for consumer audio, professional music, recording or film markets, as the theatre industry does not produce as much revenue. Theatre sound designers and technicians must keep track of technology produced for these markets to see if they can be applied for use within the theatre. (Kaye & James, 1999) Sound design is considered at all levels of theatre; from community theatre all the way to Broadway. Sound is used to enhance the performance. There are many ways of doing this, all of which depend on production costs and the piece of theatre. It's encouraging that at every level of theatre, the incorporation of sound into a production is no longer a novelty. Whether an actor throws a cassette or two into a boom box backstage, or a sound operator uses a twenty year old reel-to-reel to play music and effects through borrowed home-stereo speakers, the attempt to include sound is being made. (Kaye & James, 1999). Many productions now include sound in the design process and make use of the creativity available to them. Some examples would include, attaching wireless microphones to a sword blade to heighten the quality of a battle taking place on stage, or maybe placing speakers around the auditorium and over the audiences heads to produce the sounds of a helicopters arrival and departure (Kaye & James, 1999). Technical sound design deals with the equipment used to amplify a show so the audience can hear the design and reinforcement. This includes picking the right amps and speakers, deciding where to hang the speakers, choosing a mixing console and any processing equipment needed. The role also includes planning any cabling and racking of the equipment and specifying how every piece of equipment should be utilised. The technical sound designer is also responsible for communication systems for the cast and crew including backstage show relay, program calls, intercommunication for crew, and video communication for certain needs of the stage manager. (Slaton, 2011) There are many different theatre performing spaces including proscenium arch (Figure 2), thrust stage (Figure 3), traverse (Figure 4), theatre in the round (Figure 5), adaptable spaces and promenade performance spaces. Each of these different spaces requires a different installation of sound to deliver full coverage to an audience, each type throws up different problems. (Leonard, 2001). It is possible to spot problems before the installation through use of acoustic design, modelling plans, and simulation software. In 1927, turntables were introduced with the cueing up and fading of multiple library sound effects, these were often noisy, scratchy, and inaccurate and timings were messy. In the late 1940s, long-playing records were introduced giving better sound quality and storage of sound effects. Reel-to-reel tape recorders became available in the 1950s, however, these were expensive and sounds were unavailable for years to come in this medium. It was not until the 1980s when quality of sound was expected in theatre, with high-quality speakers now technologically and economically accessible. Playback technology developed from cassettes (1962) then compact discs (1982), digital audio tapes (1987) and minidiscs (1992), computer software started to be used in the 90s. (Kaye & James, 1999) (Gronow & Saunio, 1998). This project researches a range of hardware and software produced for sound production areas, such as television, film and music production. This project experiments on how the technologies can be used within the theatre and which pieces of technology will give the best results.
4 Introduction
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Figure 2 - Proscenium Arch Theatre Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)
Figure 3 - Thrust Stage Theatre Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)
Figure 4 - Traverse Stage Theatre Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)
Figure 5 - Theatre in the Round Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)
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5 Aims and objectives
5 Aims and objectives

The aim is to research and implement hardware and software for capturing sounds, planning an installation, calibration of the installation and playing back of audio within theatre. Objectives Work with a theatre company (New Vic Borderlines, Newcastle-Under-Lyme) to create a sound design for a piece of theatre (All Our Daughters) for a production (tour February 2013) o Create and develop a sound plot as part of a theatre design team o Use hardware and software to record, collect, edit, enhance and refine cues to the created sound plot & the directors descriptions o Consider a method of playback for the show Work with a theatre company (The Sands Centre, Carlisle) to design the install of sound into a theatre for a production (a 31-show pantomime in a 1300-capacity venue, December 2012) o Research acoustics of theatre, and techniques of how to fill the auditorium with sound o Research each piece of the equipment within a system to find the best methods of use o Find technologies to help plan and install sound into theatre o Research the best ways to install sound to achieve the best quality results o Research and create plans required for the installation o Research methods of live sound reinforcement Contingency plan (if either of the other two projects collapse due to third parties) to create a piece of theatre using sections of existing script and putting on a performance o Create a professional script o Create a sound plot o Decide on equipment and its setup o Create installation plans o Collect sounds and music, editing and refining for the piece o Determine a method of playback for the performance o Use of basic theatrical lighting for a professional performance o Operate sound & lighting for a performance
6 Research | 6.1 Creating a sound design for theatre
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6 Research
6.1 Creating a sound design for theatre
6.1.1 Developing the concept and design The initial read through of the script is the only time the piece of theatre will be new and can be experienced as an audience member. This creates an opportunity to experience and discover what emotions are conveyed by the text, this will help when developing a theme for the music at a later stage. Notes should be made after the first read through on initial ideas. On the second read, notes on obvious sounds should be noted in the script for later discussion. When meeting with the director and design team it is a good idea to have a number of musical samples, a list of ideas, instrumentation, themes, styles, genres and eras. It may also be necessary to meet with the set design team if speakers need to be masked within the design. (Kaye & James, 1999)
6.1.2 Creating a sound plot A sound plot should be created with the director whilst working through the script. This is in the form of a table and lists every sound to be used in the piece of theatre. (See Figure 6). This should contain cue numbers, page numbers, what type of sound the cue is (underscore, sound effects, etc.) and detailed notes. This is essential for the director, as it will be used in the rehearsal process when directing or blocking the script. The plot may also be of use to the rest of the design team; set design for any special requirements, lighting design to match any lighting cues to sound, and costume design for placement of microphones. The sound plot is most important to the sound designer, as this is a basis to work off containing what the director expects to be created. (Leonard, 2001). (Kaye & James, 1999).
Figure 6 - Sound Cue Plot Example (Kaye & James, 1999)
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6 Research | 6.1 Creating a sound design for theatre
6.1.3 Preparing, recording, editing and refining cues A list should be created of sounds required that make up each cue, including details of; duration, fade times and special details such as material; for example, wood or metal crash. (See Figure 7). Information should also be listed on how, where, when and what the sound will be recorded with. Sounds are then collected from sound effect libraries or recorded with use of hardware and software (Section 6.2 Technology for sound and music creation and editing). These sounds should then be edited and cleared of noise using appropriate technologies before being blended together. Created cues should then be given to the director for feedback, sometime with variations for the director to choose from, these cues may need to be refined, re-edited, and then tested in rehearsals before possibly being refined and re-edited again. Some cues may be edited in rehearsals to make sound and actions work together. The sound designer should also provide the theatre company with tracks (however basic) for the company to rehearse with so it is clear that the sound design will work with direction later down the line. (Kaye & James, 1999).
Figure 7 - Collection List Example (Kaye & James, 1999)
6 Research | 6.2 Technology for sound and music creation and editing
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6.2 Technology for sound and music creation and editing

6.2.1 Recording vs. use of sound effect libraries There are many professionally produced sound effect libraries available on the internet, but many of them are far from cheap and often not produced very well, there can be hiss in some tracks and background noise in others; it is difficult to find the sound to match the material, harshness or length required. There is no need to pay out lots of money for sound effects that would need cleaning up and reprocessing before being possible to use them and still not meeting the requirements. This gives a good argument for custom recording sound effects. (Viers, 2008). Custom recording new sounds keeps work fresh and exciting, not only this but custom recording sound effects is a great learning experience, learning the mechanics of how things work and what creates sound, as well as the creativity behind this using small items to get bigger sounds. Smaller props often sell the illusion of size; breaking thick glass will sound dull where thin glass will often sound bigger and brighter with the shards of glass staying in the air longer giving a longer ring-off. (Yewdall, 2012) Good sound designers won't merely dub thunder off an old tape or sound effect recorded. They may well have their own libraries of material they've recorded themselves - in this case, an actual storm. At least they'll make sure that what they're using is carefully edited and equalised for maximum effect. The sound can then be greatly enhanced by the designers choice of speakers, and the use of stereo, quad, or panning effects. Sound designers must be far more than technicians - they should understand how sounds work on the psyche, and not be over literal Peaslee, Richard Feb 1992 (as cited in (Kaye & James, 1999)).
Sounds used in theatre need to be clean, clear and not draw attention away from the action, sounds must only enhance the performance and should be transparent at all times. It is essential to record sounds at a high quality, clean standard at the beginning to achieve the best possible results. This requires using the best means of hardware available, and editing the captured sounds appropriately. (Kaye & James, 1999)
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6.2.2 Hardware 6.2.2.1 Microphones Microphones are devices that transform acoustic energy (sound) into electrical energy (an audio signal). There is a large range of microphones and types that are intended for use for different purposes. (Davis & Jones, 1988). Microphones are used within theatre to record sound effects, Foley and voice-overs. They are also used for sound reinforcement within the theatre for vocals, instruments and live effects. Dynamic microphones are like miniature loudspeakers in reverse; when a sound strikes the diaphragm it vibrates and moves a coil back and forth in the field of a magnet. As the coil cuts through the lines of the magnetic force, a small electrical current is induced in the wire. Dynamic microphones are robust and reliable. (Davis & Jones, 1988) (Jacobs, 2012)
Figure 8 - Dynamic Microphones (Media College, n.d.)
Condenser (or Capacitor) microphones are powered with a voltage ranging between 9 and 48 volts. As the diaphragm of the microphone vibrates, its distance from the stationary metal plate varies, and as the fixed electrical charge is applied between the diaphragm and the plate, a corresponding charge in electrical voltage is produced. This change in voltage is then amplified in the circuitry inside the microphone. (White, Basic: Live Sound, 2000). A condenser microphone can respond more effectively to higher frequencies than dynamic microphones. (White, Basic: Microphones, 1999).
Figure 9 - Condenser Microphones (Media College n.d.)
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Different microphones pick up sounds in different ways, it is essential to pick the right microphone to capture wanted sounds and try to eliminate unwanted sounds. (White, Basic: Microphones, 1999). Some are designed to mainly pickup sound in the direction the microphone is pointing; others will pickup sound in all directions. In Foley recording, a shotgun microphone should be used to pick up only the sound it is pointing at. If recording clean vocals it may be desired to use a hyper-cardioid to pick up voice, chest and breathing noises, and if recording ambience an appropriate choice would be an onmi-directional microphone; picking up sounds in all directions. (Ament, 2009) (Sandall, 2011)
Figure 10 - Microphone Pickup Patterns (Jacobs 2012)
6.2.2.2 Portable sound recording Portable sound recorders are often small devices that come with high-quality condenser microphones, recording onto flash memory for on-the-fly recordings. Often these devices have inbuilt microphones or a connection to an external microphone. These devices are great for capturing ambience and sound effects on location. (Sandall, 2011). Sometimes it is difficult to be able to control situations in the real world with external factors being present in recordings such as aeroplanes, motor vehicles, wildlife and weather. Deadcats or Wind Shields can be placed over the exterior of a microphone to reduce the effects of wind noise when recording outdoors or when panning or gunning a microphone. (Ballou, 2008). Microphones are also subject to handling noise, which occurs when vibrations transmit to the microphone from direct contact. A shock mount can be used to absorb the vibrations and isolate the microphone from the stand with use of rubber bands. (Viers, 2008). Other accessories include; microphone stands (hold the microphone in positions), boom poles (places the microphone closer to the action) and pop filters (for use in vocal recordings taming plosive sounds such as b or p). (Viers, 2008). If possible, it is better to record sound effects/Foley in controlled situations such as a studio where large, better quality equipment may be used and no external factors will be within the recording. The Tascam DR100 and Marantz MPD611 provide a huge amount of detail and raw, transparent sound. The machines offer high bit and sample rates to give detail for delicate and detailed editing later on. (Sandall, 2011)
6.2.2.3 Other hardware When recording in a controlled situation, such as in a recording studio; hardware such as mixing consoles, outboard effects such as compressors and delicate high-quality microphone may be used. Mixing consoles will give ultimate control over pre-amp gain and pre-recording EQ to be able to record at a good level. Recordings in a studio can go straight into a DAW (Section 6.2.3.1 Digital audio workstation (DAW)) for after capture editing and manipulation. (Viers, 2008).
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6.2.3 Software 6.2.3.1 Digital audio workstation (DAW) A digital audio workstation (DAW) is used to record, edit and playback digital audio. It is a piece of software that runs on personal computers in the form of a sequencer and has many uses and facilities. This system is portable (on a laptop) and gives a large range of tools. With a DAW it is possible to see waveforms of every section of a sound, it is possible to magnify this and fine cut parts of the sounds, stretch this sound, pitch shift it, as well as many other advantages (Ament, 2009). Any DAW is capable of manipulating and creating sounds and they all have similar tools to help complete a task. Each piece of software has different advantages and disadvantages.
Digital audio workstations are not only utilised to manufacture cues, but they can be used to play them back in theatre. Their use allows designers greater flexibility than they have ever had before. Adjustments that once took all night in the studio can now be made in a few minutes in the theatre (Kaye & James, 1999)
DAWs are an invaluable tool for the modern sound designer, saving time and creating the flexibility of a portable system allowing edits to be made at home, in the studio or during technical rehearsals at the theatre (Kaye & James, 1999). There are many DAWs available made by different companies all of which have their own strengths and weaknesses, all have different features and most are similar in the way they route and mix sounds. Some DAWs come with better in-built instruments, plugins and tools for easier cueing up and playing back sounds. The computer system being used is the first point of consideration when choosing a DAW. The machine needs to have a fast hard-drive and lots of processing power and memory to playback audio without digital glitches, especially when there are many plugins used for a live performance. (Gottleib & Hennerich, 2008) Avids Pro Tools is great for capturing high quality sounds in a HD Studio, with up to a 192kHz Sample Rate and 32bit Bit Depth with use of the correct hardware. This is beneficial for capturing extreme high quality with a large dynamic range. This is great when editing sections of a sound, as there is so much more detail to work with when time stretching or adjusting volumes. Pro Tools 10 is a portable version of the software that can be run without any external hardware that Pro Tools HD requires. Pro Tools has the largest and best quality plugins available, although often at a great expense, the ones bundled with the software are basic. Pro Tools has a ReWire feature to send busses out to external software such as Reason, which comes bundled with a large number of software instruments and plug-ins. (From AVIDs website, accessed 28/02/2013) Apples Logic has a large range of free software instruments, samples and good quality plugins, which makes it great for creating music. Logic has great scoring and MIDI mapping facilities, expanding on possibilities and making scoring easy if composing for musicians. Logic has a good time manipulation tool and a comping tool that easily allows selection of sections of multiple take recordings. (From Apples website, accessed 28/02/2013) See Table 1 - Digital Audio Workstation Comparison p54 for more information.
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6.2.3.1 Audio restoration Adobe Audition, Apple SoundTrack Pro and iZotope RXII are all pieces of software that can be used to repair and restore poor quality audio known as Audio restoration programs. These plugins or pieces of software can be used to remove noise, hums, hiss, clicks, and pops from recordings. (Bartlett, 2009). iZotope RXII is one of the most comprehensive tools available, with special tools for selecting and previewing sections of the frequency spectrum, to identify problems and repair them by taking samples from before/after the problem audio. The software can scan the audio track to automatically find noise or clicks and pops, and remove these from the file or this can be done more accurately manually. iZotope RXII also adds plugins to the DAW for independent use. (From the iZotope website, accessed 20/03/2013)
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6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation
6.3 Technology for design and installation

Proscenium Arch Theatre Research (Figure 2 - Proscenium Arch Theatre Layout on page 9) There is normally space at the sides of the proscenium arch to allow loudspeakers to be mounted, however; it is sometimes difficult to reach the rear of the auditorium, so often delay loudspeakers are mounted to the rear of the auditorium. On stage, it is normally restricted to placing speakers at the sides and corners of the stage, due to set movement and actors entrances and exits. Speakers can be hung from fly bars over the stage for sound effects or fold back. (Leonard, 2001).
6.3.1 Equipment 6.3.1.1 Sound sources A sound source is a piece of equipment that generates a sound in the form of an analogue, electrical or digital signal such as; microphones, compact disc players, electronic keyboards, samples, etcetera. (Leonard, 2001).
6.3.1.2 Mixing desks / Multicore A mixing desk is used to treat and balance the various sound sources of inputs, then distributes to a number of outputs. (Leonard, 2001). Almost all digital mixers offer a much higher specification channel strip when compared to that of an analogue mixer. (Stachowiak, 2011). On a digital mixer there is often: gain, pad, phase, pan, gate, compressor, four-band parametric equaliser and a good number of auxiliaries and groups. Analogue desks are normally much more condensed with very small number offering compressors, gates and containing only a small amount of auxiliaries and groups. Digital desks often come with built-in effects and graphic equalisers, where an analogue desk would require outboard rack equipment for gates, compressors, reverbs, delays, etcetera. (Stachowiak, 2011). See appendices Table 2 - Digital Sound Desk Compare on page 55 for further research. One of the key benefits of digital over analogue within theatre is a full recall function, which takes a snapshot of every parameter on the desk and allows it to be recalled at any time. (Stachowiak, 2011). This is extremely useful in theatre as often many microphones need to be switched on and off in seconds during a quick scene change where actors run on and off stage. This can be quickly done with the scene recall feature. (Slaton, 2011). A multicore is a group of cables that carries signals from one place to another for examples input and output connections between stage and the mix position at front of house (FOH). (Leonard, 2001)
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6.3.1.3 Processors Often the sound source is treated at the mix stage by using features of the mixer or outboard equipment. The processors are used to change the original sound source for desired effect or enhancement this includes; echo, reverberation, compression, limitation, equalisation and time delay. (Leonard, 2001). More information on processors and effects can be found in Table 3 - Effects and Processors Definition (White, 2003) on page 56.
6.3.1.4 Amplifiers Passive loudspeakers require amplification. Amplification increases the mixed and treated electrical signals to a higher level for transmission to the loudspeakers. Amplification is sometimes built into the loudspeakers; these speakers are called active loudspeakers (Leonard, 2001).
6.3.1.5 Loudspeakers Loudspeakers are a type of transducer that convert the electrical energy into acoustic energy (Ballou, 2008), i.e. sound waves that direct the resultant sound to the desired parts of the auditorium (Leonard, 2001). There are two main types of loudspeaker; packaged loudspeakers and line-arrays which are designed from loudspeaker components including cone-type loudspeakers and their enclosures, compression drivers and their horns, and other components such as ribbon drivers and ring radiators. When choosing loudspeakers there are many considerations such as; power handling, frequency range and response, sensitivity, coverage pattern and sound quality (Ballou, 2008). The main loudspeaker system is to be mounted in the theatre and then focused to cover the main area(s), but sometime due to the loudspeakers coverage or the buildings design, fill speakers are need for use in other areas such as under a balcony. These may need to be time delayed from the original sound source. (Leonard, 2001). More information in Section 6.4.1 Signal delay in sound reinforcement and Section 6.4.2 Speaker testing.
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6.3.1.6 Communication systems 6.3.1.6.1 Intercom Backstage communication is a vital job of the sound department, without it none of the scene changes, lighting or sound cues would be able to take place, as the stage manager needs to give these audible cues to each department for the show to run. (Patrick, 2002). Communication is needed during technical rehearsals for the stage manager, who communicates with the director, designers, running crew, lighting, sound and follow-spot operators to set cues. Sometimes separate communication lines are used between lighting, sound and stage to the stage manager to reduce traffic and increase productivity. Sound would often have a communication setup between the sound designer, the mixer and stage sound in order to set levels and solve problems. During performances there needs to be communication between the stage manager and each department via one grouped line or separate department lines to; sound, stage, lighting, follow spot, musical director and the front of house manager for curtain call and intermission. (Patrick, 2002).
A sound designer can always get away with sound problems during the technical and dress rehearsals, but if the intercom is not working nobody wants to hear excuses, nothing can get done. (Slaton, 2011)
Figure 11 - Typical Intercom Setup (Slaton, 2011)
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6.3.1.6.2 Paging system/Show relay Paging systems are used for actors back stage to be called by the deputy stage manager. The system must also relay the show for actors to listen out for cues. The system usually includes a 70v amp, 70v speakers, cables and microphones. The speakers must be hung in all common places such as hallways, dressing rooms and the Green Room. It is an Equity (actors union) requirement to provide paging, which includes good microphone and a program feed for the cast. (Slaton, 2011)
6.3.1.6.3 Video / CCTV The sound department is responsible for the closed circuit TV (CCTV) for a show, this video is not intended for the audience but is crucial to the running of the show. Common camera setups are a conductor camera, frontof-house (FOH) low-light camera and FOH colour camera. The conductor camera is often used for the band and at the front of the stage for the actors. The FOH low-light camera is used for the deputy-stage-manager (DSM) to know when to call cues during blackouts (for example, after the stage is clear during a blackout). Often Infrared (IR) emitters are used to help the camera pick up detail in the dark. The colour camera is used because sometimes the black and white camera is not always enough for the deputy-stage-manager to call the show. Figure 12 is an example of a typical CCTV setup.
Figure 12 - Typical Video Setup (Slaton, 2011)
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6.3.1.7 Radio frequency systems (RF) and Interference Radio Frequency systems include wireless microphones, in-ear monitors and wireless communications. Frequencies need to be set to ensure no two devices are using the same frequencies. RF interference is not hard to find, it is actually very difficult to avoid. Common sources of radiated RF include very high frequency (VHF) and ultra high frequency (UHF), which includes FM radio, television, mobile communications, amateur radio, weather radio, microwave, wireless LAN, Bluetooth, GPS and two-way radio. Devices that create electrical sparks can also cause interference such as welders, brush-type motors, relays, power line insulators, malfunctioning fluorescent or neon lights. Interference can be conducted via any wire coming into the building. Inexpensive lighting dimmers, fluorescent lights, CRT monitors or any devices using a switching power supply can cause other RF problems. (Ballou, 2008) The RF interference energy becomes an audio noise problem when the RF is demodulated or detected by active circuitry in various ways, acting like a radio receiver that adds its output to the audio signal. RF interference can range from actual receptions of radio signals, a 59.94htz buzz from TV signals or various tones from a mobile phone signal. (Ballou, 2008) Cable shielding is the first line of defence against RF interference, using good quality, heavily braided copper shielded cables and connectors can help eliminate RF interference as well as interference caused from the magnetic field. Shielding and twisted pairs of balanced cables also insures signal integrity and maintains sound quality. Ferrite cores installed over the outside of a cable near the receiver end reduces interference over 20mhz. These ferrite cores are often more effectives when the cable is looped through the core several times. A ferrite core is made up of an inductive resistor in series with an inductor. The most efficient way of reducing RF interference is by limiting the bandwidth of frequencies to that of what is required by the systems to prevent out-of-band energy from ever reaching the circuitry. (Ballou, 2008) The position of the antennas in an RF system and the correct use of the related components such as RF cable, antenna boosters, antenna attenuators and antenna distribution systems are the key to trouble-free wireless transmission (Sandall, 2011). Further reading within the Sound Reinforcement Handbook (Davis & Jones, 1988). The designed RF system should be checked for intermodulation problems, which could be caused by overpowering antennas or, 2 or 3 frequencies combined to create a frequency that is similar to one being used within the system. This could happen if two or three radio packs become in close proximity creating a new frequency. The maths is simple for calculating intermodulation frequencies (the sum and difference) but there are many frequencies to calculate in a large system. A piece of software could be used to check for intermodulation such as RF Guru or Intermodulation Analysis System. (Slaton, 2011).
If there are two radio channels in a system rf1 (100 kHz) and rf2 (101 kHz) intermodulation could be created on two other channels, which is the sum and difference of the two frequencies. rf1 + rf2 = Intermodulation rf2 rf1 = Intermodulation 100kHz + 101kHz = 201kHz (intermodulation) 101kHz - 100kHz = 1kHz (intermodulation)
In a system with 12 channels, there are 132 calculations this is where the software becomes useful.
Figure 13 Example of Intermodulation
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6.3.2 Computer-Aided Acoustic Design (CAAD) A designer has to calculate the coverage of each loudspeaker and produce a plot showing where coverage starts to become uneven at all frequencies (See Figure 14) (Leonard, 2001). This is done to achieve full coverage of the auditorium and detail where and how many loudspeakers should be used.
Figure 14 - Auditorium Coverage Plan (Kaye & James, 1999)
There are a number of pieces of software available to manage the coverage and the acoustics of a venue. Many loudspeaker manufactures create their own versions of this software although AFMG EASE (Figure 15) is one of the leading pieces of software that many loudspeaker manufactures support. (Ballou, 2008) EaseFocus is a three-dimensional, acoustic simulation software for the configuration and modelling of line array systems, digitally steered columns and conventional loudspeakers. It takes user input of a venues audience areas and loudspeaker placements and then calculates loudspeaker variables such as angles and digital setting for best use in the position within the venue for maximum coverage. (from AMFGs website, accessed 28/01/13).
Figure 15 - EASEFocus Screen Shot
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6.3.3 Drawings; flow and rack diagrams Flow diagrams (Figure 16) and rack diagrams (Figure 17) are essential when planning the installation and deciding what equipment and cables are needed to complete a working system There are many pieces of software that can produce flow and rack diagrams. Technicians can utilise common pieces of software such as Microsoft Word or Excel with use of colours, keys and codes to create these kinds of diagrams, however these plans are usually created using a drafting program like Vectorworks, AutoCAD or Stardraw. (Slaton, 2011).
Figure 16 - Output flow diagram (Slaton, 2011)
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OmniGraffle Pro is a mac only application that allows creation of professional diagrams, with a great support network and catalogue of stencils, to make detailed technical drawings, stage or venue plans and rack plans. (From the OmniGroup website, accessed 03/03/2013)
Excel could simply be used to create rack diagrams with using a row for 1U equipment. Through merging cells, it is simple to create 2U, 3U and so forth. With the use of borders and typing in cells it is quick and easy way to achieve a basic rack diagram (Slaton, 2011).
Figure 17 - Rack Diagram (Slaton, 2011)
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6 Research | 6.4 Technology for testing and adjusting a sound system
6.4 Technology for testing and adjusting a sound system

There are many pieces of hardware and software available for the process of testing and adjusting sound setups in live situations.
6.4.1 Signal delay in sound reinforcement Signal Delay in sound reinforcement is to delay one loudspeaker system to allow the sound from a remote loudspeaker to catch up. (Ballou, 2008) Fill speakers are often needed in venues to achieve coverage of the full auditorium; this could be due to loudspeaker restrictions or the design of the venue. Whenever fill loudspeakers are needed and placed in different locations, the fill speakers will probably need to be delayed, as sound traveling through the air is slow compared to that of the electrical signal in a cable. If the fill speakers were not delayed, there would be two main effects created; loss of localisation and loss of clarity. A digital delay line is the simplest way to solve this problem to time-align the system in relation to the distance of the fill loudspeakers from the main sound source. This is where a single line is split and one signal is sent to time-delay processors where the output signal can be delayed in very small increments, each delay line is then sent to the appropriate fill loudspeakers. The level of the delay speakers should be below that of the main sound source. The audience then perceives the main signal source to be the stage and the speakers around it; the fill speaker signal does not reach the listener before the main sound source. The delay times can be set by ear, by a calculation or a piece of software such as Metric Halos SpectraFoo or JBLs Smaart-Pro (Leonard, 2001), The software sends out a pulse to each speaker and measures the time it takes for the pulse to return (Studio Six Digital). There are also mobile apps such as AudioTools, which will also do this.
c = 331.45 + 0.597t c = speed of sound 331.45 = speed of sound at sea level 0.597 = variation in the speed of sound depending on temperature t = temperature in degrees centigrade (21c in the below example) 343.987 = 331.45 (0.597 x 21) V=x/c V = time delay in seconds x = distance between sound source and delay fill in meters (6.5m in the below example) c = Speed of sound (344 from calculated from 21c in (c = 331.45 + 0.597t) 6.5m / 344 = 0.018 seconds or 18 millisecond delay. (Benediktsson, 2011)
Figure 18 - Delay Calculation and Example
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6.4.2 Speaker testing Testing the speakers is an important element to the build. The speakers need to be tested to make sure the components sound the same and the polarity is correct. If the speakers were out of phase they would fight against each other cancelling out sound. Software such as Smaart, Cricket or a Minilyzer will complete these tests (Leonard, 2001). AudioCheck.net is a great online resource with downloadable wav files to check frequency response, phasing, imaging and distortion sounds in the system.
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6.4.3 Equalisation Sound system equalisation is a process of adjusting the frequency response of a system, to compensate for uneven loudspeaker response and room acoustics. The goal of equalisation is to provide a natural-sounding system and to minimise feedback that may be caused by peaks in certain frequency responses. (Ballou, 2008). A room needs to be equalised to eliminate problem frequencies that will cause feedback; to do this a designer turns on pink noise at a high volume and can use a variety of tools such as Smaart, Systune or Meyer Sound SIMM or just use their ears. (Slaton, 2011). For the system to be equalised the system must permanently have an equaliser installed in its signal chain just before each loudspeaker. To setup the equaliser to suit the system and room, test equipment should be used including; a calibrated flat-response microphone, a 1/3-octave real-time audio spectrum analyser and a pink noise generator. The pink noise should be played through individual loudspeaker at the designed volume ensuring no clipping, and the real-time analyser should be observed in a number of different listening locations observing any peaks or troughs in frequency octaves. The equaliser should then be adjusted by cutting or boosting the appropriate frequency bands until the real time analyser shows as close to a flat response curve with high and low Figure 19 - Desired Room EQ Shape roll offs in most listening positions. (Ballou, 2008). Other pieces of software are available such a, AFMGs SysTune, Rational Acoustics Smaart, XTZ Room Analyzer or Room EQ Wizard, which guide the user through the process with inbuilt noise generators, sound pressure level meters (SPL) and real time analysers (RTA). (Ballou, 2008). Meyer Sounds SIM, Behringer UltraCurve Pro and the Samson D-1500 automate the whole process. The hardware generates a signal, analyses the signal and then adjusts the equalisation to achieve a flat response. The UltraCurve also automatically analyses fast fourier transform (FFT) and auto EQs if it detects feedback.
6.4.3.1 Real Time Analyser (RTA) A real time analyser is a tool that measures the response of sound systems in their operating environments. A signal from a test microphone is applied to a series of band pass filters of constant bandwidth octaves, and an average output level of each filter is shown on a display. When the analyser is analysing pink noise it is possible to see the curvature of the system. If a system is feeding back, the real time analyser is useful for spotting the frequency feeding back which can then be cut on a graphic equaliser. (Ballou, 2008) There are many pieces of free software RTAs out there for PC, Mac, Tablets and Smart Phones. They use an inbuilt microphone to display frequency information. Test microphones can be bought in addition to gather information that is more accurate; these special microphones have a flat frequency response. Six Studio Digital have created a RTA app for iPhone and iPad and make use of the on-board microphone, which has been calibrated to the frequency response of the chosen device to give an accurate reading (Six Studio Digital n.d.) This app can also generate pink noise to be sent through the system when using the RTA and graphic equaliser to equalise a room.
6 Research | 6.5 Playback and operation technology
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6.5 Playback and operation technology

6.5.1 Hardware Hardware is often still used in theatre for the reliability aspects as well as the financial impact of new computerised systems. 6.5.1.1 Compact Disc (CD) The compact discs digital information is read by a laser in streams of bits, which is designed to be sampled 44,100 times per second (44.1 kHz sampling rate) with a 16-bit resolution allowing sound that seems to emerge from total silence, with a dynamic range in excess of 90dB. The CD can reproduce frequencies within the 20 Hz to 20 kHz range over two channels (stereo) of up to 70 minutes of audio per channel. Because CDs read a stream of sequential bits of data, if a section of that data is damaged, scratched or jumped there will be corrupted sound where the data is missed. Many professional CD players have sophisticated circuitry, monitoring samples before and after missing data and the CD player can interpolate what is missing and fill in the gap covering over errors. This doesnt always work especially if the laser reading the disc jumps due to any movement. The compact disc became the medium of choice for recorded music and sound effects in the 1980s and is still mass-produced around the world. Most home PCs now have CD burner drives installed allowing anybody to burn CDs. Sound designers can record the sound cues for shows on a CD using their own PC burner. (Patrick, 2002).
6.5.1.2 MiniDisc (MD) The MiniDisc uses a magneto-optical digital recording medium similar to that of digital cameras and other data storage applications. The MiniDisc records up to 74 minutes of stereo (2-channel) audio onto a 2-inch disc with the same sampling and bit rates of CD. MiniDisc recorders make it possible to name a track, which is great for theatre applications, naming tracks corresponding to cues. The recorders also make it possible to trim, combine, split, move and edit using A-B erase functions. Tracks can be moved around on the disc to re-order sequences. All great in theatre if things change during technical rehearsals, tracks can be added, deleted, reordered quickly with the single unit. Most professional MiniDisc players have many audio connections including unbalanced analogue I/O and digital I/O on S/P DIF optical connections. This makes recording digital sounds easy from CD or digital audio tapes (DAT). The Minidiscs are slightly more expensive than CDs but with the added flexibility and functions to rerecord, they are worth it. (Patrick, 2002).
6.5.1.3 Digital Audio Tape (DAT) A DAT deck is a combination of many other technologies including a samplers input electronics, a playback circuit that functions similarly to a CD unit and a cassette system that functions like a tape player. The recording/playback method utilises ultra-fine metallic pigments and the cassettes are available in 40, 60, 90 or 120 minutes. DAT has a dynamic range of 96 dB and a flat-frequency response from 2Hz to 20kHz. The sampling rate can either be 44.1kHz or 48kHz. DATs record PCM-encoded signal that is similar to video, there is rotating mechanical heads that pull the tape out of the cassette for recording and playback, which slows down the time it takes to swap the medium compared to CD and Minidisc. DAT offers noiseless recordings with sound effects emerging from silence. However, there are limitations to theatre applications since the digital recording is on a tape medium, it takes a long time to advance the tape, which is no good for fast cue sequences. DAT tape is more suitable for pre-show, intermission and background sounds. DAT machines are often used in combination with CD, tape or Minidisc in theatre. (Patrick, 2002).
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6.5.2 Software Over the last 20 years prices of sophisticated computers and storage media has been dropping all the time, meaning these systems have become more popular for audio playback. They now offer instant, random access playback capabilities with virtually no limitations. Some of the computer based playback software acts like virtual samplers such as the DAWs mentioned in 6.2.3.1 Digital audio workstation (DAW) while others incorporate levels, routing and cueing functions for performance applications such as QLab and SFX. (Huntington, 2000).
With the explosion of digital technology for sound, more and more productions are using hybrid reinforcement/playback systems: the (human) reinforcement mixer for a Broadway show is now able to press a single button and initiate complete sound-effects sequences. (Huntington, 2000).
QLab and SFX are pieces of software that manages the execution of sound effects that allows the control of sound files stored on a computers hard drive. These pieces of software will also control MIDI devices (6.5.3 MIDI show control). An advantage of using a computer for sound cues is the files are stored with descriptive names in a sound effect library that remains available for future productions. Selecting sound cues on a computer is easy. Organisation, manipulation and editing are also easy with all work being completed on one medium. Cues can be executed with the click of a mouse, a MIDI assigned button on the sound desk (via MIDI show control) or even by incoming MIDI Time Code from another MIDI device such as a lighting console, sequencer or MIDI instrument. (Patrick, 2002) QLab features 48 independent channels of audio output per cue, sample-accurate synchronisation of audio, completely customisable fade curves, easily transmit or receive MIDI Show Control messages, trigger from incoming time code, independent matrix mixer for every cue and full application scripting support. QLab also supports recorded or live video and animations. Many features of the above specification is free in QLab although there are some limitations such as only a stereo output can be used; script, MIDI and video require a pro licence. Depending what features are required a licence costs between $249-$599, although licences can rented at between $3-$7 per day. (From the QLab website, Figure 53, accessed 22 March 2013)
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6.5.3 MIDI show control MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) was introduced in the early 1980s with later editions developed for the sound industry; using note, velocity and control commands. MIDI then caught on to the entertainment lighting industry. There was however, a problem with the translation of MIDI command messages with lighting. Most companies came up with their own system but this caused problems when moving between systems. In 1991, a standard protocol was introduced known as MIDI Show Control or MSC. MSC has been kept as open as possible the necessities have been defined but there are still ample room for expansion. MIDI Show Control can control many different types of automation for a show including lighting, sound reinforcement, audio playback, video, riggings, flies, lifts and FXs such as fog, smoke, haze and pyro as well as any other automation. (Huntington, 2000).
6.5.4 Digital sound desk Most digital mixing desks allow for total recall within scenes, which can be useful for a theatre performance, recalling microphone mutes, level positions and aux sends. Each song or scene will require different parameters and recalling all these on an analogue desk is near impossible. This leads to misses in microphone pickups, which most directors have an extremely low tolerance for. They can forgive a horrible mix as long as the correct microphones are always live. This is a challenge when a mixer is learning a show and the timing of actors. (Slaton, 2011). This is where scenes on a digital desk come in, allowing one button to unmute and mute a number of microphones as well as changing a number of other parameters.
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7 Method | 7.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)
7 Method
Having fully researched the projects objectives the following three plans were formulated for theatre sound design, theatre sound instillation and a contingency plan if either of the other projects fails due to third parties.
7.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)

A meeting is to be setup with the director of the theatre company to receive the initial resources such as the script and a brief. The script will be read as that of an audience member and notes will be made on any sounds conveyed by the text. On further reads more notes will be made and formed into a list to present to the director when creating the sound plot. From the research into style, genre and instrumentation conveyed by the text a theme will be created in the form of a piece of audio. This audio will be created in Logic Pro. Audio restoration should be completed in iZotope RXII. This theme will be fed back to the director for discussion and notes. A further meeting should then be setup with the director and design team to decide on a theme, a genre, where sound effects and music are needed and a draft sound plot will be created. Further notes on sounds will be created and formed into a sounds to source list. Sounds and music will be sourced from sound effect libraries, recorded in studios or on location with a Marantz. All sounds will be edited and refined to achieve desired sound or effect. The director will approve all sound cues and any adjustments will be made. Throughout the production process rough sound files will be provided to the theatre company for use in rehearsals to make sure the sound design will work with the blocking and direction. In technical rehearsals, sound effect playback levels will be set so when the production goes on tour the mixer can keep the playback fader at a nominal level for ease of operation. Sound cues will be transferred to minidisc for performances. Backup minidiscs and compact discs will also be created in case of hardware failure whilst on tour.
7 Method | 7.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)
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7.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)

A meeting is to be setup with the Technical Theatre Manager to receive the brief and an equipment list (Figure 30 p62). All equipment is then to be researched to find the capabilities of each piece of equipment being used in the system (Figure 32 p64). A list of inputs and outputs for the system will be created (Figure 33 p65). This list will then be transferred into a flow diagram of the inputs and outputs of the system (Figure 34 p66). A diagram of connections will then be made with use of a key colour coding the different cables and connections (Figure 35 p67). Next a power plan will be made in Excel (Figure 36 p68) containing the power consumption of each piece of equipment and how it should be divided through the different power distribution boards. Formulas are to be used in excel to calculate the power consumption used. This will then be made into a power connection flow diagram (Figure 37 p69). Plans will also be created for video connections (Figure 38 p70), intercom connections (Figure 39 p71) and any network/computer connections. The venue will be measured of total area, audience areas and sound sources (Figure 40 p72). This data will then be input into the acoustic modelling software EaseFocus (Figure 41 p73). The software will be used to help determine where to hang speakers and what angles will be used on the boxes (Figure 42 p74). Diagrams will also be created for any racks to be built (Figure 43 p75). All diagrams will be created in OmniGraffle Pro. These plans help utilise time in the build and solve problems that may later arise. Radio frequencies will be calculated with relation to intermodulation and will be pre-programmed into Sennheisers WMS along with other settings including; gain, squelch and RF channel naming. Each receiver will then be synchronised with a microphone transmitter at the get-in stage. The M-400 desk will be pre-programmed with the planned patching, labelling and colour coding of all inputs, outputs, busses and matrixes. A starting EQ, compression and filters will be set on all inputs channels. Effects will also be setup and inserted into the planned channels. This will all be preprogramed with the M-400 RCS software. At the build stage, all racks will be built to the plans with labelling of all connections with use of colour coding. Cable bundles will be built with all connections and cables labelled. On the get-in, all equipment will be installed as to the plans, all connections made as to the labels and then all equipment and signal paths will be tested. A house EQ will be setup with use of pink noise, a real time analyser (RTA) (Studio Six Digitals Audio Tools) and a graphic equaliser (GEQ). GEQs will also be inserted into each monitor output on stage and equalised for maximum gain without feedback. When the script arrives scenes will be setup on the digital desk for each microphone change or sound effect volume adjustment. This will ensure each show sounds identical. EQs will be tweaked within each scene during the technical and dress rehearsals. On the final dress rehearsal, the show will be handed over to the mixer with a good explanation of the system setup and how to run the show, with the scenes setup and following the script. Notes will be given at the end of the final dress rehearsal before leaving sound in the mixers hands for the performances.
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7 Method | 7.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)
7.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)

A professionally formatted script will be created with the use of the software Celtx. This will be created from a number of monologues that are able to demonstrate an interesting sound design. Initial ideas will be jotted down including and obvious sounds and music indicated by the script (Figure 44 p77). A detailed sound plot will next be created (Figure 45 p78). The sound plot will indicate how many outputs and what equipment is required for the performance, this will be formed into an equipment list (Figure 47 p80). Plans will then be created (as in section 7.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)) including input/output flow diagrams, power planning, radio plans, acoustic plans and any rack plans). Lighting plans will also be created (Figure 51 p84) A table will be created of the sounds to be collected. These sounds will then be sourced or recoded using the planned means and then be edited, refined and/or arranged with the DAW Logic Pro. After each cue has been completed the created audio files will be imported into QLab to create the performance playback by setting levels, output, fades and starts and stops. MIDI cues are also to be setup in QLab to trigger parameters in Logic Pro, which are will handle live effects during the performance. MIDI cues will also be setup to send trigger to the piece of lighting software Q Lighting Controller (QLC) to control lighting for the performance. A script will be clearly marked with all sound, lighting and effect cues. On the performance day the equipment will be gathered, installed, labelled, tested and outputs equalised (as in section 7.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)). A technical rehearsal will be complete with tweaking of levels in QLab and any live sound effects. Lighting will be rigged, focused and programed. A live performance will then be conducted. Finally all equipment will be de-rigged, de-prepped and returned.
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8 Results | 8.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)
8 Results
8.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)
8.1.1 Initial meeting A meeting was setup with the Director of New Vic Borderlines Theatre Company to discuss the project and sound requirements. The Director requested a small portfolio of previous work to be able to determine experience and lead the way into the sound design. The director explained that they wanted realistic sounds without the use of obvious samples of virtual software instrumentation. The desire was to have real instruments recorded, with original music, which had no copyright limitation. This caused a problem as the project is set to be around technology and less around composition and gathering and recording musicians. To overcome this problem it was decided to try creating the best possible quality material and if the director was unhappy, too outsource the work of musical composition / recording to a third party. A brief was given to create a musical theme and edit voice-overs, clean them up and contextualise them with the script.
8.1.2 Voice-overs The vocals were cleaned up with the use of iZotope RXII. The original voice-overs were noisy and contained unwanted sounds. IZotopes Denoiser tool was used to reduce the noise in the recordings. This was done by selecting a piece of noisy unwanted frequency information (a section where there were no vocals) and training the denoiser. The tool was then applied to the whole track eliminating that frequency information from the vocals. Smoothing was used to try and keep the audio sounding natural however sometime too much frequency information was removed leaving the voices sounding robotic and unnatural. Reverb and EQ was later used in Logic to further smooth the edges and make the vocals sound realistic once again.
Figure 20 - iZotope's Denoiser Screenshot
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There were other problems with the audio provided by the theatre company, with clicks, pops and microphone-handling noise. With special tools within iZotope it was possible to make changes to the spectrum by either removing certain frequency information for a certain amount of time, or attenuating or replacing information from another area in the audio.
Figure 21 - iZotope's Spectral Repair Screenshot
Further editing was done to the voice-overs in Logic pro to remove sections of the speech to help the dialogue flow better. As the speech was in interview form there were lots of erms and muddled sentences. Through splicing up the audio file it was possible to make the dialogue flow better and still sound natural. Compression was used to make the vocals sound at a consistent level. EQ and reverb was also used to enhance and make the vocals sound natural.
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8.1.3 Music and Theme The theme music was composed and arranged in Logic Pro. Influences for the music came from the soundtrack of Bricklane (Gavron, 2007) and theatrical music from Duncan Sheik. VSTs were used to create long drowning natural instrumental sounds that do not originate to any particular time or place. Experimentation was done with pitch, reverberation, time stretching, and layering to achieve the sounds. Voice-overs were placed over the music with time adaptations, automation fades of volume, delay and reverberation to create effects. The voice overs where separated in a way to give dramatic time spacing between then, as can be seen in the below screen shot; the last word of each sentence was copied onto a separate track and processed with delay and reverberant effects to give the last word a trailing echo but allowing the rest of the sentence to be clearly audible.
Figure 22 - Contingency | Theme Logic Screenshot
8.1.4 Outcome The director was happy with the direction of the voice-overs but was unhappy with the music for undisclosed reasons. The offer of the third party was suggested for creation of the music and a meeting to arrange continuity was offered but no response was received resulting in the contingency plan for this project being undertaken.
8 Results | 8.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)
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8.2.1 Planning Research was thoroughly completed on all equipment (Figure 30 p62) to be used in the system to find what each device capability were and to make the best use of all equipment to meet the brief set by the client. This was done by looking through broachers, manuals and testing with the equipment or offline softwares. Plans were created to specification of the research and method sections in EaseFocus, OmniGraffell and Microsoft Excel. A problem was discovered at the planning stages with the band position and monitoring. The client wanted the band front-of-house situated on a balcony in the auditorium. If the band had wedge monitoring there would be confusion for the musicians with them being able to hear front-of-house (FOH) speakers as well as their monitor wedge. There would be a time delay between the two mixes and this would result in many timing problems. Wedge monitoring would probably also mean some of the audience would hear a click from the track at times. It was decided to give the three piece band individual headphone monitoring so they could each have what they required in there own mix, i.e. click, more of themselves, etcetera. A headphone amplifier was supplied to each band member so they could control their overall volumes for there own hearing protection. Another issue was onstage monitoring, the only monitoring available on the equipment list provided by the client was floor monitors or top hat (stand mountable) monitors. There was no option for flying monitors overhead as required. This was an issue as to achieve full coverage on stage there would need to be monitoring upstage, mid-stage and downstage and without flying monitors, cables would have to trail across the floor which was not an option due to trip hazards and set trucks moving on and off stage. It was suggested to the client to hire in some monitors with mounting brackets so monitoring could be flown overhead to give a good coverage of the stage for the actors and reduce risks.
8.2.2 Build / Get-in The build of equipment and preparation was smooth and went according to the planning. At the testing stage, there was a problem with one onstage monitor crackling and popping. As the monitor was rigged on a truss with lighting and set, it was difficult to now lower this speaker to the ground, therefore further testing had to be completed at height. The monitor was tested with an iPhone cable plugged direct into the speaker playing music to figure out if the speaker was the problem or whether it was something earlier in the chain. The music played from the iPhone was clean and clear indicating that the problem laid elsewhere. A set of headphones was plugged into the XLR output of the S4000 digital multicore and the signal being sent from the desk was clean and clear indicating that the XLR cable between the multicore and the monitor was faulty. A new cable was run out and the problem was solved. Upon testing the headset microphones on stage there were problems with the actors not being able to hear themselves and when the levels were turned up huge amounts of feedback would sound from the onstage monitors. During a break from technical rehearsal all microphones were placed on stage in different areas and levels were pushed until feedback rang, using Studio Six Digitals Real Time Analyser app on an iPad it was possible to identify the problem frequency and pull this out in graphic equalisers inserted within the signal path of the onstage monitors. The level of the microphones was then pushed again until another frequency rang out; this was repeated a number of times until enough level could be achieved on stage.
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8 Results | 8.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)
8.2.3 Technical rehearsals A problem developed upon receiving the script, there would be multiple microphones to switch on and off within seconds, this just would not be possible for the mixer. A number of options were explored on how this could be made easier including; assigning group faders within each scene so 1 fader could control as many microphones as needed. This would take a lot of careful planning and extreme concentration from the mixer. Another option was for every microphone, on or off, to be in a different desk scene. The scene would control fader levels and mutes. This option seemed more sensible as the scenes could be built as the technical rehearsals ran. On the first run an overall EQ, compression, gate, sends were set for each microphone and then scenes were stored with fader and mute information. On the second run more attention was set on EQ in individual scenes due to actors wearing different wigs/costume affecting sound, attention was also on send levels for scenes when certain actors needed to hear themselves more in certain sections. This information was then saved and recalled from scenes from thereon. During the technical and dress rehearsals the deputy stage manager wanted to be heard in the onstage monitors in order to control the actors. This caused problems later with her microphone channel accidently stored into scenes and often recalling her microphone during the first performance. After the performance each scene was carefully checked to ensure this would not happen again.
8.2.4 Dress rehearsals The mixer did not always change scenes on time meaning late microphones on and off, which looks terrible onstage when the actor is trying to speak but cat not be heard. The script was then clearly remarked for where scenes needed to be changed and pre-warnings on page changes with use of colour coding. The mixer soon improved and all microphone lives/mutes were completed on time.
8.2.5 Performances During one performance there was a problem with an onstage microphones popping and crackling, there was not an opportunity to change the belt pack for some time so the actor was handed the handheld microphone. This resulted in the mixer having to be particularly visual with script, unmute the handheld at each scene change. Meanwhile a spare belt pack was synced to the correct radio channel and the microphone pack was switched as soon as the actor came off stage. The problem was the connection between the microphone and the belt pack. This was fixed and returned to the actor for the next show.
8 Results | 8.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)
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8.3.1 Script The script was put together with extracts from three pieces of script Stockholm by Frantic Assembly, Woman in Black by Stephen Mallatratt and the film 2001: A Space Odyssey. This was created in the piece of software, Celtex along with stage notes and dialogue. This script was annotated with notes for the sound design. (Figure 44 p77).
8.3.2 Sound plot A sound plot was created detailing all sound cues within the performance (Figure 45 p78). From here a plan was formulate on how the sounds would be collected (Figure 46 p79). Throughout the project sounds were added and withdrawn from the original sound plot as testing was done with the actor and discoveries were made on what would and would not work.
8.3.3 Creating and editing cues Sounds were collected from the planned sources; within the studio, on location with a Marantz or from sound effect and music libraries. To create the sound scape, a recording of the dialogue was created in Logic Pro to which each sound effect was synchronised to the dialogue to ensure each sound would work for the performance. Each sound cue was then bounced out ready for use in QLab. This was a great way of working as it gave a clearer indication of how long sounds needed to be as well as fade in and out times to ensure each individual sound would work with the dialogue. Sounds were manipulated in Logic with use of; equalisation, dynamic processing, flex timing, pitch manipulation and other effects such as modulation, delay and reverb. Some sounds were mixed for multiple outputs, for example sending a clean signal through the main P.A and having a reverberated signal from the rear of the auditorium.
Figure 23 - Logic Pro - Sound Design Woman in Black Screenshot
An effect plugin iZotope Vinyl was used to add an effect to music, which was to appear to play from the gramophone on stage, adding artefacts to the music making it sound dated, dusty and scratched.
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8.3.4 Technical sound planning From the annotated script it was possible to decipher what inputs and outputs would be required to playback the sound design. First a simple flow diagram (Figure 49 p82) was created illustrating all inputs and outputs to be used in the design. A plan of the venue was next made up from measurements of the auditorium, the stage and the audience area. Notes were also made on where power connections were, as well as any important connections such as lighting digital multiplex (DMX), audio and video inputs. A wiring diagram (Figure 50 p83) was then created to help decipher exactly what equipment is required for the setup and to help on the build and get in. This was finalised into an equipment list (Figure 47 p80). Equipment was hired from Staffordshire Universitys stores, sound departments and film depa rtments. Any equipment unavailable to hire was bought from a number of suppliers.
8.3.5 QLab playback Each created sound file was imported into QLab, along with use of folders for grouped cues and fades to transition between cues. Approximate levels and fades were pre-setup within the studio, however these had to be tweaked on the performance day to match the noise floor and characteristics of the venue. MIDI cues were setup to control Logic Pro, which would handle the microphone for the performance. The microphone was set to the input of 5 separate Logic tracks, each with different effects and output routing. QLab was setup (via MIDI) to control the faders of each of these tracks in turn. MIDI was also used to control the lighting changes for the show; a MIDI cue was used to tell QLC+ to go to the next lighting state.
Figure 24 - QLab Screenshot - Fades Example
Figure 25 - QLab Screenshot - Output and mixing example
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8.3.6 Build / Get-in Equipment was gathered on the day and installed into the auditorium. The first job was to position the stage and setup the overhead lighting. This had to be the first task as the only access to the lights was via mobile platform ladders. The desired lights were focused onto the stage area and floodlights were used over the audience area to be used as houselights. Next the installation of the sound system was complete to the plan. Each output was then tested with the use of a test tone to check the full signal path. The lights were then programed into QLC+ with the desired level set for each light within each state. Fade in/out times were set accordingly.
Figure 26 (QLC+ Screen Shot - Plotting Lights)
Upon testing of the live microphone running through Logic Pro, it became clear there was an issue with latency. The sound processed by the computer was greatly delayed from when it left the actors mouth. This was greatly noticeable by the audience and gave a strange effect with the delay of vocals from the main sound system than from the actors voice. The buffer speed was lowered in Logic to try and overcome this but there were worries of the computer crashing with using such a quick processing time. The cues within QLab were then ran one at a time and manipulated in level and output to match the desired sound design. These were tweaked many times and tested from many audience positions. The microphone was then tested and each track in Logic was ran and manipulated for a better sound within the venue. On the second vocal track there was an effect that created distortion and reverberation, this effect caused serious feedback in the main sound system, problem frequencies were removed from the track with EQ but new frequencies appeared from the effect. This effect had to be changed considerably from the original design and there was not enough time to perfect this as other tasks had to be complete before the performance.
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8.3.7 Rehearsals A technical rehearsal was next performed running the actors microphone, pre-recorded sound cues and lighting. Each cue was run individually to make sure everything worked together. There were problems mixing in the live vocals and the recorded sound cues with the vocals being masked. The vocals were as loud as possible within Logic so each cue needed to be turned down in QLab to achieve a balance before lifting the overall level on the analogue mixer. This was a time consuming process, which could have been spent better perfecting levels and quality of cues. Each cue was then run again and adjustments were made to balance with the live vocals. Two dress rehearsals were then complete before the performance, after each notes was made on any issues, which were later corrected and tested before the performance.
8.3.8 Performance The performance went relatively smoothly on both a performance and technical aspect, all sound cues went as desired and effects were portrayed to the audience as planned in the design. However one MIDI cue failed and a fader was left up in Logic from a previous vocal effect, this was manually slowly faded out to slowly cover up the error. The show was not affected in anyway by this technical error.
9 Conclusion
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9 Conclusion
The main aims of the project have been completed through exploration of the technologies within theatre sound design, operation and installation. One main achievement of this project was successfully installing a sound design system into a venue for a pantomime production at The Sands Centre, ensuring there was equal coverage of the auditorium and the brief (Figure 30 p62) set by the venue was fully met. The other main achievement was creating a successful piece of theatre, including a successful sound design, installation system and operation system within the TV Studio at Staffordshire University. The New Vic Theatre company project collapsed due to communication failure. Over time the use of hardware and software has greatly improved the quality of sound within theatre whether that is playback of pre-recorded material or live sound reinforcement. This project has completed a number of objectives exploring many of these technologies and has produced a list of tools to assist with theatre sound design, installation and operation. The project successfully found the areas of technology required to help and improve sound for theatre. See fact sheet (Figure 29) within the appendices (p57).
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10 Evaluation | Digital Desk Comparison
10 Evaluation
10.1 Theatre Sound Design (New Vic Theatre)

The New Vic Theatre project of sound design for theatre gave the experience of working with a real director and company and dealing with the issues along the way. The project explored working with the director on initial ideas for the piece and voice-overs were then edited and restored to that of a good recording quality. A theme track was created for the piece, which met the directors description , however the director was still not happy with this. Due to a communication failure with the theatre company this lead to the failure of this particular project. If a similar project were to be completed realistic expectations would be clearly made at the initial meeting, stating clear strengths and weakness of the sound designer. This could then lead onto conversations about contingency plans, and making use of additional people to complete some aspects of the work, to assist the sound designer to meet the theatre companys expectations.

The theatre sound installation at The Sand Centre was completed remarkably well with the brief set by the company exceeded. This included; providing sufficient monitoring on stage, which was achieved by using overhead monitors focused at the correct areas and equalised for maximum gain. Full coverage of the auditorium was also achieved by making use of a correctly setup line-array system, front fills and a delay system. Appropriate intercommunication was also used including; crew communication, backstage relay and show CCTV. This was all achieved by careful research of the available equipment and planning of use and connectivity. Some aspects of the project did become challenging at times, especially during the build and get in, working with strict deadlines set by the theatre company to achieve the show opening on time. This included finding faults in equipment, preventing feedback and training the mixer with the design and script. If a similar project were to be completed again further research would be completed on sound reinforcement techniques to achieve further control over feedback.
10 Evaluation
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The contingency project was a huge success, achieving a full theatrical event with the planning and execution by just the sound designer and an actor. The contingency project was a lot of work for a single personal managing a full theatre project and all aspects within this including; the planning, sourcing and editing of sounds, rehearsing the actor, preparation, gathering of equipment, build and get-in of the space including; staging, masking, lighting and sound, finally followed by the performance operation. The project required huge amounts of planning to ensure things would run smoothly on the day. Planning of the equipment, the installation and of time ensured the event was a success. In the real world one person would never manage all aspects of a theatrical performance. The sound recording, collection and management were also a success gathering well-recorded sound effects and voice-overs. The use of software for the performance was another key success having programed one piece of software to control all aspects of the event on the press of a single button by the operator. QLab managed the houselights, theatrical lights, all music, all sound effects and all live sound reinforcement for the event, reducing the workload of the operator, ensuring there was less chance of human error. If this project was to be executed again help would be acquired to reduce the workload, which would improve quality of the sound for performance, more time could be spent on the get-in / build of sound, as the project desired, while other technicians could concentrate on the stage, masking and lighting.
10.4 Further research

This project covers only a handful of techniques and equipment available to the sound industry, many others can be applied in theatre especially from the sound reinforcement industries. Further research into room acoustics for auditoriums and concert halls, much more on research into acoustic modelling, learning further microphone techniques and loudspeaker designs. Much further research could also be completed on the collection and storage of sounds to complete a sound design, research can be completed here from the TV, film and gaming industries.
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11 Bibliography | Digital Desk Comparison
11 Bibliography
Ament, V. T. (2009). The Foley Grail. Oxford: Focal Press. Ballou, G. (2008). Handbook for Sound Engineers. Oxford: Focal Press. Bartlett, B. (2009). Practical Recording Techniques. Oxford: Focal Press. Benediktsson, B. (2011, May 11). How to calculate a delay tower. Retrieved March 13, 2013 from Audio Tuts +: http://audio.tutsplus.com/tutorials/production/how-to-calculate-a-delay-tower/ Biernson, G. A. (1988). Principles of Feedback Control: Advanced Control Topics (Volume 2 ed.). WileyInterscience. Coleman, P. (2004). Basics - a Beginner's Guide to Stage Sound. Entertainment Technology Press. Davis, G., & Jones, R. (1988). The Sound Reinforcement Handbook (2nd ed.). Yamaha. Owen, A. (Producer), & Gavron, S. (Director). (2007). Bricklane [Motion Picture]. United Kingdom. Gottleib, P., & Hennerich, G. (2008). Recording on the Go: The Definitive Guide to Live Recording. Boston, MA, USA: Course Technology. Gronow, P., & Saunio, I. (1998). An international history of the recording industry. London: Cassell. Huntington, J. (2000). Control Systems for Live Entertainment. Boston: Focal Press. Jacobs, J. (2012, November 27). MXL FR-310 Hot Shoe Shotgun Microphone Review. Retrieved Feburary 27, 2013 from TechwareLabs: http://www.techwarelabs.com/mxl-fr-310-hot-shoe-shotgun-microphone-review/ Kaye, D., & James, L. (1999). Sound and Music for the Theatre: The Art and Technique of Design (Second ed.). Focal Press. Leonard, J. A. (2001). Theatre Sound. London: A & C Black Ltd. Mort, S. (2011). Stage Lighting: The Technicians' Guide. London: Bloomsbury Publishing PLC. Patrick, F. (2002). Sound for the Stage (Applications and Techniques). Entertainment Technology Press. Roberts, R. (2011). Celtx: Open Source Screenwriting. Birmingham, UK: Packt Publishing. Sandall, R. (2011, June 17). The Great Portable Digital Audio Recorder Comparison . Retrieved Feburary 28, 2013 from Dv Magazine: http://magazine.dv247.com/2011/06/17/portable-digital-audio-recordercomparison/ Sandstrom, U. (1997). Stage Lighting Controls. Oxford: Focal Press. Slaton, S. (2011). Mixing a Musical: Broadway Theatrical Sound Techniques. Focal Press. Sonnenschein, D. (2001). Sound Design: The Expressive Power of Music, Voice and Sound Effects in Cinema. Michael Wiese Productions. Stachowiak, J. (2011, September 09). Digital Vs Analogue Mining. Retrieved March 03, 2013 from Absolute Music: http://www.absolutemusic.co.uk/community/entries/206-digital-vs-analogue-mixing An investigation into the use of specific technologies to design and install sound for theatre Greg Brown | 09002037
11 Bibliography
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The Omni Group. (2012, August 27). OmniGraffle. Retrieved March 03, 2013 from Omni: http://www.omnigroup.com/products/omnigraffle/ Viers, R. (2008). The Sound Effects Bible. California: Michael Wiese Productions. White, P. (2000). Basic MIDI. Sanctuary Publishing. White, P. (2000). Basic: Live Sound. Music Sales America. White, P. (1999). Basic: Microphones. London: Sanctuary Publishing Limited. White, P. (1998). Live Sound (Performing Musicians). Sanctuary. Yewdall, D. L. (2012). Practical Art of Motion Picture Sound (4th Edition ed.). Oxford: Focal Press.
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Appendices |12 Webography
12 Webography
AFMG. (2013). EASEFocus. Retrieved January 28, 2013 from AFMG: http://focus.afmg.eu/ Apple. (2013). Logic Pro. Retrieved February 28, 2013 from Apple: http://www.apple.com/logicpro AVID. (2013). Pro Tools 10. Retrieved Feburary 28, 2013 from AVID: http://www.avid.com/US/products/ProTools-Software/ Figure 53. (2013). Figure 53. Retrieved March 22, 2013 from QLab: http://figure53.com/qlab/ iZotope. (2013). RXII. Retrieved 03 20, 2013 from Izotope: http://www.izotope.com/products/audio/rx/ Media College (n.d.) [Image Online] Retrieved January 14, 2013 from Media College: http://www.mediacollege.com/audio/microphones/dynamic.html Six Studio Digital. (n.d.). FFT or RTA? Retrieved 11 12, 2012 from Studio Six Digital: http://www.studiosixdigital.com/fft_or_rta.html The Omni Group. (2012, August 27). OmniGraffle. Retrieved March 03, 2013 from Omni: http://www.omnigroup.com/products/omnigraffle/ University of Washington. (n.d.). [Image Online] Retrieved February 28, 2013 from University Libraries: http://www.lib.washington.edu/subject/Drama/images/
14 Appendices
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14 Appendices
Non-sound related theatrical research .......................................................................................................... 52 Digital Audio Workstation Comparison .......................................................................................................... 54 Digital Desk Comparison ................................................................................................................................ 55 Effects and Processing Definitions ................................................................................................................. 56 Software Resources ....................................................................................................................................... 58 Resources ...................................................................................................................................................... 59 Useful Calculations & Equations .................................................................................................................... 61 Theatre Installation - Brief & Equipment List ................................................................................................. 62 Theatre Installation - Draft Venue Drawing ................................................................................................... 63 Equipment Research - Theatre Installation .................................................................................................... 64 Theatre Installation - Input & Output Table ................................................................................................... 65 Theatre Installation - Flow Diagram Desk Outputs ......................................................................................... 66 Theatre Installation - Sound Wiring Diagram ................................................................................................. 67 Theatre Installation - Power Calculation Plan ................................................................................................ 68 Theatre Installation - Power Wiring Diagram ................................................................................................. 69 Theatre Installation - Video Communication Plan .......................................................................................... 70 Theatre Installation - Communication Plans .................................................................................................. 71 Theatre Installation - Venue to scale drawing ................................................................................................ 72 Theatre Installation - Sound Sources Plans .................................................................................................... 73 Theatre Installation - Line-array Aiming Plan ................................................................................................. 74 Theatre Installation - Rack Plans .................................................................................................................... 75 Contingency - Annotated Script ..................................................................................................................... 76 Contingency - Sound Plot ............................................................................................................................... 78 Contingency - Sounds to Source ..................................................................................................................... 79 Contingency Equipment List ........................................................................................................................ 80 Contingency Theatre Layout Plan ................................................................................................................ 81 Contingency - Input / Output Flow Diagram .................................................................................................. 82 Contingency - Wiring Diagram ....................................................................................................................... 83 Contingency - Lighting Plan ............................................................................................................................ 84 Additional Research and Notes for Contingency Plan .................................................................................... 85 Dissertation CD Contents ............................................................................................................................... 86
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Appendices |Non-sound related theatrical research
Non-sound related theatrical research

Script writing
Script writing needs to be in a professional standard format or directors and producers will not waste their time reading it. Celtx is a piece of open source software that automatically formats scripts correctly. The software also can be used for the storyboarding, sketching, cataloguing and producing production schedules (Roberts, 2011). Script writing can be completed in common word processing packages but with difficulty to achieve the correct formatting.
Theatrical Lighting
There are three main parts to a lighting system; lanterns/luminaires, dimmers and control. The lanterns produce light are powered by cables or fixed circuits that are connected to either dimmer units (for generic lighting) or independent switched circuits (for DMX controlled fixtures.) The dimmers are controlled by DMX (Digital Multiplex) to control the intensity of each lantern. Lighting control is in the form of a desk or computer, which operates the dimmers, moving light fixtures, LED fixture or special FX via DMX. Digital Multiplexing (DMX 512) uses a computerised data system to control information in a series of bits down a single data cable. This is in the form of binary code. DMX recognises the binary as a lighting level between 0 no light and 255 full light. DMX uses a two-core data cable that is capable of handling 512 separate control channels to connect the control unit to lighting or effect units. DMX is connected together in a loop or daisy chain via DMX in and out sockets. DMX cables are either 5pin or 3pin XLR plugs and sockets. DMX addresses are set on units via a digital keypad, miniature rotating switches or dipswitches. (Mort, 2011) Lighting layout plans are used to show the position of lighting bards and the layout of all outlet sockets and circuit numbers, the plan should also include basic measurements of the space. This will be crucial when creating the lighting design plan. The lighting design plan should show where all lanterns are hung, their channels, dimmers, gels, gobos and uses. This information will be useful when rigging and programing the show. CAD (computer aided design) software or stage lighting software such as LxDesigner or LXFree can be used to create such plans. (Mort, 2011)
Figure 27 - LxDesign Plan (Mort, 2011)
Non-sound related theatrical research
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Lighting plot sheets should be used when programming a show with cue no, time & type, action, levels, aftercue and notes.
Figure 28 - Lighting Plot Sheet (Mort, 2011)
Q-File systems provide memory control of DMX information through computer technology. Computers are often used to handle information and software instructs the computer of how to do so. With software programming can be updated, downloaded, rewritten and improved. The software is run on a hardware platform, which is the mechanical side of a computer. Most lighting control hardware include a traditional computer (RAM, processor, hard-drive), then faders and keys process and compute information to outputted as DMX. The processor can also provide exact information about channels, levels and on going fades (etc.) in displays or monitors. (Sandstrom, 1997). Personal computers can now be used to control lighting with use of software that runs on PC operating systems such as Microsoft Windows, Mac OS X, and Linux. These pieces of software can be used with touch screens, keyboard and mouse, or wings, which have traditional light ing keypads and faders. Often dongles that convert USB to DMX512 can be used to output the control signal. ChamSys Magic Q and Avolites Titan are examples of professional PC based systems although there are free open source apps available such as Q Light Controller (QLC)
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Appendices |Digital Audio Workstation Comparison
Digital Audio Workstation Comparison

Apples Logic Pro 9 Avids Pro Tools 10 Cubase
Highest Bit Rate Highest Sample Rate Max Audio Tracks Max Instrument Tracks Max MIDI Tracks Max AUX Tracks Max Busses Max project length @96kHz Bundled effect plug-ins Bundled Software Instruments Rewire Mac PC
24 bit 192kHz 255 255 255 64 6 hours 87 40 (1,700) Yes Yes No http://www.apple.com /uk/logicpro/
32 bit 192kHz 96 64 512 160 256 75 7 Yes Yes Yes http://www.avid.com/ US/products/pro-toolssoftware
256 64 64 256 66 8 (2,808) Yes Yes Yes http://www.steinberg.n et/en/products/cubase/ start.html
Table 1 - Digital Audio Workstation Comparison
Digital Desk Comparison
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Digital Desk Comparison

Roland M-400 Yamaha LS9-16 Allen & Heath GLD-80
Inputs Outputs
48 inputs L C R Main 8 Matrixes 16 Auxiliaries 8 4 Stereo FX or 4 Stereo GEQ 4 Mono 4 Band Parametric 24 Gates & Compressors 8 8 XLR Inputs 8 XLR Outputs Stereo Phono In
32mono + 4 stereo Stereo, Mono 8 Matrixes 16 Auxiliaries 16 4 Stereo FX or 4 Stereo GEQ 4 Mono 4 Band Parametric All chs Gate & Compressors 16 XLR Inputs 8 XLR Outputs 2TRK Digital In/Out
Groups FXs Graphic Equalisers (GEQ) Channel EQ Channel Inserts External Inserts Unit Connections
48 inputs Up to 20 mix Outputs 30 assignable busses (Aux, Group, Matrix, Main, FX Send) 16 8 Stereo FX All outputs with Comp & Delay 4 Band Parametric All chs Gate, Compressor & Delay 4 XLR Inputs 4 XLR Outputs 4 RCA Inputs 2 RCA Outputs SPDIF Digital Out AES3 Digital Out USB Recorder/Player 2x GLD-AR Up to 44 inputs and 16 outputs by Ethernet
USB Recorder/Player Talkback XLR 2x REAC (Roland Ethernet Audio Connection) up to 80 channels of in/out Scenes Data, Control and Other 999 USB(A) Stick Control via M-400 RCS USB(B) MIDI M-400 RCS 24bit, 48kHz 19.8kg
http://www.roland.com/products/ en/M-400/
USB Recorder/Player Expansion Slot
Computer Editor DA/AD Conversion Weight
USB Ethernet MIDI Word Clock I/O LS9 Editor 32bit, 48kHz 12kg
http://www.yamahaproaudio.com/ global/en/products/mixers/ls9/
Yes USB Ethernet MIDI GLD Remote for iPad 24bit, 38kHz 16.5kg
http://www.allenheath.com/uk/Products/Pages/Prod uctDetails.aspx?CatId=GLDSeries&Pr oductId=GLD80&SubCatId=
Table 2 - Digital Sound Desk Comparison
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Appendices |Effects and Processing Definitions
Effects and Processing Definitions

Equalisation Equalisers allow cutting and boosting to the frequency spectrum of an audio signal. There are many different types of EQs. Bandpass Filter EQ is a filter that passes frequencies between two limits. These are often high pass (low cut) filters. They can contain a frequency selection (sweep) control and a cut or boost control. Parametric EQ (PEQ) is normally found on mixing desks and DAWs, which allows a frequency selection, cut or boost and a Q or bandwidth selection. Graphic EQ (GEQ) is a recognisable by a row of faders across its front panel, each of which controls a narrow section of the audio spectrum, allowing a cut or boost on the frequency selection on the fader. A compressor reduces the difference in level between the loudest and quietest sounds. The user sets a threshold to start the compressor then sets a level of how much to compress in the form of a ratio. There is often also a post compress gain or makeup gain and attack, hold and release times. There is sometimes also a soft knee setting, that ease in the compression rather than everything happening as soon as the signal hits the threshold. Limiters compress the signal to infinity to stop a signal peaking going above a curtain level. There is often a threshold and gain setting. A gate is an automatic switch, which turns the audio signal off when the signal falls below a set threshold. There is often attack, hold and release time for gates. An enhancer creates new higher frequencies providing the illusion that the sound is actual cleaner and brighter than original. Most exciters and enhancers combine elements of dynamic equalisation with harmonic synthesis and phase manipulation. Delay effects can be used to create slap-back echoes or a distinct single echo. Delay times can often be set and even linked to a tap tempo to add desired effects to a song. Reverberation is an effect that adds sound reflections from surfaces inside a confined space such as a building. Reverb units use digital signal processing chips for their operation. Most reverb units come with algorithms for halls, rooms, chambers and plates. Pitch shifting is a process which changes the pitch of an audio signal without changings its duration. Most pitch shifters allow changes of up to 2 octaves up or down with fine tuning and semitone step adjustments. Manual feedback control is when the user uses a graphic equaliser (GEQ) to notch out troublesome frequencies when they occur. The procedure known as ringing out is where the operator raiser the gain until ringing occurs, then that frequency is taken out on a GEQ and the process is repeated until enough gain is achieved without feedback. Automatic systems use narrow bands of frequencies and automatic remove the problem frequencies during a sound check.
Compressors
Limiters Gates & Expanding Exciters and Enhancers
Delay
Reverberation
Pitch Shifting
Anti-Feedback Systems
Table 3 - Effects and Processors Definition (White, 2003)
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Hardware and Software to assist Sound Design for Theatre

Technology such as Word Processing and Spread sheets were helpful when creating sound design plans and plot giving an easy method of editing, printing and emailing to the appropriate personnel. o Apple: Pages and Numbers o Microsoft Office: Work and Excel o OpenOffice: Writer Digital Audio Workstations are an invaluable tool for the modern sound designer, giving great flexibility to collect, edit, arrange and export cues in multiple formats. o AVID Pro Tools o Apple Logic Pro o Steinberg Cuebase Technical sound design planning is made easy with CADD and vector drawing tools, making flow diagrams neatly and quickly and allowing for quick edits when changes are made. o AutoDesk AutoCadd o Omni-Graffle Pro o Stardraw o Vector Works Technology for installing a sound design is great for achieving the best from equipment; from aiming the speakers in the best positions, to equalising a system, or monitoring radio frequency or battery levels. o AFMG EASE / EASE Focus / SysTune o Meyer Sound Simm o Odeon Room Acoustic o Rational Acoustics Smaart Computer playback is a great tool and can control all aspects of a show, it proves to be very reliable but there could be some bugs and it can become overwhelming with the number of cues controlling each aspect of a show. o QLab o SFX
Manufacture equipment software such as offline desk editors, wireless management systems and loudspeaker management systems are also valuable tools when using this equipment.
Figure 29 - Hardware & Software to assist Sound Design for Theatre
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Appendices |Software Resources
Software Resources
Digital Audio Workstations
Apple Logic Pro www.apple.com/logicpro Avid Pro Tools www.avid.com/products/family/protools Steinbergs Cubase www.steinberg.net/en/products/cuba se Ableton Live www.ableton.com Propellerhead Reason www.propellerheads.se/products/reas on Cycling74 MAX www.cycling74.com/products/max
Radio Frequency Software

RF Guru www.stageresearch.com/products/RF Guru Intermodulation Analysis System www.professionalwireless.com/ias Sennheiser Wireless Management System (WMS) en-de.sennheiser.com/servicesupport/wsm Shure Wireless Workbench (WWB) www.shure.co.uk/support_download/ downloads/software-drivers/wwb6
AFMG EASEFocus focus.afmg.eu Odeon Room Acoustic Software www.odeon.dk
Audio Analysis Software

AFMGs SysTune systune.afmg.eu Rational Acoustics Smaart www.rationalacoustics.com/smaart Meyer Sounds Sim www.meyersound.com/products/sim/ sim3
Planning & Drawing Software

Microsoft Excel office.microsoft.com/en-gb/excel
iPhone / iPad apps

Ambrosias Soundboard www.ambrosiasw.com/utilities/sounb oard-ipad Audio Tools www.studiosixdigital.com/audiotools/ FX Live www.driftwoodsoftware.com/fxlive.html
Audio Restoration
iZotope RXII www.izotope.com/rx Apple Soundtrack Pro www.apple.com/support/soundtrackp ro Adobe Audition www.adobe.com/uk/products/auditio n.html
Microsoft Work office.microsoft.com/en-001/word OmniGraffle www.omnigroup.com/products/omnig raffle Vectorworks www.vectorworks.net AutoDesks AutoCAD www.autodesk.co.uk/autocad StarDraw www.stardraw.com
Lighting Software
QLC http://qlc.sourceforge.net/ Chamsys Magic Q http://chamsys.co.uk/magicq
Playback / Show Control

QLab www.figure53.com/qlab/ SFX www.stageresearch.com/products/SF X6/SFX6.aspx
Acoustic Modelling Software

AFMG EASE ease.afmg.eu
Appendices | Resources
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Resources
Trade Magazines
The Stage www.thestage.co.uk Professional Sound www.professional-sound.com Sound on Sound www.soundonsound.com
Microphone Manufacturers
AKG www.akg.com Audio Technica www.audio-technica.com Audix www.audixusa.com Newman www.newmann.com Rode www.rodemic.com Sennheiser www.sennheiser.com Shure www.shure.com
Behringer www.behringer.com Digico www.digico.biz Mackie www.mackie.com M-Audio www.m-audio.com Peavey www.peavey.com Roland www.roland.co.uk Tannoy www.tannoy.com Tascam www.tascam.com Soundcraft www.soundcraft.com
Online Resources
Blue Room www.blue-room.org.uk FOH Online www.fohonline.com
Organisations and Unions

ABTT The Association of British Theatre Technicians www.abtt.org.uk AES Audio Engineering Society www.aes.org BECTU Broadcasting, Entertainment, Cinematograph and Theatre Union www.bectu.org.uk Equity www.equity.org.uk
Recording Equipment
Edirol www.edirol.com Roland www.roland.com Sony www.sony.com Zoom www.zoom.co.jp
SSL www.solid-stage-logic.com Yamaha www.yamaha.com
Sound Effect Libraries

Pro Sound Effects www.prosoundeffects.com Sound Dogs www.sounddogs.com
Studio / Live Sound Equipment

Alesis www.alesis.com Allen & Heath www.allen-heath.com Avid www.avid.com
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Appendices |Resources
Loudspeaker Companies
D&B Audio Technique www.dbaudio.com dB Technologies www.dbtechnologies.com K-array www.k-array.com LAcoustic www.l-acoustics.com EM Acoustics www.emacoustics.co.uk Martin Audio www.martin-audio.com Meyer Sound www.meyersound.com RCF www.rcf.it
Retailers
Dv247 www.dv247.com Canford www.canford.co.uk Gear4Music www.gear4music.com Thomann www.tomann.de ProAudioSystems www.proaudiosystems.co.uk Stage Electrics www.stage-electrics.co.uk Studio Spares www.studiospares.co.uk
Appendices | Useful Calculations & Equations
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Useful Calculations & Equations

Calculate power consumption in Watts Calculate current consumption in Amps Calculating of resistance Calculating time delay to set from main sound source Calculate intermodulation Intermodulation = frequency 1 + frequency 2 Intermodulation = frequency 1 - frequency 2 Power in Watts = Voltage x Current in Amps
Table 4 - Useful Calculations & Equations
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Appendices |Theatre Installation - Brief & Equipment List
Theatre Installation - Brief & Equipment List
Figure 30 - Theatre Installation - Brief & Equipment List
Appendices | Theatre Installation - Draft Venue Drawing
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Theatre Installation - Draft Venue Drawing
Figure 31 - Theatre Installation - Draft Drawing
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Appendices |Equipment Research - Theatre Installation
Equipment Research - Theatre Installation

Roland M-400 - Digital Sound Desk http://www.roland.com/products/en/M-400/ This Roland V-Mixer is an extremely versatile digital mixing console with the ability to patch different inputs or outputs to 48input channels, 16 auxiliaries or 8 matrixes. There is a fully four-band parametric EQ on each channel and 24 gates & compressors to use across the inputs. There are 4 Mono 31 band graphic equalisers (GEQ) and 4 (Stereo) assignable FX units or GEQs. There can be 8 mono external inserts for outboard gear. Connections on the unit include 8XLR inputs & outputs, talkback XLR, Stereo phono in, 2xREAC (Roland Ethernet Audio Connection) connections. The system offers full recall for up to 999 scenes over unlimited (storage dependable) projects. The system can be pre-programed with M-400 RCS software and connected via USB for uploading the project via computer. The RCS software can also be used for live/remote editing. Roland S4000S - Digital Stage Box (Multicore) http://www.roland.com/products/en/S-4000S-MR/ The S4000 converts up to 40channels AD/DA to run down a single line of CAT5e via REAC (Roland Ethernet Audio Connection). The CAT5e can be up to 100m where then it requires a CAT5e switch to boost the signal. The Sands Centre owns 40 inputs and 40 outputs in groups of 4 - a module card. The module cards need to be inserted in pairs, with inputs and outputs grouped together and inputs at the left of the S4000 enclosure as to Roland Specification. The S4000 has high equality XR-1 Pre-Amps at the stage box eliminating cable noise which is normally there when using traditional long analogue cable runs.
Sennheiser G300 G3 - Radio Microphones

Head microphones http://www.pulse-audio.co.uk/5051259018273.shtml The pulse headset microphone comes with a huge frequency response from 20Hz-20kHz great for full amplification of vocals, it is a highly sensitive, omnidirectional condenser microphone with a 3.5mm locking jack to fit the Sennheiser SMK in section 4.3.1.7.
Figure 32 - Theatre Installation - Equipment Research
Appendices | Theatre Installation - Input & Output Table
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Theatre Installation - Input & Output Table

Input Chs
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 Kick Snare Hi Hat Tom L Tom R Cymbal L Cymbal R Bass Keys 1 L Keys 1 R Keys 2 L Keys 2 R Track L Track R Click Backing Vocals FX / Instrument
Output
Main L Main R Main Mono Matrix 1 Matrix 2 Matrix 3 Matrix 4 Matrix 5 Matrix 6 Matrix 7 Matrix 8 Aux 1 Aux 2 Aux 3 Aux 4 Aux 5 Aux 6 Aux 7 Aux 8 Aux 9 Aux 10 Aux 11 Aux 12 Aux 13 Aux 14 Aux 15 Aux 16
Line-Array Left Line-Array Right Front-Fill Left Front-Fill Right Galleries Delays DSM Upstage Mons Midstage Mons Downstage Mons Drummer Bassist Keys Subs Loop System Backstage Relay Communications Reverb Left Reverb Right Delay L Delay R
DSM Microphone Aladdin Abanazer WisheeWashee Widow Twanky Jasmine Emperor of China PC Ping Pong Genie Maiden Slave Hand Held Hand Held Backup CD Left CD Right MD Left MD Right
Reverb L Reverb R Delay L Delay R
Figure 33 - Theatre Installation - Input & Output Table
P a g e | 66
Appendices |Theatre Installation - Flow Diagram Desk Outputs
Theatre Installation - Flow Diagram Desk Outputs
Figure 34 - Theatre Installation - Flow Diagram Desk Outputs
Appendices | Theatre Installation - Sound Wiring Diagram
P a g e | 67
Theatre Installation - Sound Wiring Diagram
Figure 35 - Theatre Installation - Sound Wiring Diagram
P a g e | 68
Appendices |Theatre Installation - Power Calculation Plan
Theatre Installation - Power Calculation Plan
Figure 36 - Theatre Installation - Power Plan
Appendices | Theatre Installation - Power Wiring Diagram
P a g e | 69
Theatre Installation - Power Wiring Diagram
Figure 37 - Theatre Installation - Power Wiring Diagram
P a g e | 70
Appendices |Theatre Installation - Video Communication Plan
Theatre Installation - Video Communication Plan
Figure 38 - Theatre Installation - Video Communication Plan
Appendices | Theatre Installation - Communication Plans
P a g e | 71
Theatre Installation - Communication Plans
Figure 39 - Theatre Installation - Communication Plans
P a g e | 72
Appendices |Theatre Installation - Venue to scale drawing
Theatre Installation - Venue to scale drawing
Figure 40 - Theatre Installation - Venue to scale Plan
Appendices | Theatre Installation - Sound Sources Plans
P a g e | 73
Theatre Installation - Sound Sources Plans
Figure 41 - Theatre Installation - Ease Focus - Sound Sources Plan
P a g e | 74
Appendices |Theatre Installation - Line-array Aiming Plan
Theatre Installation - Line-array Aiming Plan
Figure 42 - Theatre Installation - Ease Focus - Line-Array Aiming Plan
Appendices | Theatre Installation - Rack Plans
P a g e | 75
Theatre Installation - Rack Plans
Figure 43 - Theatre Installation - Rack Plans
P a g e | 76
Appendices |Contingency - Annotated Script
Contingency - Annotated Script
Appendices | Contingency - Annotated Script
P a g e | 77
Figure 44 - Contingency - Annotated Script
P a g e | 78
Appendices |Contingency - Sound Plot
Contingency - Sound Plot
Figure 45 - Contingency - Sound Plot
Appendices | Contingency - Sounds to Source
P a g e | 79
Contingency - Sounds to Source
Figure 46 - Contingency - Sounds to source
P a g e | 80
Appendices |Contingency Equipment List
Contingency Equipment List
Figure 47 - Contingency - Equipment List
Appendices | Contingency Theatre Layout Plan
P a g e | 81
Contingency Theatre Layout Plan
Figure 48 - Contingency - Theatre Layout Plan
P a g e | 82
Appendices |Contingency - Input / Output Flow Diagram
Contingency - Input / Output Flow Diagram
Figure 49 - Contingency - Inputs & Output Flow Diagram
Appendices | Contingency - Wiring Diagram
P a g e | 83
Contingency - Wiring Diagram
Figure 50 - Contingency Flow/Wiring Diagram
P a g e | 84
Appendices |Contingency - Lighting Plan
Contingency - Lighting Plan
Figure 51 - Contingency - Lighting Plan
Appendices | Additional Research and Notes for Contingency Plan
P a g e | 85
Additional Research and Notes for Contingency Plan
Figure 52 - Additional Research and Notes for Contingency Plan
P a g e | 86
Appendices |Dissertation CD Contents
Dissertation CD Contents
1. Electronic Dissertation (DOCX) 2. Electronic Dissertation (PDF) 3. Supporting information for Theatre Sound Design (New Vic Theatre) (Portfolio) a. Email exchanges (PDF) b. Directors brief & expectations (PDF) c. All Our Daughters script (PDF) d. Original voice overs (Folder of AIF) e. Cleaned voice overs (Logic file or bounced AIF) f. Theme music (Logic file or bounced AIF) g. Voice over comparisons (MP3) 4. Supporting information for Theatre Sound Installation (The Sands Centre) (Portfolio) a. Email exchanges (PDF) b. Brief & equipment list (PDF) c. Research and product manuals (PDF) d. Full plans (PDF) e. M400 desk file f. WSM file g. Photos and screen shots 5. Supporting information for Contingency Plan (Staffordshire University) (Portfolio) a. Research (MOV / MP4 / PDF) b. Script (CELTX / PDF) c. Sound Design Plans (PDF) d. Sound Creations (Logic Files) e. Technical Plans (PDF / DOC / GRAFFLE / LXPLOT) f. Performance Files (CUES / QXW / Logic / AIF) g. Performance Movie (MP4) h. Photos and screen shots

Dissertation - Theatre Sound Design, Installation &amp; Operation

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Dissertation - Theatre Sound Design, Installation &amp; Operation

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Final Report:

BSc (Hons) Music Technology

Faculty of Arts and Creative Technologies

9 Conclusion ................................................................................................................... 45 10 Evaluation ................................................................................................................. 46

Figure 1 - Mechanical Theatre Sound Effects (Leonard, 2001)

Figure 2 - Proscenium Arch Theatre Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)

Figure 3 - Thrust Stage Theatre Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)

Figure 4 - Traverse Stage Theatre Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)

Figure 5 - Theatre in the Round Layout (University of Washington, n.d.)

5 Aims and objectives

5 Aims and objectives

6 Research | 6.1 Creating a sound design for theatre

Figure 6 - Sound Cue Plot Example (Kaye & James, 1999)

6 Research | 6.1 Creating a sound design for theatre

Figure 7 - Collection List Example (Kaye & James, 1999)

6.2 Technology for sound and music creation and editing

Figure 8 - Dynamic Microphones (Media College, n.d.)

Figure 9 - Condenser Microphones (Media College n.d.)

Figure 10 - Microphone Pickup Patterns (Jacobs 2012)

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

6.3 Technology for design and installation

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

Figure 11 - Typical Intercom Setup (Slaton, 2011)

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

Figure 12 - Typical Video Setup (Slaton, 2011)

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

Figure 14 - Auditorium Coverage Plan (Kaye & James, 1999)

Figure 15 - EASEFocus Screen Shot

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

Figure 16 - Output flow diagram (Slaton, 2011)

6 Research | 6.3 Technology for design and installation

Figure 17 - Rack Diagram (Slaton, 2011)

6 Research | 6.4 Technology for testing and adjusting a sound system

6.4 Technology for testing and adjusting a sound system

6 Research | 6.4 Technology for testing and adjusting a sound system

6 Research | 6.4 Technology for testing and adjusting a sound system

6 Research | 6.5 Playback and operation technology

6.5 Playback and operation technology

6 Research | 6.5 Playback and operation technology

6 Research | 6.5 Playback and operation technology

7 Method | 7.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)

7.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)

7 Method | 7.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)

7.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)

7 Method | 7.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)

7.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)

8 Results | 8.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)

Figure 20 - iZotope's Denoiser Screenshot

8 Results | 8.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)

Figure 21 - iZotope's Spectral Repair Screenshot

8 Results | 8.1 Theatre sound design (New Vic Borderlines)

Figure 22 - Contingency | Theme Logic Screenshot

8 Results | 8.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)

8.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)

8 Results | 8.2 Theatre sound installation (The Sands Centre)

8 Results | 8.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)

8.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)

Figure 23 - Logic Pro - Sound Design Woman in Black Screenshot

8 Results | 8.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)

Figure 24 - QLab Screenshot - Fades Example

Figure 25 - QLab Screenshot - Output and mixing example

8 Results | 8.3 Contingency plan (Staffordshire University)

Dissertation - Theatre Sound Design, Installation & Operation

Dissertation - Theatre Sound Design, Installation & Operation