JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FLUID MECHANICS & MACHINERY ME1202

KEY NOTES

UNIT-1

A matter exists in 3 states

• Fluid state (Liquid & Gaseous)
• Non fluid state (Solid).

Fluid is defined as a substance that is capable of flowing and has no shape of its
own.

Difference between the 3 states of matter

Units and Dimension for Fluid Mechanics:

Dimensions are ‘ measurable characteristics’ and is qualitative; Example - Mass,

Length, Time, Temperature etc.,
Unit is a ‘ standard’ for measuring the dimensions and is quantitatively expressed;

Example - Kilogram, Metre, Second, Kelvin, Celcius.

The four examples are the fundamental units; other derived units are

Density = mass per unit volume = kg/m3

Force = mass x acceleration = kg.m/s2 = Newton or N
2
Pressure = force per unit area = N/m =Pascal or Pa
Other unit is ‘ bar’ ,
where 1 bar =1 X105 Pa =100 Kpa = 0.1 Mpa
Work = force x distance = Newton x metre = N.m==J or Joule
Power = work done per unit time= J/s = Watt or W

Term Dimension Unit

Area L*L m2
Volume L*L*L m3
Velocity L* T-1 m/s
Acceleration L*T-2 m/s2
Force M*L*T-2 N
Pressure M*L-1*T-2 N/m2 = Pa
Work M*L2*T-2 Nm =J
Power M*L2*T-3 J/s =W
Density M*L-3 kg/m3
Viscosity M*L-1*T-1 kg/ms = N s/m2
Surface Tension M*T-1 N/m

PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS:

DENSITY
a) Mass Density or Specific Mass ( )
It is defined as the mass of a substance per unit volume. SI Unit is kg/m3.
= Mass (M)/Volume(V)

b) Specific Weight or Weight Density ( )

It is defined as the weight of a substance per unit volume. SI Unit is N/m3.
= Weight / Volume; = g .

c) Specific Gravity (S)

It is the ratio of specific weight (density) of liquid to the Specific Weight
(density) of water at 40 C.
S = Density of liquid / Density of water

Specific Weight of water = 9810N/m3

d) Specific Volume of a fluid is the volume of fluid per unit weight. It is the
reciprocal of
specific weight. SI unit is m3/kg.
PRESSURE (P)
The pressure at a point is defined as the normal compressive force per unit area
at that
point.
• Atmospheric pressure is taken as a suitable reference for pressure
measurement.
• Atmos. Pressure is 1.01373 x 105 N/m2.
• Pressure above Atmospheric pressure is Gauge Pressure.
• Pressure below Atmospheric Pressure is Vacuum Pressure.
Relationship between the pressure stated for different references:

Viscosity
It is that property of a fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to the movement
of one layer of fluid over an adjacent layer.

• The viscosity ( µ) of a fluid measures its resistance to flow under an

applied shear stress. Representative units for viscosity are n-s/m2 in S.I.
System and dyne sec/cm2 in C.G.S. System also known as poise
designated by P

• The kinematic viscosity ( ) is the ratio of the viscosity to the density:

=µ
And, will be found to be important in cases in which significant viscous and
gravitational forces exist.

Viscosity of liquids:
• Viscosity of liquids in general, decreases with increasing temperature.
• The viscosity (µ) of liquids generally vary approximately with temperature t
according to: µt = µ0/ (1+ At+ bt2 )
µ0= Viscosity of water at 00 C, = 0.17X10-2, A= const= 0.033 B= Const=0.00022

b) Viscosity of gases:
• Viscosity of gases increases with increase in temperature.
• The viscosity ( ) of many gases is approximated by the formula:
µt = µ0 +At- bt2
in which t is the temperature,
µ0 is the viscosity of air at 00 C = 0.17X10-4, and A= const= 0.56 x10-7
B= Const=0.11X10-9

• The viscosity of an ideal gas is independent of pressure, but the viscosity

of real gases and liquids usually increase with pressure.
• Viscosity of liquids is generally two orders of magnitude greater than
gases at atmospheric pressure. For example, at 25oC, µwater = 1 centipoise
and µair = 1 x 10-2centipoise.
c) Newton’s Law of Viscosity
It states that the shear stress( ) on a flu
id element is directly proportional
to the rate of shear strain. The constant of proportionality is called co-efficient of
viscosity.
¾ Newton's law of viscosity is given by =dv/dy)
(
Where = shear stress
= Viscosity of fluid
dv/dy = shear rate, rate of strain or velocity gradient
d) Newtonian fluids:
Fluids that obey the Newton’ s law of viscosity are called as Newtonian fluids.
¾ All gases and most liquids which have simpler molecular formula and low
molecular
weight such as water, benzene, ethyl alcohol, CCl4, hexane and most solutions
of simple molecules are Newtonian fluids.
e) Non-Newtonian fluids:
• Fluids that do not obey the Newton’ s law of viscosity are called as non-
Newtonian fluids.
• Generally non-Newtonian fluids are complex mixtures: slurries, pastes,
gels, polymer solutions etc.,
Compressibility and the Bulk modulus:
All materials, whether solids, liquids or gases, are compressible, i.e. the volume
V of a given mass will be reduced to V - dV when a force is exerted uniformly all
over its surface. If the force per unit area of surface increases from p to p + dp,
the relationship between change of pressure and change of volume depends on
the bulk modulus of the
material.
Bulk modulus (K) = (change in pressure) / (volumetric strain)
Volumetric strain is the change in volume divided by the original volume.
Therefore,
(Change in volume) / (original volume) = (change in pressure) / (bulk modulus)
i.e., K = dp/ (dV/V)
Negative sign for dV indicates the volume decreases as pressure increases
Typical values of Bulk Modulus:
K = 2.05 x 109 N/m2 for water
K = 1.62 x 109 N/m2 for oil.

Compressibility is the reciprocal of the Bulk Modulus of elasticity.

It is given by = 1/ K

Vapour Pressure:

• The liquid evaporates when the molecules escape from the liquid surface.

• The partial pressure exerted by the vapour molecules in the space is

known as vapour pressure.

• If the space above the liquid is confined, a point is reached where the
number of vapour molecules striking the liquid surface and condensing are
equal to those molecules which are escaping.

• With the increase in temperature, the molecular activity increases and

hence the
• vapour pressure rises When the pressure above the liquid reaches the
vapour pressure of the liquid boiling takes place.

Cavitation:

• Cavitation(flashing of the liquid into vapour) takes place when very low
pressures are produced at certain locations of a flowing liquid. Cavitation
results in the formation of vapour pockets or cavities which are carried
away from the point of origin and collapse at the high pressure zone.

• The continuous formation and collapsing of vapour bubbles affects the

 performance of pumps and turbines and can result in erosion of metallic
parts.

A perfect gas is defined as a substance that follows the law of perfect gases and
has
constant specific heats. A perfect gas has viscosity and hence, develops shear
stresses and it is compressible.
If p = absolute pressure, N/m2, v = specific volume, m3 and T=Absolute
temperature, K

Universal Gas Constant:

• Real gases below critical pressure and above the critical temperature
obey perfect gas law which is a combination of Boyle’ s and Charle’ s law.

• Boyle’ s law states that for constant temperature, the density varies directly
as
• absolute pressure.

• Charle’ s law states that for constant pressure, the volume of a given mass
of gas varies as its absolute pressure.
Thus, pv = mRT
On molal basis, the above equation is expressed as
1. Isothermal process: An isothermal process in the one in which temperature
remains
constant. i.e. pv = Constant.
2. Adiabatic Process: An adiabatic process in the one in which there is no heat
transfer
to and from the gas. i.e. pvr = Constant,
where r is the ratio of specific heat of gas at constant pressure and constant
volume.= Cp/Cv, 1.4 for air.

Surface Tension
• A molecule I in the interior of a liquid is under attractive forces in all
directions and the vector sum of these forces is zero.
• But a molecule S at the surface of a liquid is acted by a net inward
cohesive force that is perpendicular to the surface.
• Hence it requires work to move molecules to the surface against this
opposing force, and surface molecules have more energy than interior
ones.
• The surface tension ( sigma) of a liquid is the work that must be done to
bring enough molecules from inside the liquid to the surface to form one
new unit area of that surface
• It is also defined as “ the tensile force acting on the surface of a liquid in
contact with a gasor on the surface between two immiscible liquids such
that the contact surface behaves like a membrane under tension. It is
denoted by
• (J/m2 = N/m). (1 dyne/cm = 0.001 N/m).
Surface tension is the tendency of the surface of a liquid to behave like a
stretched elastic
membrane.

Surface Tension on Liquid Droplet

There is a natural tendency for liquids to minimize their surface area. For this
reason, drops of liquid tend to take a spherical shape in order to minimize
surface area.

For such a small droplet, surface tension will cause an increase of internal
pressure p in order to balance the surface force.
We will find the amount (dp = p - poutside) by which the pressure inside a liquid
droplet of radius r, exceeds the pressure of the surrounding vapor/air by making
force balances on a hemispherical drop. Observe that the internal pressure p is
trying to blow apart the two hemispheres, whereas the surface tension is trying
to pull them together.
Therefore, dp r2 = 2 r
i.e. dp = 2 /r (for liquid droplet)
Similar force balances can be made for cylindrical liquid jet.
dp 2r= 2

i.e. dp = /r (for cylindrical liquid jet)

Similar treatment can be made for a soap bubble that is having two free
surfaces.
dp r2 = 2X2 r . p = 4 /r (for a soap bubble)
i.e
Surface tension generally appears only in situations involving either free surfaces
(liquid/gas or liquid/solid boundaries) or interfaces (liquid/liquid boundaries); in
the latter case, it is usually called the interfacial tension.

Capillarity:
Rise or fall of a liquid in a capillary tube is caused by surface tension and
depends on the relative magnitude of cohesion of the liquid and the adhesion of
the liquid to the walls of the containing vessel. Liquids rise in tubes if they wet
(adhesion > cohesion) and fall in tubes that do not wet (cohesion > adhesion).

Wetting and contact angle

Fluids wet some solids and do not others.
The figure shows some of the possible wetting behaviors of a drop of liquid
placed on a horizontal, solid surface (the remainder of the surface is covered with
air, so two fluids are present).
Figure.(a) represents the case of a liquid which wets a solid surface well, e.g.
water on a very clean copper. The angle shown is the angle between the edge
of the liquid surface and the solid surface, measured inside the liquid. This angle
is called the contact angle and is a measure of the quality of wetting.
For perfectly wetting, in which the liquid spreads, as a thin film over the surface
of the solid, is zero.

Fig.(c) represents the case of no wetting. If there were exactly zero wetting,
would be 180o. However, the gravity force on the drop flattens the drop, so that
180o angle is never observed. This might represent water on teflon or mercury on
clean glass. We normally say that a liquid wet a surface if is less than 90o and
does not wet if is more than 90o. Values of less than 20o are considered
strong wetting and values of greater than 140o are strong non wetting.

Capillarity is important (in fluid measurements) when using tubes smaller than
about 10 mm in diameter Capillary rise (or depression) in a tube can be
calculated by making force balances. The forces acting are forces due to surface
tension and gravity. The
force due to surface tension, Fs = d cos( ), where is the wetting angle or
contact angle. If tube (made of glass) is clean is zero for water and about 140o
for Mercury. This is opposed by the gravity force on the column of fluid, which is
equal to the height of the liquid which is above (or below) the free surface and
which equals Fg = ( /4)d2hg , where is the density of liquid. Equating these
forces and solving for Capillary rise (or depression), we find
h = 4 cos( )/( gd).

PASCAL’S LAW

It states that the pressure or intensity of pressure at a point in a static fluid is

equal in all directions

Manometers
• A somewhat more complicated device for measuring fluid pressure consists of a
bent tube containing one or more liquid of different specific gravities. Such a
device is known as manometer.
• In using a manometer, generally a known pressure (which may be atmospheric) is
applied to one end of the manometer tube and the unknown pressure to be
determined is applied to the other end.
 • In some cases, however, the difference between pressure at ends of the
manometer tube is desired rather than the actual pressure at the either end. A
manometer to determine this differential pressure is known as differential
pressure manometer.

The maximum value of P1 - P2 is limited by the height of the manometer. To measure

larger pressure differences we can choose a manometer with higher density, and to
measure smaller pressure differences with accuracy we can choose a manometer fluid
which is having a density closer to the fluid density.
Inverted U - tube Manometer

Two fluid U-tube Manometer

Small differences in pressure in gases are often measured with
a manometer of the form shown in the figure.
Manometers
The manometer in its various forms is an extremely useful type of pressure measuring
instrument, but suffers from a number of limitations.
• While it can be adapted to measure very small pressure differences, it can not be
used conveniently for large pressure differences - although it is possible to
connect a number of manometers in series and to use mercury as the manometric
fluid to improve the range. (limitation)
• A manometer does not have to be calibrated against any standard; the pressure
difference can be calculated from first principles. ( Advantage)
• Some liquids are unsuitable for use because they do not form well-defined
menisci. Surface tension can also cause errors due to capillary rise; this can be
avoided if the diameters of the tubes are sufficiently large - preferably not less
than 15 mm diameter. (limitation)
• A major disadvantage of the manometer is its slow response, which makes it
unsuitable for measuring fluctuating pressures.(limitation)
• It is essential that the pipes connecting the manometer to the pipe or vessel
containing the liquid under pressure should be filled with this liquid and there
should be no air bubbles in the liquid.(important point to be kept in mind)
 JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY
FLUID MECHANICS & MACHINERY ME1202

ASSIGNMENT QUESTIONS

UNIT-1

PART –A

1) Define the following fluid properties:

2) Density, weight density, specific volume and specific gravity of a fluid.
3) One litre of crude oil weighs 9.6 N. Calculate its specific weight, density and
specific gravity.
4) Differentiate between : (i) liquids and gases, (ii) Real fluids and ideal fluids, (iii)
Specific weight and specific volume of a fluid.
5) Explain the terms : (1) dynamic viscosity, and (ii) kinematic viscosity. Give their
dimensions
6) In a stream of glycerin in motion, at a certain point the velocity gradient is 0.25
meter sec per meter. The mass density of fluid is 1268.4 k per cubic meter and
kinematic viscosity is 6.30 x 10 square meter per second. Calculate the shear
stress at the point.
7) Why does the viscosity of a gas increases with the increase in temperature while
that of a liquid decreases with increase in temperature?
8) What do you understand by terms : (i) Isothermal process, (ii) Adiabatic process,
and (iii) Universal-gas constant.
9) Define Compressibility.

10) The pressure of a liquid is increased from 60 N/cm2 to lOON/cm2 and

volume decreases by 0.2 per cent. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity

11) 11.. Determine the bulk modulus of elasticity of a fluid which is compressed in a
cylinder from a volume of 0.009 m3 at 70 N/cm2 pressure to a volume of 0.0085
m3 at 270 N/cm2 pressure
12) Define surface tension. Derive the relationship between surface tension and
pressure inside a droplet of liquid in excess of outside pressure.
13) Explain the phenomenon of capillarity. Obtain an expression for capillary rise of a
liquid.
14) 14. The surface tension of water in contact with air at 20° C is given as 0.0716
N/m. The pressure inside a droplet of water is to be 0.0147 N/cm2 greater than
the outside pressure, calculate the diameter of the droplet of water.
15) 15. The capillary rise in the glass tube used for rneasuring water level is not to
exceed 0.5 mrn. Determine its minimum size, given that surface tension for water
in contact with air = 0.07112 N/rn
16) 16. Find the capillary rise of water in a tube of 0.03 cm diameter. The surface
tension of water is 0.0735 N/rn.
 17) State the Pascal’ s law.
18) What do you understand by Vapor Pressure.
19) What do you understand by Hydrostatic Law?
20) Differentiate between Absolute and gauge pressure,
21) Differentiate between Simple manometer and differential manometer,
22) Differentiate between piezometer and pressure gauges.
23) What is a manometer? How are they classified?
24) What is the difference between U-tube differential manometers and inverted U-
tube differential manometers? Where are they used

25) Distinguish between manometers and mechanical gauges. What are the different
types of mechanical pressure gauges?

26) The pressure intensity at a point in a fluid is given 4.9 N/cm2 Find the
corresponding height of fluid when it is: (a) Water, and (b) an oil of sp. gr. 0.8.

27) An open tank contains water up to a depth of 1.5 m and above it an oil of sp. gr.
0.8 for a depth of 2 m. Find the pressure intensity: (i) at the interface of the two
liquids, and (ii) at the bottom of the tank

PART- B

1) A plate, 0.025 mm distant from a fixed plate, moves at 50cm/s and requires a
force of 1.471 N/rn to maintain this speed. Determine the fluid viscosity between
the plates in the poise.
2) Determine the intensity of shear of an oil having viscosity = 1.2 poise and is used
for lubrication in the clearance between a 10 cm diameter shaft and its journal
bearing. The clearance is 1.0mm and shaft rotates at 200 r.p.m.
3) Two plates are placed at a distance of 0.15mm apart. The lower plate is fixed
while the upper plate having surface area 1.0 m2 is pulled at 0.3 m/s. Find the
force and power required to maintain this speed, if the fluid separating them is
having viscosity 1.5 poise.

4) An oil film of thickness 1.5 mm is used for lubrication between a square plate of
size 0.9 m x 0.9 m and an inclined plane having an angle of inclination 20° . The
weight of the square plate is 392.4 N and it slides down the plane with a uniform
velocity of 0.2 m/s. Find the dynamic viscosity of the oil.
5) The velocity distribution for flow over a flat plate is given by u =3/2 y —y 3/2 where
u is the point velocity in metre per second at a distance y metre above the plate.
Determine the shear stress at y = 9 cm. Assume dynamic viscosity as 8 poise.
6) An oil of viscosity 5 poise is used for lubrication between a shaft and sleeve. The
diameter of shaft is 0.5 m and it rotates at 200 r.p.m. Calculate the power lost in
the oil for a sleeve length of 100 mm. The thickness of the oil is 1.0 mm.

7) A shaft of diameter 120mm is rotating inside a journal bearing of diameter

122mm at a speed of 360 r.p.m. The space between the shaft and the bearing is
filled with g lubricating oil of viscosity 6 poise. Find the power absorbed in oil if
the length of bearing is 100mm.
8) The velocity distribution over a plate is given by u =2/3y-y2 in which u is the
velocity in m/sec at a distance of y m above the plate. Determine the shear stress
at y = 0, 0.1 and 0.2 m. Take viscosity is 6 poise.
9) A cylinder of 0.9 m3 in volume contains air at 0° C and 39.24 N/cm2 absolute
pressure. The air is compressed to 0.45 m3 Find (i) the pressure inside the
cylinder assuming isothermal process, (ii) pressure and temperature assuming
adiabatic process. Take k = 1.4 for air

10) Calculate the pressure exerted by 4 kg mass of nitrogen gas at a temperature of

15° C if the volume is 0.35 m3 Molecular weight of nitrogen is 28.
11) A hydraulic press has a ram of 30 cm diameter and a plunger of 5 cm diameter.
Find the weight lifted by the hydraulic press when the force applied at the plunger
is 400 N
12) A hydraulic press has a ram of 20 cm diameter and a plunger of 4 cm diameter. It
is used for lifting a weight of 20 kN. Find the force required at the plunger.
13) A U-tube differential manometer connects two pressure pipes A and B. Pipe A
contains carbon tetrachloride having a specific gravity 1.594 under a pressure of
11.772 N/cm and pipe B contains oil of sp. gr. 0.8 under a pressure of 11.772
N/cm2 The pipeA lies 2.5 m above pipe B. Find the difference of pressure
measured by mercury as fluid tilling U-tube
14) An inverted differential manometer containing an oil of sp. gr. 0.9 is connected to
find the difference of pressures at two points of a pipe containing water. If the
manometer reading is 40 cm, find the difference of pressures.