JAYAM COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

FLUID MECHANICS & MACHINERY ME1202

KEY NOTES

UNIT-3

INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW

Introduction to Viscous Flow

The flow winch are viscous and flowing at very low velocity. At low velocity the fluid moves in
layers. Each layer of fluid slides over the adjacent layer. Due to relative velocity between two
layers the velocity gradient du/dy exists and hence a shear stress = du/dy acts on the layers.

The following cases will be considered in the chapter:

1. Flow of viscous fluid through circular pipe.
2. Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates.
3. Kinetic Energy correction and momentum correction factors.
4. Power absorbed in viscous flow through
a) Journal Bearings
b) Foot-step Bearings
c) Collar Bearings.

LAMINAR FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES

In this case also, the shear distribution, the velocity distribution across a section; the ratio of
maximum velocity to average velocity and difference head for a given length of parallel plates,
are to be calculated.

Viscous flow between two parallel plates.

A viscous fluid is flowing between these two plates from left to right. Consider a fluid
element of length x and thickness y at a distance y from the lower fixed plate. If p is the
intensity of pressure on the face AB of the fluid element then
intensity of pressure on the face CD will be
Let is the shear acting on the face BC then the shear stress on the face AD
will be ( + / x y). If the width of the element in the direction perpendicular to the
paper is unity then the forces acting on the fluid element are:

1. The pressure force, p x y x1 on face AB.

2. The pressure force, (p + p/ x x) y 1 on face CD.
3. The shear force, x x x 1 on face BC
4. The shear forces, , ( + / x y) x x x 1 on face AD

For steady and uniform flow, there is no acceleration and hence the resultant force in the
direction of flow is zero.

i) Velocity Distribution
To be the velocity distribution across a section, the value of shear stress
= u/ y of Newton’ s law of viscosity for laminar flow is substituted in equation

Intergrating the above equation w.r.t y, we get

where C1 and C2 are constant of integrations Their values are obtained from the two
boundary conditions that is i) at y = 0, u = O ii) at y = t, u = 0

The substitution of at y = 0, u = 0 in equation (3.2) gives

The substitution of at y = t, u = 0 in equation (3.2) gives

Substituting the values of C1 and C2 in equation (3.3)

In the above equation, , p/ x and are constant. It means u varies with the
square of 1 equation (3.4) is a equation of the parallel plate is parabolic. The velocity
distribution is shown in Figure 3.7(a).

Velocity distribution and shear stress distribution across a section of parallel plates.

ii) Ratio of Maximum Velocity to Average Velocity. The velocity is maximum when y = t/2.
Substituting this value in equation (3.3), we get

The average velocity; u is obtained by dividing the discharge (Q) across the section by the
area of the section (t x 1). And the discharge Q is obtained by considering the rate of flow of
fluid through the strip of thickness dy and integrating
it. The rate of flow through strip is
dQ = Velocity at a distance y x Area of strip
1) Drop of pressure head for a given length. From equation (3.6), we have

Integrating this equation w.r.t. x, we get

iv) Shear Stress Distribution. It is obtained by substituting the value of u from equation
(3.3) into

In equation (3.8) , p/ x and t are constant. Hence varies linearly with y. The shear stress
distribution is shown in Figure 9.7(b). Shear stress is maximum where y = U or t that at the walls
of the plates. Shear stress is zero when y = t/2 that is at the centre line between the two plates.
Max. shear stress (u) is given by 0 = -1/2 p/ x. t

LAMINAR FLOW THROUGH CIRCULAR TUBES:

A laminar flow is a flow where the fluid particles move along straight parallel paths in
layers of laminae in such a way that the paths of the individual particles do not cross
those of the neighbouring particles.
The figure shows a horizontal circular pipe having laminar flow of fluid through it.
Consider two sections 1 and 2 of this pipe L distance Apart. Let p1 and P2 be the average
intensities of pressure acting at the two sections 1 and 2 respectively and let V be the
mean velocity of flow of fluid in the pipe. Applying Bernoulli's equation between the
two sections 1 and 2.
Where f is friction factor and V is mean velocity of flow. Equating the two values of hf
given by equation 16 and 18, we obtain

Thus the value of friction factor f, for laminar flow of fluid is given by equation 19.
Further from equation 2
By substituting for (p1 - p2) from equation 18 in the above expression, we get

Where ρ is mass density of fluid. From equation 20

Since the expression has the dimensions of velocity, it is known as

shear velocity and is denoted by V*.

In order to maintain steady uniform laminar flow through pipes, certain power is required to
overcome the resistance to flow. Since power is rate of doing work, it is equivalent to the product
of force and velocity. The resistance to flow is compensated by the pressure gradient (∂p / ∂x) in
the direction of flow. The pressure gradient may be considered as the average force per unit
volume of fluid. Thus if A and L are the area and length of pipe respectively, then the total force
is (-∂p/∂x) X AL , and with the mean velocity of flow V the required power is

Since discharge
ENERGY LINE

• The energy line diagram for a pipe system is a longitudinal display of the total head at all
salient sections of the pipe.
• It represents the degradation of energy along the flow due to friction, minor losses, etc. as
well as any additional input or output by means of pumps or turbines.
• Total head at a cross section consists of the pressure head p / pg, the velocity head U2 / 2g
and the datum head z.

Hydraulic Gradient Line

• Hydraulic gradient line is a display of the pressure of and datum heads, i.e., piezometric
head at all salient sections of a pipeline.
• It lies below the energy line by a magnitude equal to the local velocity head U2/2g.

In the absence of pump, fan or other rotodynamic machines, the energy line will continue to drop
along the flow whereas the hydraulic gradient line, though always below the energy gradient
line, may show an upward or downward trend.

FLOW THROUGH PIPE:

• A fluid is conveyed through a confined passage (usually round pipes) when it is

necessary to maintain its pressure different from the atmospheric pressure.
• In a fully developed pipe-flow, the pressure drops linearly along the length of the
pipeline.
 • The velocity profile for fully developed turbulent flow through a long, straight and round
pipe of radius R is adequately described by the one-seventh power law,

FRICTION LOSS – MAJOR LOSS IN PIPE FLOW:

DARCY-WEISBACH FORMULA
The head loss in turbulent flow due to friction in a circular pipe is given by,

where f is the friction factor, defined as

where τw is wall shear stress.

The value of friction factor f depends on the factors such as

i) Velocity (v),
ii). Pipe diameter (D) ,
iii). Density of fluid (ρ) ,
iv). Viscosity of fluid (µ)
v). And absolute roughness (k) of the pipe.

These variables are grouped as the dimensional numbers NRe and k/D Where NRe = Dvρ/µ1 =
Reynolds number and k/D is the relative roughness of the pipe. Blasisus, in 1913 was, the first to
propose an accurate empirical relation for the friction factor in turbulent flow in smooth pipes,
namely

f = 0.079 / NRe0.25

This expression yields results for head loss to + 5 percent for smooth pipes at Reynolds numbers
up to 100000.
Thus, the calculation of losses in turbulent pipe flow is dependent on the use of empirical results
and the most common reference source is the Moody chart.

MOODY CHART:

This diagram is a logarithmic plot of f vs. NRe for a range of k/D values.
A typical Moody chart is presented as figure.
There are a number of distinct regions in the chart.
• The straight line labeled 'laminar flow', representing f = 16/NRe, is a graphical
representation of the Poiseuille equation. The above equation plots as a straight line of
slope -1 on a log-log plot and is independent of the pipe surface roughness.
• For values of k/D < 0.001 the rough pipe curves approach the Blasius smooth pipe curve.

MAJOR AND MINOR LOSS

Certain resistance is offered to the flowing fluid in a pipe, which results in causing a loss
of energy. It is of two types

i. Major losses ii. Minor losses

The major loss is caused by friction as the fluid flows through the pipe. This loss of energy in
long pipelines is usually more than the loss of energy incurred by other causes. Minor Losses are
caused on account of the change in the velocity of flowing fluid.
The losses are:
i). Loss of energy due to sudden enlargement,
hL = (V1 – V2)2 / 2g
ii). Loss of energy due to sudden contraction,
hL = 0.5 V2 / 2g
iii). Loss of energy at the entrance to a pipe,
hL = 0.5 V2 / 2g
iv). Loss of energy at the exit from a pipe,
hL = V2/ 2g
v). Loss of energy due to gradual contraction or enlargement
hL = k (V1 – V2)2 / 2g
vi). Loss of energy in bends,
hL = k V2 / 2g
vii). Loss of energy in various pipe fittings,
hL = k V2 / 2g

PIPES IN SERIES – COMPOUND PIPES

It is defined as the pipes of different lengths and diameters connected end to end
(in series) to form a pipeline.

Let, L1, L2, L3 = length of pipes 1,2,3

d1, d2, d3 = diameter of pipes 1,2,3
V1, V2, V3 = velocity of flow through pipes1, 2,3
f1, f2, f3 = co-efficient of frictions for pipes 1,2,3
H = Difference of water level in the two tanks

The discharge passing through each pipe is same.

Q = A1V1 = A2V2 = A3V3

The difference in liquid surface levels is equal to the sum of the total head loss in the
pipes

If minor losses are neglected, then above equation becomes

If the coefficient of friction is same for all pipes

FLOW THROUGH PARALLEL PIPES

Consider a main pipe, which divides into two or more branches and again join together
downstream to form a single pipe, then the branch pipes are said to be connected in parallel.
Connecting pipes in parallel increases the discharge through the main. The rate of flow in the
main pipe is equal to the sum of rate of flow through branch pipes.
Q = Q1 + Q2 …….(1)

In this arrangement, the loss of head for each branch pipe is same.
Therefore, loss of head for branch pipe 1 = Loss of head for branch pipe 2

If f1 = f2, then

BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS:

When a real fluid follows past a solid boundary, the layer of the fluid which comes in contact
with the boundary adheres to due to the action of viscosity. The layer of fluid cannot slip away
from the boundary layer therefore hence it attains the same velocity of the boundary. Therefore
there is no relative motion between the boundary and the fluid wherein it leads to a condition
called as no slip condition.

If the boundary is moving the fluid adhering to it will also have the same velocity. But if the
boundary is stationary the fluid’ s velocity comes to zero at the boundary surface. Hence the
boundary surface causes retardation to the fluid layer adhering to it .This retarded fluid layer in
turn causes retardation to the adjacent layers lying in the vicinity of the fluid layer adhering to
the boundary. This phenomenon leads to a condition where in there is a gradual decrease in the
velocity from the main stream to the boundary layer where the velocity is zero. The small region
of the fluid where the velocity is zero and the area in its immediate vicinity is called as boundary
layer.

Theoretical Discussion of Boundary Layer thickness:

The distance from the region where the velocity is zero and to the region where the velocity
reaches to about 99% of the velocity of that of the mainstream velocity is considered as the
boundary layer thickness. This thickness is represented by the symbol δ. Hence the boundary
layer thickness δ is equal to the distance y where v=0.99V. For greater accuracy of finding the
boundary layer thickness three types of mathematical expressions are used.
1) The displacement thickness δ*: It is defined as the distance by which the boundary surface
would have to be displaced outwards so that the total discharge would be as same as that of an
ideal fluid past the displaced boundary .It can be expressed by:

2) The momentum thickness θ : It is defined as the distance from the actual boundary surface
such that the momentum flux corresponding to the main stream velocity V through this distance
θ is equal to the deficiency or loss in momentum due to the boundary layer formation .Hence:

3) The energy thickness δE : It is defined as the distance from the actual boundary surface such
that the energy flux corresponding to the main stream velocity V through this distance δE is equal
to the efficiency or loss of energy due to the boundary layer formation .Hence,

QUESTIONS

1. Define the terms:

a) Velocity gradient b) Pressure gradient
2. What is Hage poiseuille’ s Formula? Derive an expression for Hagen Poiseuille’ s
Formula.
3. Define and explain in the terms: i) Hydraulic gradient line, ii) total energy line.
4. What is compound pipe? What will be loss of head when pipes are connected in series?
 5. Explain the terms: i) Pipes in parallel ii) Equivalent pipe and iii) Equivalent size of pipe.
6. Obtain expression of head loss in a sudden expansion in the pipe. List all the assumptions
mad in the derivation.
7. What do you understand by the terms: Major energy loss and minor energy losses in
pipes?
8. How will you determine the loss of head due to friction in pipes by using (i) Darcy
Formula
9. List the types of minor losses in flow through pipe.
10. Distinguish between total energy line and hydraulic grade line for flow through closed
conduit pipe.
11. What do you understand by the terms boundary layer, and boundary layer theorem?
12. What do you mean by “equivalent pipe” and “flow thorough parallel pipes”.
13. Explain the phenomenon of Water Hammer
14. Find an expression of the ratio of the outlet are a of the nozzle to the area of the pipe for
maximum transmission of power.
15. What are the boundary conditions that must be satisfied by a given velocity profile in
laminar boundary layer
16. What do you meant by separation of boundary layer? What is the effect of pressure
gradient on boundary layer separation?
17. What are the different methods of preventing the separation of boundary layers?
18. Define the terms: boundary layer, What is meant by boundary layer? Why does it
increase with distance from the upstream edge?
19. Define the terms: boundary layer thickness, drag, lift
20. Define the terms: momentum thickness.

1) A crude oil of viscosity 0.9 poise and sp. gr. 0.8 is flowing through a horizontal circular pipe
of diameter 80 mm and of length 15 m. Calculate the difference of pressure at the two ends
of the pipe, if 50 kg of the oil is collected m a tank in 15 seconds.
2) A viscous flow is taking place in a pipe of diameter 100 mm. The maximum velocity is 2
m/s. Find the mean velocity and the radius at which this occurs. Also calculate the velocity at
30 mm from the wall of the pipe.
3) Determine a) the pressure gradient, b) the shear stress at the two horizontal parallel. plates
and c) the discharge per meter width for the laminar flow of oil with a maximum velocity of
1.5 m/s between two horizontal parallel fixed plates which are 80 mm apart. Take viscosity
of oil as 1.962Ns/m2
4) Water is flowing between two large parallel plates which are 2.0mm apart. Determine a)
maximum velocity, b) the pressure drop per unit length and c) the shear stress at walls of the
plate of the average velocity if 0.4 m/s. Take viscosity of water as 0.01 poise.
5) An oil of viscosity 0.02 poise and sp.gr. 0.8 is flowing through 50 mm diameter pipe of
length 500 m at the rate of 0.19 lit/sec. Determine: i) Reynolds number of flow ii) Centre-line
velocity, iii) Pressure gradient, iv) Wall shear stress, and v) Power required to maintained the
flow.
6) Calculate the rate of flow of water through a pipe of diameter 300 mm, when the difference
of pressure head between the two ends of pipe 400 m apart is 5 m of water. Take the value of
f = .009 in the formula, Hf = 12 lv2/ (dx2g)
7) The rate of flow of water through a horizontal pipe is 0.3 m3 /s. The diameter of the pipe is
suddenly enlarged from 250 mm to 500 mm. The pressure intensity in the small pipe is
13.734 N/cm2 Determine: i) loss of head due to sudden enlargement, ii) pressure intensity in
the large pipe and iii) power lost due to enlargement.
8) Determine the rate of flow of water through a pipe of diameter 10cm and length 60 cm when
one end of the pipe is connected to a tank and other end of the pipe is open to the
atmosphere. The height of water in the tank from the centre of the pipe is 5 cm. Pipe is given
as horizontal and value of f = 0.01. Consider minor losses.
9) Determine the difference in the elevations between the water surfaces in the two tanks which
are connected by a horizontal pipe of diameter 400 mm length 500 mm. The rate of flow of
water through the pipe is 200 liters/s. Consider all losses and take the value of f =0.009.
10) Three pipes of length 600 m and 300 m and diameter 400 mm, 300 mm and 200 mm
respectively are connected in series. The ends of the compound pipe is connected to two
tanks, whose water surface levels are maintained at a difference of 15 m. Determine the rate
of flow of water through the pipe if f = 0.005. What will be diameter of a single pipe of
length 1700 m and f .005, which replaces the three pipes.
11) Three reservoirs A, B and C are connected by a pipe system having length 700 m, 1200 m
and 500 m and diameters 400 mm, 300 mm and 200 mm respectively. The water level is
reservoir A and B from a datum line are 50 m and 45 m respectively. The level of water in
reservoir C is below the level of water is reservoir B. Find the discharge into or from the
reservoirs B and C if the rate of flow from reservoir A is 150 liters per sec. Find the height of
water level in the reservoir C. Take f = 0.005 for all pipes.
12) Find the ratios of displacement thickness to momentum thickness and momentum thickness
to energy thickness for the velocity distribution in the boundary layer given by
u/U = 2(y/ )- (y/ )2
where u = velocity in boundary layer at a distance y, U = Free-stream velocity
= Boundary layer thickness.

13) For the velocity profile in laminar boundary layer given as

u/U =3/2 (y/ )- 1/2(y/ )2
Find the thickness of the boundary layer and shear stress 1.8 m from the leading edge of plate.
The plate is 2.3 m long and 1.5 m wide and is placed in water which is moving with a velocity of
15cm per second. Find the drag on one side of the plate if the viscosity of water = 0.01 poise

14) An oil of viscosity I poise and relative density 0.9 is flowing through a circular pipe of
diameter 50 mm and of length 300 m. The rate of flow of liquid is 0.0035 m3/s. Find the
pressure drop in a length of 300 m and shear stress at the wall.
15) The fixed parallel plate kept at 80 mm apart have laminar flow of oil between them with the
maximum velocity of 1.5 m/s. Taking the dynamic viscosity if oil to be 19.62 poise.
Calculate i) discharge per metre width ii) the shear stress at the plates iii) pressure difference
between the two plates at 25 m apart iv) velocity at 20 from the plate v) velocity gradient at
the plate end.
16) Find the power required to rotate a circular disc of diameter 200 mm at 100 rpm. The circular
disc has a clearance of 0.4 mm from the bottom flat plate and clearance contains oil of 0.11
Ns/m2.