Formation and age of earth(ideas and sacred theories ancient egypts-heliopolis(Father cause dry earth to rise from water)

-hermapolis(after earth rise egg appear yield Horus(sun god) -memphis 650BC Babylon-1)cycle of fire or flood 2)god kill dragon-2 parts(god heaven n earth 3)create human(from clay and blood dragon E=earth Greece-1)hesidotus(E from chaos) 2)Anaximander(map of world,time endless,E cyclical 3)Empedocles(E stages n in state of change) Aristotle-1)place does not remain land or sea Aristotle-1)place does not remain land or sea

Islamic scholar-Ibnu Sina1)erosion balance by uplift driven by earthquakes 2)cycle 36000 years Abu Rayhan al-Biruni(islamic scholar explain too much) Process oriented thinking-Rene Descartes(philosopher).Said that E is from material from extinguished star-four phase cooling(internal layering) Biblical record-1)Teophilus(a Bishop) said that earth was 5698 Y.O 2) Numerous chronologies-divide E to 6 stages (creation,deluge,Abraham,David,Babylon,Christ,now) 3)James Ussher state god create E saturday 22/10/4004BC Annales(biblical history 3 columns(Y,Julian Y,Christian Y) General accept(6000Y) 4) Biblical thinking-Thomas Burnet Stratigraphy Publish book treating Adam sin as fable(book Telluris 1)John Streno-3 principles(original horizantality,superposition Theoria Sacra-original of E, changes, future-7stages) young sediment on older,continuity 2) James Hutton- royal society William Whinston-no miracle, natural cause of flood, Edinburgh(stimate time E existed) 3) Arran-unconformity sanstone sediments are not laid down in order decreasing density and schist(horizontal "old red" on vertical greywacke 5) formation of the solar system(nebular hypothesis) 4) William Smith-principle of faunal succession, created a map proposed by Immanuel Kant then Pierre-simon Laplace based on fossil correlation 5) SImon Minchester noted geogrpahic Thomas Chamberlin-E from planetesimals(small bodies in rocks, rock layers contain certain fossils 6) Alexander Brongniart solar system not gases) 6) current thinking develop fossil markers for dating startigraphy. Principle of Faunal Succession1)georges cuvier-fossils existed for period of time(layers of rock correlated.steno law n faunal sucession=relative chronology of E. cuvier conclude tertiary strata in paris represent alternations of fresh and salt water. Charles lylell-unformitarianism.Principle of cross cutting relations-things that cut across strata are probably younger Empirical measurement 1)i) charles darwin(evolutionist,obeservation)ii)Lord Kelvin(physist,theory) Benoit de mailet(16-17)-evolutionary sequence plants n animals(all from ocean),earth drying 2)Glacial broders-edward boulders(noted rocks(glacial boulders) at Llanberis pass in wales 3)saltiness of ocean-Edmund Halley(salt content can determine the age of E), John joly-calculated age of earth form sodium content in ocean(95+5 M.Y) 4)accumulations/erosion of sediments-Herodotus(depositio of silt in Nile valley,John Philliphow long sedimentary rocks accumulate in ganges basin. Charles darwin(theory of evolution 5)cooling of earth-Isaac Newton(50000Y) georges-louis Lecrerc(buffon)=(75000).He said 7 stages of E formation of earth,cooling to hand hot,enveloped in sea,volcanic, emergence of land animals,configuration of land masses,human).William Thomson(Lord Kelvin)-heat arguments and conservation of energy-3 process that will end over time earthspin, heat felt in mines,sun shines.P.GTait calculation same as L.K= 20M.2 opposing view=(geologist<100M) n physicis<20M( at the end on 19th century) Radiometric age dating T.C Chamberlin (1)radioactivity-Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen(xray),Antoine Henri(natural xrays-u abosrb sun enrgy emit xray, share nobel prize with Marie-radium gives up heat n strengh radiation depends on amount) 2) Ernest rutherford-law of radioctive decay-decay random but at average rate. Lord kelwin was wrong because he didnt know the additional heat.radioactive. Arthur Holmes-first geochronology paper,oldest rock 1640 MYEarthquakes,mountains,volcanoes(early views)-Thales of Miletus(19 Y lunar eclipes,E floates)-Xenophanes (E n water 2 fundamental priciples,pythogoras(E central fire),Plato,Aristotle(E ball of hollow surface ,water flow back and forth,dry exhalation cause earthquakes,moist forms rains,Jean Buridan(land mostly in 1 hemisphere,erosion moves from land to ocean),Leonardo da Vinci(E has more water on one side,solid parts of E collapes to centre cause earthquakes,balance other side bulgeup,Athanasius Kircher(disease are cause by microbes,traveled through volcanic regions into crater of Vesuvius measured dimensions of crater,2systems of channels:water and molten rock cause volcanic activity-Rene Descartes(mchanical theory of universe dormed in 4 stages,cause layered structure,earth made of shells)-Thomas Burnet(Biblical flood was identified with collapes of the crust into the ocean)-Robert Hooke(mountains at the bottom of the sea,cycles of erosion and deposition,internal heat become exhausted)-James Hutton(soil replenished by wethering formation and emplacent of magma), Jean-Baptiste Lamark(earth centre of gravity makes slow circuit around its geometric centre,global currents tended to flow from east to west)Christian Leopold-domal uplift due to subsurface intrusion of magma,cracking releases magma to surface,collapse of dome to form a crater,mountains are the elevated rim.Contracting Earth-Jean,BaptisteElie de Beaumont(E been cooling down, shrinking inner earth caused stress buildup in outer rigid crust,crust buckels n forms mountains ranges,uplift of mountains rapid n violent due to release of compressional stress,faunal catastrophies n extinctions attributed to these violent uplifts),Earthquakes n mountains(Charles Darwin-earthquake generated 1-2m fault scarp and eleveted shorelines,conclusionmountains can be produced by repeated earthquakes over long period of time, uniformation approach despite the catastrophic nature of individual earthquakes.Geosynclines-James Dana(geosynclinal and geoanticlinal-cooling of earth's molten core leads to irregular contraction, lateral earth movements,continents become larger over time,oceans deepens,note successice pulses of mountain building, geosyncline filled with sediments becomes folded into mountain range. Eduard Suess(described tectonic structure,lateral compressions,collapse structure,explains correlation of worldwide strata with eustatic changes resuting spasmodic tetconic orogeny,four ancient landmasses(laurentia,gondwana and baltina).Mountains and isostasy-Isostast(a floating body replaces as much volume compare to its weight(deflection of plumb line)-John Henry Pratt different densities sink to the same depth,George Airy(same densities sink to diff depth-Thomas Chamberlin-combine isostasy with thermalcontractionm some parts

contract more than others.continents elevated and squeezed. WWI,WWII,SCIENCE N TECHNOLOGY-US war-end of slavery,japan rebel against feudalism,physics-michael faraday, maxwell.19th Century-Darwin(evolution),Gregor Mandel(genetics), Ernest Rutherford-almost all mass and energy r in nucleus,Edwin Hubble(glaxies other than milky way),Albert Einstein-the only thing interfere with my learning is my edu.20thcentury-Albert Einstein vs henri poincare(particle speed in electric-based on principle of relativity.Poincare old ideas Eistein revolutionary. Niels Bohr-properties depends on nu of electrons,electron drop from high to low orbit),Henry Moseley(sorting elements based on physical),Churchill encouraged British intervention against Russion,Satyendra Nath Bose works with Einstein,Werner Heisenberg(1920 the golden age of quantum theory,developed uncertainity principle,Particle accelerator(fission)-Ernest rutherford,Leo Szilard convince rutherford neutron chain dangerous,Lev Landoau arresrted then release-led atomic and hydrogen bomb,Paul Dirac-spin of the electron,anti electrons.george gamow(quantum theory to calculate speed of radioactive nuclei,help ernest rutherford),Leo Szilard tell US that german made bomb, he led Manhattan project.1939-Scientist meeting possibilty atomic bombs,didnt diskus about limitations. WWII-treaty of versailes,hitler actions,failure of appeasement,failure of league the league of nations,japanese attack pearl harbour start WWII,scientist losing control for manhanttan project to army(gen Leslie Groves).Enrico Fermi and J robert Oppenheimer r fathers of atomic bomb.1945Roosevelt dies a week bfore german surrender-Turman take over,wants to bomb Japan.Little boy dropped at hiroshima, fat man-nagasaki.CONTINENTAL DRIFTAND MANTLE CONVECTION-fit by Francis Bacon,correlation of fossils,offshore mountains,distributions of elevations on earth.Continental drift hypothesis-Alfred Wegener, favoured hypothesis oceans r sunken part of continents,Wegners,continental blocks raft in a dense oceanic magma(gravity change across continental margin,continets are in isostatic equilibrium made up of felsic,favoured hypothesismoon was created by impact;pacific basin is a hole left over,wegner hypothesis-displacement happened(proof matching coastline,matching fossil) Wegener postulates one continent broke apart 250 Myr ago.Wegener 3rd hypothesis-continents are still moving(proof pacific old, atlantic spreading;young, thick sediments in mountains are old.Mantle convection-Arthur holmes(1930 suggested that mantle convection force continents towards or away. EXPANDING EARTH VS SEAFLOOR SPREADINGexpanding earth: Ott Hilgenberg,Jack Tuzo Wilson-decrease of gravitational constant,phase changes,cause only mid ocean ridges(high heat flow),polar moves due to changing moment of inertia-sea floor spreading-Robert Sinclair Diets-dived into challenger deep,chain of mountains in pacific-cause of seafloor spreading(thermal convection overturn in mantle from radioactive decay,sea floor is exposed mantle oceanic crust, continents are low density tabular masses,mid ocean ridges(upwelling or divergence),tremches downwelling or convergence,convection cause continets under compression;buckle up,earth volume remain constant,ocean is young. PLATE TECTONICS-Guyotts(mapped deppest part of oceans,found guyotts,flat topped mountains:causes-new oceanic crust at MOR,formed at MOR sink as they move away,Darwin reasoned that refs have built up from submerged volcanoes.Magnetic sea flooar anomalies-Fred vine,Drummond Matthews, Lawrence Morley explain magnetic bands along MOR(newly created sea floor magentizes in the floor of the magentic field and as sea floor spread alternately magnetized pattern,sea floor anomalies allow for estimate of plate velocities(how fast plate moves)3)Hot -spot tracks-Jack tuzo wilson support now hawaiian island example of hot spot forming above hot mantle upwelling(can estimate plot v) 4)Transform faults-pangea spli along pre-existing weakness.fracture zone is only active between ridge segments,three types of plate boundaries(transform-horizontal past each other),divergent( move apart,convergent(plates collide and pulled into the mantle and recylced),fault ruptures during earthquakes-4 quadrants: 2 compression,2 dilation, extension-normal fault,compression-thrust fault, lynn sykes MOR earthquakes occur only along tindges and connecting faults,extension along ridge segment and strike along connecting fracture zone.5)the wilson cycle- closing of an older version of the Atlantic during,supercontinents during earth history pangea, rodinia, nena,artica FOSSILS 1)fossils are;xanthus-reported marine shells,herodotus-marine shells on hills egypts,strabo-ammonites,leonardo da vinci-fossils come of living organism in sediments2)people in europe view-1565conread Gesner-fossils fallen star(belemnites,crinoids)glossopetraetounge of snakes that st turned to rock3)georgius agricola(de baura fossilium-anthing dug put;minerals;ordinary action petrifying juice.Bernard Pallisy;fossil as ancient organism,fossils shells and fish live in cavities within rocks containing saline water-nicolaus Stenofossils r former life forms;glosspetrae ptrified of shark teeth-robert hooke; fossils r impression of organism observed in rocks;some no longer exist-edward lhwyd-formed in place(fossil grow from seed) John Woodward-buried by biblical flood,systemmatic collection of fossils-Joachim Jakob Scheuchzner,book Physica Sacra found human fossil which r not called Homo diluvii tetsis. Johannes Gersner-suggest fossil fish.cuvier-fossil of salamnder(Andris Scheuhzeri)George Cuvier(naturalist, distinguished elephants.Species-population that can interbreed to produce offspring of same kind- morphology-same xternal appearances.Cladistic-based on similarities,animals,plants,fungi,protist,monera-K.P.C.O.F.G.S. OLDEST FOSSILS-evlution in Phanerozoic-Paleozoic;inverterbrates,fish amphibians-Mesozoic;dinasours,birds and mammals, flowering plants-Cenzoicmammals and humans.William Logan n Dawson-eozoocandense;1 cell organism.oppose-king n romney(mineral),Moebius, gregory n john-lavis(found the same thing)-Charles Dolittle Wlacott-CEO friend with PREZ,rocks in NY as stromatolites. oldest multicelled animals;Ediacaran fauna. Stanley tyler-spotted stromatolites.with Baghorn produce artilcle-life originate-Laexander Oparin from cells like soap.Ptolemy-eath centric,cpernicus-heliocentric-tycho brahe,johannes kepler-found 2 exploding star newton-calculus expalim heliocentric met with ojhn locke untitarian.dr ulrich ruhlein von kalbe-illlterater to mining,agricola classify minerals.igneous rocks-from melt,metamorphic-under high pressure. Streno- books prodrous.neptunist-water,plutonistfire(hutton).wener do field trips. Catasrophism-earth reach present state by series of event(cuvier).uniformitarianism-E in steady balance .Feyman:agama make sense of life