Sarf in Short

(1) i
investigates the behaviour of the word ( (((i )individually
i.e. not in relation to other words ( )((in the sentence ( ((i
i). More
specifically, it investigates the (((i from the perspective of its
formal structure and the changes that affect that structure either
to give rise to different meanings or ease the overall pronunciation
of the word.
(2) The ((((i in Arabic is of three types:
(a) the
i ( noun which includes adjectives, adverbs, pronouns,
etc.) e.g.
( (student), ((
( (letter, message), ( ((pen), etc.
(b) the i i( verb) e.g.
( (( (wrote),
i( (write, will write) and
i i
(Write!)
(c) the i
(i( particle) e.g. i( (used to convert statements into
questions),
i ( in), i( (did not), etc.
(3) The i
(i and those of the
i and i i which resemble the i
(i
structurally, semantically and functionally (such as the (
i (, (

i

(
i (, (i
i (
i (, ((i
i (i(
i (, (
(, etc.) do not form part
of the subject-matter of i
because of the fact that their rigid
structures are not amenable to the type of changes that is
commonly studied in i
. Hence, i
only deals with the i i
and the
i and more specifically those among them that do not
bear any structural, semantic or functional resemblance to the
i
(i.
(4) i
can be divided into three sections:
(a) i i i
( (Morphology of the Verb),
(b) i i
( (Morphology of the Noun) and
(c) (
i (i i i
( (Morphology of the Verb and Noun together),
also called "(("
i i i
( "Shared Morphology i.e. the Morphology
common to the Verb and Noun).

 i i i
(
(5) i i i
(investigates the i i from seven perspectives:
(a) the time of the occurrence of the action
(b) the number of (
i (
i ( (number of root letters)
(c) the presence or absence of ) (w

i ( (weak letters, namely: the
(i , the ( and the (i ) among the root letters
(d) intransitivity and transitivity
(e) the presence or absence of the
( i( doer / subject of the verbal
sentence)
(f) flexibility and inflexibility (i.e. rigidity)
(g) intensification or non-intensification
(6) The first perspective: the time of the occurrence of the action
The i i from this perspective is divided into three categories:
(a)
i
( i i i( past tense / perfect), which denotes the occurrence of
the action in the past, like: "
( "(( (wrote),
(b)
(i i i( present or future tense / imperfect), which denotes
the occurrence of the action in the present or future tense, like: "
i( "(write/s or will write), and

(c) i (i( verb of command / imperative), which denotes the
request for the occurrence of the action in the future, like: "
i i"
(Write!)
(7) The second perspective: the number of (
i (
i ( (number of
root letters)
The i i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a)
)
( (triliteral), which is a i comprising three root letters, like:
"
( "(( (wrote)
(b)
)
( ( quadriliteral), which is a i comprising four root letters,
like: "
( (
i ( "(rolled)
Each of these two categories is sub-divided into two more
categories.
Thus, the
)
(is sub-divided into:
(i)
(i
)
( (naked / divested triliteral), which is any
)
(divested
and stripped of any additional letters such that it only consists of
root letters, like: "
( (
( " (went out), "
( "( (was happy), "
(

( " (was
good), etc. and
(ii) i (i
)
( (increased / augmented triliteral), which is any
)
(
whose root form is increased by the addition of up to three letters,
like: "
( (
i ( "(put out, threw out), "
(
( "( (graduated), "
( (
i (
i ( "took
out, extracted), etc.
2

Likewise, the
)
( is sub-divided into:
(i)
(i
)
( ( naked / divested quadriliteral), which is any
)
(
divested and stripped of any additional letters such that it only
consists of root letters, like: "
( (
i ( "(rolled), "
( (i
( " (put at ease), etc.
and
(ii) i (i
)
( ( increased / augmented quadriliteral), which is any
)

( whose root form is increased by the addition of up to two

letters, like: "
( (
i ( "(( was rolled), "
((
i ( "was at ease), etc.
(NB! For more details see the Appendix 1 at the end of the book)
(8) The third perspective: the presence or absence of ) (w

i ( (weak
letters, namely: the (i , the ( and the (i ) among the root
letters
The i i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a) i

( sound / strong), which is a i whose root letters are free
from ) (w

i ( (weak letters), and consists of three types:
(i)
i

( super sound / strong), which is a i

(that is free
from i
i ( doubling i.e. have two identical root letters) and i (i
(having one of the root letters as a (i) (, like: "
( (
" (, "
"(( (, etc.
(ii)
(
(i /
(i i

( doubled strong), which is a i

(that has
two identical root letters, like: "( "( extended, lengthened), " ((i"(
(quaked, shook), etc.
(iii) i i (i i

( hamzated strong), which is a i

(that has one of
the root letters as a (i (, like: "( "((( ate), "((
( " (asked), "( "(((read),
etc.
(b) () i i( weak), which is a i whose root form constitutes at least
one of the three (i
i (and comprises four types:
(i) (i( quasi-sound), which is a () i whose first root letter is a i
(
) (w
( weak letter), like: "(
( "( (reached, arrived), "
( "( (was dried),
etc.
(ii) (
i ( (hollow), which is a () i whose second root letter is a i
(
) (w
, like: "( "((said), "
( "( (sold), etc.
(iii) ( defective), which is a () i whose last root letter is a ) (w
i
(
, like: "
( "( (called, invited), "( "(("threw, cast), etc.
(iv) i( two-folded), which is a () i whose first and third root
letters or second and third root letters are from the (i
i (, like: "
( "(("protected, safeguarded), ""
( "( (comprehended, fathomed), "
( "(("intended), "( "(("reported, narrated), etc.
(9) The fourth perspective: intransitivity and transitivity
3

The i i from this perspective is divided into two categories:

(a)
( intransitive), which is a i whose action is confined to the

( i( doer / subject of a verbal sentence) and not transferred
directly onto a i i( (direct object), like: "
( "( (was happy), "
( (
" (
(sat), etc.
(b)
i (( i( transitive), which is a i whose action is not confined to
the
( i but is transferred directly onto a i i (, and further
comprises three types:
(i) ) w
) ( w i i (" (
i (( i( transitive to one direct object only i.e. singly
transitive), like: "
"(( (in for example: "(((
(i (
( "(( (Zayd wrote the
letter),
(ii)
i (i i (" (
i (( i( transitive to two direct objects i.e. doubly
transitive), like: "

" (in for example: " i (
(i (

( " (Zayd thought
Khalid to be noble / generous), and ""
(
i "(in " (
(i" (
(
i ( "(Zayd
gave Khalid a book), and
(iii) ( i
(( ((
(" ( (
i (( i( transitive to three direct objects, i.e. triply
transitive), like: "((
i "(in for example: " i (
(i (

(( (
i ( "(Ali
informed Zayd that Khalid is noble / generous), and " "(("in " (("
( (i
(((( (
i (i
(

( i( "The teacher made the student see the
problem as being easy)
Some scholars add a third category, namely: that which is neither
(nor (( , and comprises verbs such as "
"( (and its sisters and "
"((and its sisters.
(10) The fifth perspective: the presence or absence of the
( i
(doer / subject of the verbal sentence)
The i i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a) i i (i
) i (i( active form of the verb), which is a i whose
( i is
mentioned (even in the implied and implicit sense) in the sentence
and not dropped, like:
"
"(( (in "
(
(
i


( "(( (The student wrote the letter),
"
i "(in "
(
(
i

i( "(The student is writing the letter), and
"
i i "in "
(i ](i i[ "]Write (you)]
(b) i
i (i
) i (i( passive form of the verb), which is a i whose
( i
is not mentioned (not even in the implied and implicit sense) in the
sentence, that is, it is dropped from the sentence, leaving a
vacuum which is normally filled by the
i i (i( direct object),
like:
"
" (in "

(
i( " ( The letter was written) and
"
( i "in "

(
i ( i( "The letter is being written)
4

(11) The sixth perspective: flexibility and inflexibility (i.e. rigidity)

The i i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a)
( (i( flexible), which is of two types:
(i)

( ) (fully-flexible), which is a i that exists in all three
states of the i i , that is: the
i
( i , the
(i and the i (, like:
Meaning
i

( i

(i
i(
to write, record
(( (


i(
i i

To hit, beat,
( (

i (
i

i
strike
(ii)

( (semi-flexible), which is a i that exists in only two
of the three states, that is: the
i
( i and the
(i only, or the

(i and the i (only, like:
Meaning
i

( i

(i
i(
to be on the verge,
((
((
almost, nearly
to continue
)(( ((
)(( ((
to leave, abandon
((
i (

to leave, abandon
((
i(
(b)
(i( rigid), which is a i that exists in only one of the three
states, like:
Meaning
i

( i

(i
i(
not
(i(

hopefully
"
(
(
shouts, makes a
i(

noise
Come!
(((
Give!
(

(12) The seventh perspective: intensification or non-intensification

The i i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a) ( i( corroborated), which is a i that has either the i i i
((i( emphatic i of corroboration) or the ((i
(i i i i( nonemphatic i of corroboration) suffixed to it.
(b) ( i i
( (non-corroborated), which is a i that does not have the
((i i i i or the ((i
(i i i i suffixed to it.
In the case of the
i
( i the suffixing of the i i i is disallowed.

In the case of the i (the suffixing of the i i i is optional, like: "

( (

(
i [ "(Worship your Lord (in the emphatic sense)], "
( (i i"(
[Worship your Lord (in the non-emphatic sense)], etc.
In the case of the
(i the suffixing of the i i i is either:
(i) necessary, which is when the
(i denotes the future and is in
the affirmative in an oath construction with the )
( (i ( of oath)
not being separated from it, like: " (((i ( i (
((i (
( "( By Allah! We
will be raised on the Day of Resurrection), i((
i (
( i (
( ( By Allah!
I will play a trick on your idols), or
(ii) close to being necessary, which is when the
(i is preceded
by the conditional "
i ( "meaning if) that is assimilated into the
additional " "(so as to form " ", like: "

(
(i ((
((
i ( " (If you really
work hard, then you will be successful), or
(iii) often, which is when the
(i is preceded by an
)w (
(( (
(particle of request such as command, prohibition, supplication,
gentle or urgent request, wishing, inquiring), like:
(

(
(
(
(
i (( (
(i

( i( (Do not think that Allah is unmindful of what the

wrongdoers are doing)
(iv) rare, which is when the
(i is preceded by the negative ""(
or the additional " "(, like: (
(i i i(
(
(i
(i
( ( ( i i( (And
guard yourselves against a severe punishment which will not only
afflict the wrongdoers )
(v) very rare, which is when the
(i is preceded by " i "(or an ((
) w(
( (conditional word) other than "( "and it makes no difference
whether it is in the position the i
or
i
(
) (and is found
mostly in poetry, like:
*
)w

(i ((i i
i ((i (
i (
i

((( (i (
i (i(( ((
Whosoever you find of them will not return - ever - and killing
Banu Qutaybah is a healing
(vi) disallowed, which is when one of the conditions for the
necessary corroboration is violated, like: "
(i

i (
( "( By Allah!
The wrongdoers will not be successful)

i i
(
(13)
i i
(investigates the
i also from seven perspectives:
(a) the stripping or addition of additional letters
(b) rigidity (non-derivation) and derivation
(c) masculinity and femininity (i.e. gender)
(d) the type of ending
(e) number
(f) diminution
6

(g) relation and ascription

(14) The first perspective: the stripping or addition of additional
letters
The
i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a) (i( naked or divested), which is an
i divested and stripped
of any additional letters and comprises three types:
(i)
)
(
(i( trilateral naked), like: "
( "( man), "( "((horse,
mare), etc.
(ii)
)
(
(i( quadriliteral naked), like: " (i
( " (Jafar, brooklet), "
(i( "dirham), etc.
(iii)
) (
i
(i( quinqueliteral naked), like: "
(i(
( " (quince), etc.
(b) i (i( increased or augmented), which is an
i that can be
increased up to seven letters by the addition of additional letters to
the root form and comprises numerous forms, some of which are
illustrated in the following table:
The Increased / Augmented
Form
( (someone understanding)
i
i ( (beaten, coined)

i (
i ( person finding a thing
easy)
(
i
i ( extracting, taking out)

i ( ( someone rolling
something)

i ( (( something being rolled)

(i
i ( gathering, assembling)

i
(i
( (the of a well in Jannah)
i (i( (jujube, linden tree)
i
(i( (ginger)

Root Form
Tril.Root
i(
i
(
i
(

Additional Letter(s)
the
the and
the , and
the , ,
and

Quad.Root
(
i (
the
(
i (

(i
(

the and
the , , and

Quinq.Roo
t
(
(i
(
the
((i(
the
(
(i(
the

(15) The second perspective: rigidity and derivation

The
i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
7

(a)
(i( rigid / non-derived), which is an
i that is not derived from
anything and comprises two types:
(i)

i or
i (i
i ( concrete noun), which is an
i that is not only
non-derivative but also none of the derived nouns is derived from
it, and refers to an entity or essence the nature of which is that it
can be qualified and described by highlighting a quality or attribute
in it, like: "
( "( man), "( "((horse, mare), and
(ii) ("i (i
i ( abstract noun), which is an
i even though it is nonderivative all derivatives are derived from it and is thus
appropriately called the (
i (i( ultimate source); moreover, it
denotes the qualities, states and actions that inhere in entities and
essences and which make it possible for the latter to be qualified
and described, like: "(
( " (beauty), "
i
( " goodness), ""(
(whiteness), "
(
( " (anger), "( "(((writing), " i
( " sitting), etc.
[Thus, if something possesses the quality of (
(i you can say that
it is i
( (beautiful), or if someone is in a state of
( (i( anger) you
can say that he is (
i
( (angry) or if someone performs the action
of (((i( writing) you can say that he is ( ( someone writing), etc.]
(b)
) (
i i( derivative), which is an
i that is formed from the (
i (i
on a specific pattern or patterns to indicate the particular manner
in which the quality, state or action is related to someone or
something (i.e. a vague entity or essence), and comprises seven
types:
[someone / something+

quality / state / action =

derivative]

(i)
( i
i ( active participle), which is an
) (
i
i formed from the
(
i (i on a specific pattern to indicate that someone or something is
performing the action indicated by the (
i (i in a non-permanent
sense, like: "( "( someone writing), "( "( someone or something
standing), "
( " (someone traveling), etc.
(ii) i i (i
i ( passive participle), which is an
) (
i
i formed from the
(
i (i on a specific pattern to indicate that someone or something is
the object receiving the action indicated by the (
i (i , like: " i i"(
(something written), "
(
i (
i ( "something taken out or extracted),
etc.
8

(iii)
( i
i (( )
(i((
( ) descriptive noun), which is an
) (
i
i
formed from the (
i (i( of an intransitive verb) on specific patterns
to indicate that someone or something is the bearer or possessor
of the quality indicated by the (
i (i and is not confined to any
particular tense but rather stretches from the past into the
continuous present, like: " i
( " (beautiful), "

(
( " (good), " ("i"(
(white), "(
i ( "(angry), etc.
(iv) i
i
i ( comparative or superlative form), which is an
) (
i
i
formed from the (
i (i on the pattern of " ( i "(to indicate that
someone or something is surpassing something or someone-else in
a shared quality which is denoted by the (
i (i , e.g. (
i ( "(more
beautiful), "

(
i ( "(better), "
(
i ( "(angrier), etc.
(v), (vi)
(( i (
( (
i ( nouns of time or place), which are
(
i
(
i
formed from the (
i (i on specific patterns to indicate the time or
place in which the action, denoted by the (
i (i , is occurring, like: "

i "(and "("
i ( "(time or place of the rising of the sun), "
i( "(time
or place of the setting of the sun), "
(i( "(entry), "(
i ( "(exit), etc.
(vii) ((
i ( noun of tool or instrument), which is an
) (
i
i formed
from the (
i (i on the patterns of " (((i ", " ( i "or " (i "to indicate
the tool or instrument with which the action indicated by the (
i (i
is accomplished, like: " (i( "file), "(
( (i( "broom), " (i( "key), etc.
(16) The third perspective: masculinity and femininity (i.e. gender)
The
i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a) ( (masculine), like: "
( "( man), "(
( " (mountain), "( "((pen),
etc.
(b) ( () feminine), which is of two types:
(i)
) i
( (real), which is an ()
i that denotes a female whether
amongst human beings or animals, like: "((
( "( Fatimah), " ( i"(
(Zaynab), " ((i( "woman), "(
( "female cat), etc.
(ii)
)
( ( (metaphorical), which is an ()
i that does not denote a
female whether amongst human beings or animals but because of
having been used as () by the ancient Arabs it has acquired the
status of () , like: " i
( " (sun), " i( "(earth), " i
( " (eye, spring),
etc.
9

The () i also comprises three more categories:

(i)
)
i( (feminine in form only), which is an
i whose meaning is (
but whose form is feminine due to having one of the )
i i((
(
(signs of femininity) suffixed to it, like: " (i
( " (Hamzah), "(
(i
" (
(Talhah), "( "((Zechariahs), etc.
(ii)
) (i( (feminine in meaning only), which is an
i whose meaning
is () but whose form is (due to it not having one of the (
(
(
i i suffixed to it, like: " (i( "(Maryam, Mary), " ( i( "(Zaynab), " i"
)
(Hind), etc.
(iii)
) (i ((
)
i( (feminine in both form and meaning), which is an
i
that is () in both form and meaning, like: "((
( "( Fatimah), " ("i
" (
(Salma), "(
i ( "(Asma), etc.
The )
i i(
(
(are two in number:
(i) the (
(i i (i( i.e. the joined or closed because it is joined or
close at its ends), like: " ((i

( " (Hasinah), "((
( "( Fatimah), "(
(
" (
(Aishah), etc.
(ii) the ( , which is either (i
i( (shortened), like: "("
i
( " Husna), "
("i
( " (Salma), etc. or (i i( (lengthened), like: "(
i
( " (Hasna), "(
i "(
(Asma), etc.
Remark: Even though it is not customary in i
to go into a
similar classification for the (i , I have thought it in order to treat
the (i in a similar fashion.
Thus, the (i can either be (:
in meaning and in form like "(
" (, "
)
" (, etc. or
in meaning only like " (i
( " (Hamzah), "(
(i
( " (Talhah), etc. or
in form only, like "( "(book), "( "((pen), etc.
(17) The fourth perspective: the type of ending
The
i from this perspective is divided into five categories:

10

(a) i i (i( defective), which is any declinable

i that terminates in
a (preceded by a (
i ( (i.e. "-
i " ), like: "
i
( i( "the judge), "
i (i"
(the past), etc.
(b) i
i (i( shortened), which is any declinable
i that terminates in
an ( ( whether it is written as an actual ( or a dot-less ) (
preceded by a (
(i( (i.e. "- "(or "-)""(, like: "
( (i( "stick), " (("i( "the
young lad), etc.
(c) i i (i( lengthened), which is any declinable
i that terminates in
an ( which is extended by a (i( (i.e. "-) "(, like: " (i
( " (red fem.),
"(
i
( " (desert), "
( " (type of cloth or clothing), "
(i( "creating,
producing, establishing), etc.
(d)
i
i
( quasi-strong), which is every declinable
i
terminating in a (or (preceded by a i
( i.e. "- i) w " and "- i
) w " ),
like: " i
( " sweet), "
i
( " (deer), etc.
(e) i

( strong), which is every declinable
i that does not
terminate in any of the four previous endings, like: "( "(book), "

( "( man), etc.
(18) The fifth perspective: number (singular, dual and plural)
The
i from this perspective is divided into three categories:
(a) (i i( singular), which is any
i that denotes a single masculine
or feminine object, like: "

( " (one male student), "((
( " (one
female student), etc.
(b) ("i( dual), which is any
i that denotes two masculine or
feminine objects by suffixing the ( and i( i.e. "-(
" in the case
of "i ) or the (i and i
(i.e. "-(
i" in the case of
i and )
(i)
to the singular form, like:
i(

(
(
( (two male students)
i((

(
((
( (two female students)
(c) "i (i( plural), which is any
i that denotes three or more
masculine or feminine objects and comprises two types:

11

(i)
i
i " i
(or ((
(
" i
( (sound plural), which is when the singular
form remains intact and unbroken when forming the plural form
and which in turn comprises two types:

( i " i
( (sound masculine plural), which is any
i that

denotes three or more males by suffixing the (i and i( i.e. "-

(i" in the case of "i ) or the (i and i( i.e. "-

(i" in the case of

i and )
(i) , like:
(i

(
(i
(

)
( i " i
( (sound feminine plural), which is any
i that
denotes three or more females by suffixing the ( and ( i.e.
"-(
)w ) " to the singular form after dropping the ((
( (i)
i i(
(vowelled of femininity), like: "
)w (
( " (three or more female
students)
(ii) i i " i
( (broken plural), which is when the singular form
changes when forming the plural form and which in turn comprises
two types:
(i
i
( plurals of paucity), which are plural forms that denote

three to ten objects and comprise four forms:

" i( "(months) (sing. "( " i
(
"(
i ( "(pillars, columns) (sing. "( " i
(
" (i( "(locks) (sing. "( " i
" ((i( "young lads) (sing. "( "( "

i(
((i(
(i(
((i

(i (i
i
( plurals of multitude), which are plural forms that

denote eleven to an infinite number of objects, and comprise the

following forms:
"
( " ships) (sing. "( " ( (i(

" i
( " gray) (sing. "( "(
i (
i
"( "(tyrants, oppressors) (sing. "( "
)w (
(((
"(
( " pictures, images) (sing. "( " (i

(
""
(i"(
(sick people, patients) (sing. "( ""
i(
("i(
" i( "hearts) (sing. "( "
i(
i
"
( " (seas) (sing. "( "
i (
(
"(
( " lessons) (sing. "( " ( i

(
" (i
( " young lads, servants) (sing. "( "
(

(i
"(
i ( "(wretched, villain) (sing. "( "

(

(i(
12

"((
" (
"
"
"(
i "
""(((
"((
"
"
"
""((
" i"((

(workers, labourers) (sing. "( "

(
(people severing or cutting) (sing. "( " "
(
(sticks, branches) (sing. "( "
i
(
(elephants) (sing. "( " ( (i
(scholars, learned people) (sing. "( "
(
(fugitive, stray, defectors) (sing. "( "
(
(dirhams) (sing. "( " ( i
(dinars) (sing. "( " ( i

(

(i (
i i (" i* (
(((i
i (
i
)w (
i

*
(("i
i (i " i
i
i
*

((((

(i
(((

( (

((
i(((

( (i
i



(((
( (
i
(i (i

(("i (
(( i(

In the grey ships the tyrants are images of sick-hearted

people while the seas are lessons
Their children work for the wretched, cutting off
branches because the elephants
And the scholars are astray and the final of their plurals
ends finishes in the seventeenth (position)
NB! In the final analysis the division of the i
i " i
(into (i " i
(and
(i (i " i
(is not a crucial one as the two types of plural are often
interchangeable, such that there is no hard-and-fast rule stating
that the one has to be used rather than the other. Often just one of
the two types exist per noun in which case it can be used for either
type.
(19) The sixth perspective: diminution
The
i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a)
(i( diminutive), which is any
i that denotes the diminutive
of the original
i from which it is formed, and comprises three
forms:
" i"(
(small fels) (diminutive of "( "
i(
i(
" i"(
(small dirham) (diminutive of "( " ( i
i(
" i i"(
(small dinar) (diminutive of "( " ( i
i i(
(b) (i( original non-diminutive), which is the original
i from
which the
(i is formed, like:
13

" i( "fels, small coin)

" (i( "dirham, silver coin)
" (i( "dinar, golden coin)
(20) The seventh perspective: relation
The
i from this perspective is divided into two categories:
(a) i
i (i( relative noun), which is any
i that has the

( ( (i.e.
the (i of relation and ascription, that is: "
) " ) suffixed to it in order
to show that the
i bearing that (i is related to the original
i
before the suffixing of the
( (, like:
"
)
i ( "Egyptian) from "
i ( "Egypt),
"
)
(
i ( "Islamic) from "
(
i ( "Islam),
"
) ( "(Meccan) from "( "((Mecca),
"
) ( "(( Medinan, civil, municipal, urban) from " ((i ( i( "Medina, city),
etc.
(b) i (i
i (i( noun related to), which is the original
i before the
suffixing of the

( (, like: " "((, "
(
i ", "
i "and " ((i ( i "in the
previous examples.
(("
i i i

(21) (("
i i i
investigates both the i i and
i from the
perspective of the changes that affect their structures changes
which facilitate the overall pronunciation of the word. The most
important of these changes are the following three:
(i
(assimilation, merging),
(
i ( changes involving weak letters) and
( i( substitution, replacement).
(22)
(i is when the first of two identical letters is assimilated into
the second so as become one emphatic letter. Thus, instead of
pronouncing them twice they are pronounced once only. The
following are some of the important rules pertaining to
(i :
(a) When two identical letters meet and the first of them is
unvowelled and the second vowelled, then the first is assimilated
into the second becoming one emphatic letter, like:
" "( which was originally " i "(on the pattern of " i "(, the first of the
two
( ( i.e. two Dals) is assimilated into the second becoming ""(
.
14

(b) When two vowelled identical letters meet in one word and they
are preceded by another vowelled letter, then the first of them is
first unvowelled and then assimilated into the second becoming
one emphatic letter, like:
" "( which was originally " "(( (on the pattern of " "((( , the first of the
two
( ( i.e. two Dals) is then unvowelled becoming " (i "(and then
assimilated into the second becoming " "( .
(c) When two vowelled identical letters meet in one word and they
are preceded by an unvowelled letter, then the first of them is first
unvowelled by transferring its vowel to the preceding unvowelled
letter and then assimilated into the second becoming one emphatic
letter, like:
" "( which was originally " i "(on the pattern of " i "(, the first of
the two
( ( i.e. two Dals) is unvowelled by transferring its vowel
to the preceding unvowelled i i becoming " i "(and then
assimilated into the second becoming " "( .
(d) When two identical letters meet and the first of them is
vowelled and the second unvowelled and they are preceded by an
unvowelled, then it is optional for the first of the two identical
letters to be unvowelled by transferring its vowel to the preceding
unvowelled letter, such that two unvowelled letters meet and to
escape the meeting of two unvowelled letters the second of them
is vowelled either with:
a (
i ( (due to it being the primary (((
(i used for the meeting of

two unvowelled letters),

(
(i( (due to it being the lightest of the three ((
(i) , or
the (((
(i corresponding the previous (((
(i , like:
" ( i "(, " ( i "(or " ( i "(which was originally " i i (i "(on the pattern
of " i i (i "(, the first of the two
( is optionally unvowelled by
transferring its vowel to the preceding unvowelled i i becoming " i(
i i "(and then the two unvowelled
( meet and to escape their
meeting the second is vowelled either with a (
(i (, (
i (or the (

which is the (((
(i that corresponds to the (
on the preceding i i
, thus becoming either " ( i "(, " ( i "(or " ( i "(.
15

(e) When the second of two identical letters has the "
( (i " i i
(
(i.e. "
(i "((, "
i "((, " i i "((, " (i "((, "
(i "((and " (i ) "((suffixed to it,
then assimilation of the first into second is disallowed, like: " , "
(i((
(i "(( , "

i "(( , " i i "(( , " (i ""(( and " (i "(( .

(23)
(
i is a type of change that affects weak letters as regards:
transforming one weak letter into another, like: "
"( (and " "((in
which the ( in both cases was transformed from a (as their
original forms were "(
"( (and " "(((respectively,
unvowelling the weak letter either through dropping the vowel
completely or transferring it to an unvowelled letter before it,
like: " i
i "(in which the (i was unvowelled by dropping the (

as the original form was " i "(, and like: " i "(in which the (i
was unvowelled by transferring the (
to the unvowelled (i
before it at the original form was " i "(, and
dropping the weak letter, like: "
i "in which the (i was dropped
due to the meeting of two unvowelled letters as the original form
was " i i ", and then the (i was unvowelled by transferring the
(
to the preceding unvowelled (i becoming " i i"and the
result is that the
i (i ( i (is dropped and two unvowelled letters
meet, namely: the unvowelled (i and the unvowelled
, and
to escape this meeting the weak letter which is the unvowelled
(i is dropped, thus becoming " i ".
The following are some of the most important rules pertaining to

(
i :
(a) When the (i or (i is vowelled and preceded by a letter
bearing a (
(i (, it is transformed into an ( ( and it does not matter
whether the ( is written as one or as a dot-less ) (, like: "
"( (
which was originally "(
"( (, and " "((which was originally " "(((or "
"(("which was originally "
"(( (and "
"( (which was originally " "(((", all
of which are on the pattern of " "((( but because the (i and (i is
vowelled and preceded by a letter bearing a (
(i (, they were
transformed into an ( . The original form of the ( can be
determined from the
(i i i and/or the (
i (i , for example:
" (
i " "(i
i" "(
"( (
" i " "(i"((" "(
" i" "(
i i"(("" "(
16

" i "" "(i " "(

"( (
(b) When the (i is unvowelled and occurs after a (
i (, it is
transformed into a (, like: " (i "which was originally "
(i ", and "
(i "which was originally " (i ", but because the (i in each case
is unvowelled and occurs after a (
i (, it is transformed into a (.
The original form of the (i can be determined from the
i
( i i i
and/or the (
i (i , for example:
"
i ( " "( " "(
"( (
" i" "(
" "(
"(( (
(c) When the (i is unvowelled and occurs after a (
(, it is
transformed into a (, like: "
i "which was originally "
i ", and "

i "which was originally "

i ", but because the second (i in
each case is unvowelled and occurs after a (
(, it is transformed
into a (. We know the original form of the (i to be a (because
of the
i
( i being "
( (i "(and "(
(i "(respectively and the (
i (i of the
root form being " i (i "and "
i i "respectively.
(d) When the ( ( which is always unvowelled) occurs after a (
i (,
it is transformed into an unvowelled (, like: " i
"( (which was
originally "
"( (, but because the ( occurs after a (
i (, it is
transformed into an unvowelled (. We know that the (i was
originally an ( because " i
"( (is the plural of "(
i "and the
plural is formed from the singular.
(e) When the ( ( which is always unvowelled) occurs after a (
(,
it is transformed into an unvowelled (, like: " ( i
" which was
originally "(
" , but because the ( occurs after a (
(, it is
transformed into an unvowelled (. We know that the (i was
originally an ( because " ( i "is the passive form of "((
" (which is
the active form, and the passive form is formed from the active
form.
(f) When the i occurs at the end of a word after a (
i (, it is
transformed into a (, like "
(
"( which was originally "(
"( , but
because the (i occurs at the end after a (
i (, it is transformed
into a (. We know that the (i was originally a (because the
17

(
i (i is "(
i "and the popular view is that the i i is derived from
the (
i (i .
(g) When the (i and the (i meet and one of them precedes the
other in bearing a i
( i.e. the first of them is unvowelled), then
the (i is always going to be transformed into a (, like: "
" (
which was originally " i
" (on the pattern of " i"(, but because the
(i and the (i meet and the first of them is unvowelled, the (i is
transformed into a (. We know that the second of the double and
emphatic (i was originally a (because of the
(i being " i
"( .
(h) When the (i occurs at the end of a word and it is the fourth
letter and upwards , then it is transformed into a [ (and it does not
matter if the (i is subsequently transformed into an ( according
to rule (a) or not], like: ""
(i "(which was originally "(
(i "(, but
because the (i occurs at the end and it is the fourth letter, it is
transformed into a (, which in turn is transformed into an ( ( but
written as a dot-less ) (according to rule (a).
(i) When the (i or the (i occurs at the end of a word after a
vowelled letter, then their (((
(i is dropped if it is a (
(or a (
i ( (but
retained if it is a (
(i) (, like: " i (" i
i "(which was originally "
i(
"(" , but because the (i of "

i "(bears a (
(and the (i of "
" a (

i (and both these letters occur after a vowelled letter, the

(
on the (i and the (
i (i on the (i are dropped. This also
applies to "
i
(i("
(
i
( i
i
i "(which was originally " ("
(

( i

i(

(i ".
(j) When the second root letter (also called the " (((i i
) (is a
vowelled weak letter (i.e. a vowelled (or ) (and occurs after an
unvowelled strong letter, then the (((
(i of the second root letter is
transferred to the unvowelled strong letter. Thereafter, if the
second root letter (which is the (i or (i ) is not the corresponding
sister letter of the (((
(i that was transferred to the unvowelled
strong letter before it, then the second root letter is transformed
into the corresponding sister letter of the transferred (((
(i . This is
like:
"
i "(which was originally " i "(,
""
i "(which was originally " "i "(,

18

 " i "which was originally "

i "which then became " i "and then

finally " i ",

"

"( (which was originally "
(
i "(which then became "
i
"( (and
then finally "

"( (.
(k) When two unvowelled letters meet and one of them is a weak
letter, then it is dropped, like:
"
i "which was originally " i i "which then became " i i ", then "

i i "and then finally " i ",

""
i "which was originally " "i i ", which then became " "i i ", then "i i"
and then finally " "i ",
"
i "((, which was originally "
i( "((but even before this it was "
i (i "(, which then became "

i i "((and then "

i "((, and then
finally "
i "((.
(l) When the i i is naked triliteral starting with a ( (which is
referred to as
"
) ( (
(
)
) " (on the pattern of " i"(
(whether it is originally on that pattern or not), then the (i is
dropped from the
(i , the i (and the (
i (i and the latter case
it is compensated for by adding a (
(i i ( (, like:
"

"( which was originally "
i"(
"
i
" which was originally " i
i"
"((
" which was originally "
i ".

(24) i is a change that involves the substitution of one letter for

another.
The following are some of the most important rules pertaining to
( i :
(a) When the (i or the (i occurs at the end of a word after an
additional ( , then it is substituted for by a (i (, like:
"

" (which was originally "
(" (because it is from " i
i" "(
) "( (,
"
"( which was originally "
( "( because it is from "
i i) "(("" "(

(b) When the (i or the (i occurs after the ( of "

( "( i.e. the
i

( i of the first form), then it is substituted for by a (i (, like:
"
"( which was originally "( "( because it is from " i) "((" "(,

19

 ""
"( which was originally "( "( "because it is from " "i " "(
) "( (

(c) When the (i( i.e. the first root letter) of " ((( i "is a (or a (,
then it is substituted for by a (which is then assimilated into the
of " ((( i ", like:
"
(
" (which was originally "(
( (i "which then became "(
( (i "and

then finally "(

( " (because it is from "
( " "(
) "( (,
"(
" (which was originally "(
( (i "which then became "(
( (i "and
then finally "(
( " (because it is from "
i(" "(
) "( .
(d) When the (i( i.e. the first root letter) of " ((( i "is a (, then it is
substituted for by a (and the first is then assimilated into the
second, like:
" "((which was originally " (((i "which then became " (((i "and then
finally " "((.
(e) When the (i( i.e. the first root letter) of " ((( i "is a (, a (or a
(, then the of " ((( i "is substituted for by a (, like:
""
" (which was originally " (("i "which then became ""
( (i "and

then finally ""

" (,
" (((i "which was originally " (((i "which then became " (((i( "also
permissible for " (((i "are: " "((and ") "((,
"(
( (i "which was originally " (((i "which then became " (((i ".
(f) When the (i( i.e. the first root letter) of " ((( i "is a
(, a
(, a

(or a
(, then the of " ((( i "is substituted for by a
(, like:
"(("
i "which was originally "(("
i "which then became "("
(i ",
"((
i "which was originally "
(( (
i "which then became "
( (
(
i ",
""
( (
"which was originally "((("
i "which then became "(("
(
i "and

then finally "(("

",
"(((
i "which was originally "(((
i "which then became "((
(
i ( "also
permissible for "((
(
i "are: "((
"and "((
) "
(g) When two
(( i (meet in one word, and the first of them is
vowelled and the second unvowelled, then the second is substitute
for by a ( i
( (letter of prolongation) which is the corresponding
sister letter of the preceding (((
(, like:
20

"
" " which was originally( (
"( i( (
"
" " which was originally i
" i
" . i(" " which was originally i("
) ( i "

21