566 ROTATIONAL MOLDING Vol.

11

ROTATIONAL MOLDING
Introduction

Rotational molding (also referred to as rotomolding or rotational casting) is a

unique molding process. The heating, shaping, and cooling of the plastic all takes
place inside the mold, with no application of pressure. This method dates back
to the early 1900s. Today the rotational molding industry is one of the fastest
growing segments of the plastics industry, with an annual growth of 10%. This is
largely due to the efforts of the Association of Rotational Molders (ARM), an in-
ternational organization that includes molders, equipment suppliers, professional
consultants, and design firms, and the Society of Plastics Engineers (SPE), who
have recently formed a rotomolding division.
Initially only vinyl plastisols were used for rotational molding; however, in
the early 1960s, polyethylenes, the first polyolefin powders, were employed (1).
This created the opportunity for molders to enter markets where vinyl products
could not compete. In the early 1970s cross-linkable and modified polyethylenes
opened up more new areas, especially in the large-tank market. In the mid-1970s,
linear low density polyethylene, a major development in resins, was formulated.
In the 1980s nylon, polypropylene, and polycarbonate were introduced for ro-
tational molding applications. The 1990s saw rotolining resins, materials that
bonded to metal, and one-step foam resin systems that provided for a finished
part with a rotomolded outer skin and a foam-filled core. The year 2000 ushered
in single-site catalyst resins, some known as metallocenes as well as numerous
compounders providing blends of resins for very specific end use requirements.
Most resin is used as a ground powder, ranging in particle size from 20 to 120 mesh
(125–840 µm). Liquids and small-diameter micropellets can also be rotomolded.
Rotational molding provides a more uniform wall thickness, for both single- and
double-wall construction, than other methods. Thick corners impart strength. In-
serts, ribs, and undercuts are easily included (2,3).
The range of designs is limitless. The ARM organization has published a
design manual for rotational molding (4). This was the first publication to address
the design guidelines required in the rotational molding industry. Since that time,
numerous books have been published on rotomolding (5).
Molds and tooling costs are lower than those of other processing methods,
since channels for cooling water and resistance to a clamping force are not re-
quired. Different articles and colors may be molded on the same machine and in
the same cycle. Quick mold changes are possible when several short production
runs are required. Large, hollow products are conveniently made by rotomolding.
The largest article molded to date is an 85-m3 tank. Trimming can be eliminated
since very little flash is produced. Rotomolded parts are comparatively stress-free.
Corner sections are thicker than with other processes, which increases strength.

Encyclopedia of Polymer Science and Technology. Copyright John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Vol. 11 ROTATIONAL MOLDING 567

Undercuts, intricate contours, molded-in inserts, and double-wall construction are

routinely included; wall thicknesses are uniform.

Process

In most rotomolding operations the molds or cavities are filled with a certain
amount of powder or liquid (charging the molds); the mold halves are pressed
together by bolts or clamps, placed in a heated oven, and rotated biaxially. During
heating the resin melts, fuses, and densifies into the shape of the mold. The molds
are moved into a cooling chamber, where they are slowly cooled by air and water.
After removal from the cooling chamber, the molds are opened and the finished
articles are released.
Many rotomolded parts are produced in the color of the plastic. For colored
parts, suppliers provide a compounded colored resin; however, many molders blend
a dry color into the resin—for this operation, addition and dispersion are critical.
New developments in liquid colors allow for use at both the compounder and ro-
tomolder. Nylon and polycarbonate may require drying before molding. Although
scrap or regrind is not produced in large quantities, only a small percentage of
regrind should be used with the virgin resin.
The particle size of the resin is extremely important; 500-µm (35-mesh)
powder is the standard of the industry, although coarser or finer grinds may be
employed.
Wall distribution is determined by the rotation ratio. The fewer rpms in a cer-
tain ratio, the more uniform the wall thickness. Resin, molds, and final application
must be taken into consideration to establish the most efficient cycle.
Equipment. The equipment used in rotational molding is simple; many
variations are available. The most common type is the so-called carousel type
(Fig. 1). This machine consists of a heating station or oven, a cooling station (fre-
quently an enclosed chamber), and a loading and unloading station. A carousel has
three to six spindles or arms where the mold or molds are mounted. Most carousels
have the freedom to revolve in a complete circle. The spindles are mounted on a
central hub and driven by variable motor drives. New control systems allow each
arm to operate independently in movement and control of oven temperature and
time. Microprocessors are incorporated in the control system. Computer simula-
tion software can be utilized in prototyping and manufacturing.
The ovens are usually fired with natural gas and equipped with blowers to
distribute the heat throughout the chamber. Some ovens can be heated by oil or
propane gas, but natural gas is preferred. A new composite mold technology is also
available to produce rotomolded parts. This is done without an oven as heating
and cooling takes place inside the mold.
A fan provides forced air to the cooling station for the initial cooling, whereas
a water system cools the molds and products. A spray mist is used for even cooling.
The cooling station may or may not be enclosed.
In an open-flame machine a mold is rotated on a single axis over an open
flame. After the article is formed, the excess resin is discarded and the flame is
turned off to allow for air-cooling. This process requires a longer cycle time, but
the equipment is less expensive.
568 ROTATIONAL MOLDING Vol. 11

Oven

Load−unload station
Molds Cooling station

Fig. 1. Carousel-type machine.

The shuttle-type machine (Fig. 2) is used for large products, such as tanks.
A frame for holding a mold is mounted on a movable bed. The drive motors for
turning the mold biaxially are incorporated in the bed, which is on a track that
allows the mold and bed to move into and out of the oven. After the heating cycle
is completed, the mold is moved into the cooling station, which is not enclosed,
Another bed with a mold is moved into the oven from the opposite end. (Some
shuttle machines will use a movable oven.)
The clamshell type of rotational molder utilizes an enclosed area that serves
as both the oven and the cooling station (Fig. 3). This machine employs only one
arm; heating, cooling, and loading–unloading stations are all in the same location.
Rock and roll machines are commonly used for kayaks and canoes. These
machines do not rotate biaxially but will rock back and forth while spinning on

Door Oven Door

Station 1 Station 2

Mold Mold

Cooling, loading, and unloading Cooling, loading, and unloading

Fig. 2. Shuttle-type machine.

Vol. 11 ROTATIONAL MOLDING 569

Ascending upper oven section

Mold

Drive Mold Drive

Fold down access door

Fig. 3. Clamshell-type machine.

the longest axis. This can be accomplished over an open flame or a variation, which
uses a rocking oven.
Machine maintenance is of extreme importance. A weekly inspection, as well
as a good inventory of spare parts, is necessary in case of breakdowns. Filling
devices can be automated but are usually manually operated. This requires an
accurate weighing device and a container for each of the resins. Robotic systems
for loading/unloading of powder and parts are now making their way into this
industry. Some resins, such as nylons, require a nitrogen atmosphere. The nitrogen
is introduced through a channel in the spindle and connected to the mold with
rotary hoses.
Molds. The molds used in rotational molding are among the easiest and
least expensive to fabricate; two-piece molds are standard, but three-piece molds
are sometimes required to remove the finished products. Molds can be as simple
as a sphere, or complex, with undercuts, ribs, and tapers. Design considerations
include heat transfer, mounting, parting lines, clamping mechanisms, venting,
and material stability. Mold makers commonly use 2-D and 3-D electronic files to
design new molds.
Cast aluminum is the most widely used mold material. Small to medium
articles are molded with a cast mold. Cast aluminum has good heat transfer,
and is cost-effective when several moldings of the same article are required. Cast
molds can be porous, however, and are easily damaged. Sheet-metal molds are
normally used for larger parts. They are easy to fabricate; frequently the sections
of the molds only have to be welded together. Sheet-metal molds are cost-effective
for large articles. Other molds, such as electroformed nickel molds, give a product
570 ROTATIONAL MOLDING Vol. 11

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 4. Parting lines (a) stepped, (b) pin and bushing, (c) fabricated, and (d) tongue and
groove.

with very fine detail. Vapor-formed nickel molds also give good detail but are more
expensive.
Parting Lines. Each mold must have two or more sections, requiring good
parting lines (Fig. 4) for a close fit and minimum flash.
Mounting. The molds are mounted on the spindle or the arm of a rotational
molding machine. Large sheet-metal molds are easily mounted by bolts or simple
clamping systems. Several small to medium aluminum molds can be mounted on
spindle or arm. A part commonly known as a spider is used to mount several cast
aluminum molds. The spider consists of several arms or mounting legs where each
mold is attached, normally by bolts. A central mounting location is attached to the
spindle by bolts. The spider allows two or three dozen cast molds to be mounted
on one central structure. The entire spider, or just one or two cast molds, can be
removed or mounted efficiently. The spider or a single, large sheet-metal mold may
be removed easily with a forklift or crane. This is important, since the rotomolding
industry normally requires short production runs of a variety of parts. Figure 5
shows molds mounted on a straight arm and an offset arm.
Clamping Systems. The most common clamping system for small to
medium molds is that of spring-loaded clamps, which are welded onto the sections
of a mold. As the molds get larger, nuts and threaded bolts are normally used; they
are installed and removed with an air gun (impact wrench).
Vol. 11 ROTATIONAL MOLDING 571

Standard spindle (straight arm)

Offset (arm)
spindle

Fig. 5. Mold mountings.

Venting System. Most rotational molds require a venting system to re-

move the gas that develops in the heating cycle. Depending on the mold size, vents
range from 3 to 50 mm in diameter. A 12.5-mm-i.d. tube is used for an article of
0.76-m3 volume.
Since vents leave a hole in the molded parts, correct placement is essential.
They should be located in an area that may be cut out of the finished product or
where a patch does not impair appearance. Vents must also be so located as to
prevent water from entering the product while it is in the cooling cycle, because
this may leave a water-track mark on the inside of the hot article. Improper venting
can cause problems, such as blow holes in the parting line.
Mold Release. Since most rotational molds are designed with little or
no draft angle, they must be treated with a release agent. Molds are usually
cleaned with a solvent and a lightly abrasive cloth to remove foreign particles
from the surface. A light coating of release agent is applied and baked on to en-
sure adhesion. The amount of release agent required depends on the resins to
572 ROTATIONAL MOLDING Vol. 11

be used. After the initial application, several hundred articles can be molded
before the mold is stripped and another coating is applied; during this time
touch-up may be required. Sandblasting is also used to remove resin buildup
before reapplying the mold release. A more effective release agent is usually ap-
plied to the parting line to facilitate demolding. Teflon provides for a permanent-
release coating but care must be taken not to damage it, as it is normally very
thin.
Special Molds. Some molds may require a complicated design, inserts,
and special machining. Alignment pins may be used to ensure a perfect fit. If a
rotomolded article contains a large section where no resin buildup is desired, the
mold can be shielded with an insulating material such as Teflon.
Regular maintenance prolongs the useful life of the mold. For clean-
ing, nonabrasive tools should be used. Steel molds should be oiled to prevent
rusting.
Secondary Operations. Secondary operations may be required, such as
automatic or manual drilling. Additional fittings can be added by spin welding.
Sections may be joined by hot-bar, hot-gas, or ultrasonic welding. Flame treatment
before painting provides a surface for adhesion. As in all plastic processing meth-
ods, secondary operations are time-consuming and should be kept to a minimum.
Automatic computer-driven 3–5-axis routers are now commonplace for secondary
operations. Decorating, labeling, and graphics have become an important area for
parts that are rotomolded. Graphics, labels, and colors can be molded in or applied
afterwards.

Resins

In the early days of rotational molding only vinyl plastisols were used. The first
polyethylene for rotomolding was produced in the 1960s. Today polyethylene is
the principal material for the industry. The distribution of resin use in rotational
molding is indicated below (6).

85% Polyethylene
10% Fluorocarbons
Polycarbonate
Nylon
Poly(vinyl chloride)
Polypropylenes
5% ABS
Acetals
Acrylics
Cellulosics
Epoxies
Phenolics
Polybutylenes
Polyesters
Polystyrenes
Polyurethanes
Silicones
Vol. 11 ROTATIONAL MOLDING 573

A rotomolding resin requires good flow, which is measured by the melt index.
The higher the melt index, the better the flow. Most rotomolding resins have melt
indexes between 3 and 20. The melt index is also an approximate measure of
molecular weight or chain length. A resin with a high index has shorter chains
and a lower molecular weight; a low index indicates longer chains and a higher
molecular weight. Molecular weight distribution is also important. The narrower
the distribution, the more uniform the melt properties.
Polyethylene. Linear low density polyethylenes (LLDPE) are the most
widely used materials for rotational molding. Large pellets cannot be used and
must be reduced to a smaller particle size to promote heat transfer from the mold to
the powder. This also improves the flow of the particles during melting to prevent
the deleterious effect of oxidation. This size reduction is done by the resin supplier,
a custom grinder compounder, or the molder on mechanical grinding mills. Some
resins, such as nylon, are supplied as small pellets and can be molded without
grinding (see ETHYLENE POLYMERS, LLDPE).
The molecular weight distribution of a polyethylene for rotational mold-
ing should be very narrow, allowing for uniform melting of the particles during
the molding cycle. Polyethylenes are easily ground to 500 µm (35 mesh) at high
rates, yielding acceptable powder at nominal upcharge. They are thermally stable,
and with stabilization can be molded in high temperature, high speed rotational-
molding equipment without oxidation. Excellent low temperature physical prop-
erties, such as impact strength, allow use in a broad temperature range.
Polyethylenes are inexpensive and available in a wide range of densities and
melt indexes for a wide variety of applications. Ultraviolet stability or outdoor
life is significantly improved by the addition of pigment or UV stabilizer. Most
polyethylene resins meet FDA food additive regulations, except for some special-
ized cross-linkable polyethylenes and some resins with certain UV stabilizers.
The high dielectric strength of polyethylenes makes them suitable for electrical
applications. Density and melt indexes (2.0–20 g/10 min) are the main criteria for
selecting a polyethylene for a particular application (Table 1).
Polyethylene is classified by density. Type I has a density of up to 0.925 and is
called low density (LDPE). Type II has a density range from 0.926 to 0.940 and is
called medium density (LMDPE); most LLDPEs fall into this range. Type III has
a range from 0.941 to 0.969 and is classified as high density copolymer (HDPE).
Type IV is above 0.960 and is classified as high density homopolymer; it is not
used in rotational molding.
LDPE is flexible and tough, easy to process, and has excellent chemical resis-
tance. LLDPE and LMDPE have better mechanical properties than LDPE, higher
stiffness, excellent low temperature impact strength, and excellent environmental
stress crack resistance. HDPE is the stiffest polyethylene, with excellent chemical
resistance and good processability. XLPE contains a cross-linking agent that re-
acts with the resin during the molding cycle, similar to a thermoset. This reaction
improves the toughness and stress-crack resistance of the rotomolded product.
Ethylene vinyl acetate copolymer (EVA) is a low density polyethylene copoly-
mer with excellent low temperature impact properties. The higher the level of vinyl
acetate, the greater the flexibility of the material. Colorants, flame retardants, and
foaming and antistatic agents may be added to polyethylene for specialty appli-
cations. Comparisons with other resins are given in Table 2.
574 ROTATIONAL MOLDING Vol. 11

Table 1. Molding Properties of Polyethylenes

Resin Advantages Disadvantages
LDPE Flexibility No stiffness
Excellent warp resistance No ESCRa
Uniform shrinkage
FDA accepted
BVA Flexibility No stiffness
Excellent cold temp. impact No ESCRa
Uniform shrinkage
FDA accepted
LLDPE–LHDPE Excellent ESCRa Less stiff than HDPE
Good warp resistance Lower heat deflection
More stiffness than LDPE
FDA accepted
HDPE Excellent stiffness Low ESCRa
FDA accepted Warpage and shrinkage are
Good impart strength not consistent
Higher heat deflection
XLPE Excellent impact Not accepted by FDA
Excellent ESCRa Longer molding cycle
a Environmental stress-crack resistance.

Table 2. Resins Used for Rotomolding

Resin Advantages
Polyethylene Low cost, ease of moldability
Polycarbonate Clarity, toughness
Nylon Excellent impact strength
High heat resistance
Poly(vinyl chloride) Flexibility, paintability
Disadvantages
Lower impact strength
than other types
Tendency to absorb moisture,
harder to mold than PE
High cost, harder to mold than PE
Greater cost than PE, stiffness

Poly(vinyl chloride). Poly(vinyl chloride) can be molded in liquid or pow-

dered form. The liquid plastisols are fluid suspensions of fine particle-sized resins
in a plasticizing liquid. PVC compounds are easily processed. They can be for-
mulated to produce articles ranging from flexible to semirigid, with durometer
hardness of 60 Shore A to 65 Shore D (see VINYL CHLORIDE POLYMERS).
Molded plastisols possess outstanding chemical resistance. Plastisol sys-
tems for rotational molding are usually formulated to a Brookfield viscosity
of 1000–4000 mPa·s (=cP) to provide high mold detail reproduction. Plasti-
sols have excellent fluorescent pigment retention, which eliminates pigment
bleeding. This can be an advantage in rotomolding when bright colors are
required.
Nylon. Nylon has excellent tensile strength, stiffness, impact strength, and
high heat resistance, and properties are maintained at elevated temperatures;
chemical resistance is excellent (see POLYAMIDES, PLASTICS).
Vol. 11 ROTATIONAL MOLDING 575

Table 3. Less Important Resins Used in Rotomolding

Resin Advantages Disadvantages
ABS Good dimensional stability, low temp. Hard to mold
impact strength
Acetals Very rigid, good chemical resistance Hard to mold, high
cost
Acrylics Good clarity Low impact strength
Cellulosics Good chemical resistance, impact Hard to mold
strength, and clarity
Epoxies Good electrical properties and Hard to mold
chemical resistance
Fluorocarbons Good thermal properties, excellent Hard to mold
chemical resistance
Phenolics Good at high temp. Hard to mold, low
impact strength
Polybutylenes Good abrasion properties, long-term Hard to mold
water resistance
Polypropylene Good chemical resistance Low impact strength
Polystyrenes Good electrical properties and clarity Low impact strength
Polyurethanes Good insulating properties and Hard to mold
abrasinn resistance
Styrene acrylonitrile Good chemical resistance and clarity Hard to mold
(SAN)
Silicones Good moisture resistance, excellent, Hard to mold, high
chemical resistance cost

Polycarbonate. Polycarbonates (qv) provide resins with excellent me-

chanical properties, including stiffness, tensile strength, creep resistance, and
the highest heat resistance of all rigid plastics.
Other Resins. Many other resins have been processed by rotational mold-
ing. In most cases their disadvantages outweigh their advantages. Disadvantages
include high cost, poor impact strength, and low flowability (Table 3).

Applications

Almost any type of part or product can be produced by rotational molding. Roto-
molding has fewer limitations than any other plastic processing method. It is used
for tanks, ranging in size from 19 L to 88 m3 . Rotomolded tanks are utilized in the
agricultural, chemical, and recreational vehicle industries. Rotomolded contain-
ers are used for packaging and material handling. Rotational molding is used for
portable toilets, battery cases, light globes, vacuum cleaner and scrubber housings,
toys, and garbage containers. Rotomolded kayaks, canoes, boats, and playground
equipment are commonplace.

Economic Aspects

Compared with blow molding, rotational molding offers lower equipment and mold
costs and broad design parameters. Blow molding, however, provides a quicker
576 ROTATIONAL MOLDING Vol. 11

Table 4. Plastics Processinga

Rotomolding Blow Molding Thermoforming
Equipment cost 2 3 1
Mold cost 1 3 2
Cycle time 3 1 2
Design limits 1 3 2
Materials available 1 3 2
a1 = lowest costs; 3 = highest costs.

cycle and can be used with more resins. Compared with thermoforming, rota-
tional molding offers cheaper mold cost and more design freedom. Thermoforming
equipment is cheaper, cycles are shorter, and the resin selection is wider. Table 4
compares these processes. Rotomolding resins are priced slightly higher than most
other resins because of higher stabilizer requirements. Grinding costs are 11–15
cents/kg. Rotomolding machine prices range from $80,000 for a small machine up
to $800,000. Grinding systems are $50,000 to $100,000.

Safety

Rotational molding is a reasonably safe industry. Most resins used are nonhaz-
ardous. Some resins may cause mild irritation; suppliers provide safety informa-
tion on their handling and use. Most resins used for rotational molding are ground
to 500 µm (35 mesh), and appropriate procedures should be followed to prevent a
dust explosion and fire. A rotomolder is a relatively safe piece of processing equip-
ment; fans are enclosed with guards; spindles and arms operate at a low speed.
The oven is equipped with a temperature control.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

“Rotational Molding” in EPSE 2nd ed., Vol. 14, pp. 659–670, by Philip T. Dodge, Quantum
Chemical Company, USI Division.
1. USI Chemicals, Petrothene Polyolefins, A Processing Guide, National Distillers, Cincin-
noti, Ohio, 1971.
2. P. B. Brains, Basic Principles of Rotational Molding, New York, 1971.
3. Engineering Design Handbook, Rotational Molding of Plastic Powders, U.S. Army Ma-
terial Command, Alexandria, Va., 1975.
4. G. Beall, The Engineers’ Guide to Designing Rotationally Molded Plastic Parts, Associ-
ation of Rotational Molders, Chicago, Ill., 1982.
5. R. Crawford, Rotational Moulding of Plastics, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1992;
P. Mooney, Analysis of the North American Rotational Molding Business, 1995; R.
Crawford, Rotational Moulding of Plastics, 2nd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York,
1997; P. Mooney, The Recent Pace and Growth in North American Rotational Molding,
1997; G. Beall, Rotational Molding, Hanser/Gardner, 1998; P. Mooney, The New
Economics of Rotational Molding, 1999; P. Nugent, Rotational Molding: A Practical
Guide, 2001; P. Mooney, New Market Dynamics in Rotomolding, 2003.
Vol. 11 RUBBER CHEMICALS 577

6. P. T. Dodge, Materials for Rotational Molding, Plastics Design Forum, Denever, Colo.
1984;

GENERAL REFERENCES

Association of Rotational Molders Library, www.Rotomolding.org.

Society of Plastics Engineers, Rotomolding Division. www.rotomolding.net.

PHILLIP T. DODGE
STEVE ANDRZEJEWSKI
DUANE MAHAN
Equistar Chemicals, LP, Lyondell Chemical Co.