Escolar Documentos
Profissional Documentos
Cultura Documentos
of the
Second Australian
Acid Mine Drainage
Workshop
Editors: N.J. Grunden and L.C. Bell
Charters Towers, Queensland
28- 31 March 1995
Jointly organised by:
AUSTRALIAN CENTRE FOR
MINESITE REHABILITATION RESEARCH
P.O. Box 883
KENMORE, Old 4069
Published by:
MINERALS COUNCIL
OF AUSTRALIA
P.O. Box 363
DICKSON, ACT 2610
Australian Centre tor
Minesite Rehabilitation Research
( i)
Published by the Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation Research.
ISBN: 0 646 24771 9
July, 1995
Copyright 1995, Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation Research.
Articles in this publication are protected by copyright. Material from the publication may be
used providing both the author and publisher are acknowledged.
Individual papers are the responsibility of the author(s). The opinions expressed do not
necessarily represent the views of the publishers.
Enquires and requests for copies should be directed to:
The Director,
Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation Research
P.O. Box 883
KENMORE, Old 4069
Australia
Telephone:
Facsimile:
(07) 3212 4555
(07) 3212 4574
Citation of this publication should take to form:
Grundon N.J. and Bell, L.C. (Eds.) (1995). Proceedings of the Second Australian Acid Mine
Drainage Workshop, Charters Towers, Queensland. 28-31 March 1995. (Australian
Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation Research: Brisbane, Australia).
Individual chapters should be cited:
Author(s) Name(s). (1995). Title of paper. In 'Proceedings of the Second Australian Acid
Mine Drainage Workshop', Charters Towers, Queensland. 28-31 March 1995. (Eds.
N.J. Grundon and L.C. Bell.) pp. 00-000. (Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation
Research: Brisbane, Australia.)
Acknowledgments
The organising committee of Gavin Murray (Chair), Matthew Orr, Peter Ryan and Clive Bell
wish to thank Chris Palmer for his assistance with local arrangements, and Fay Gallie for her
administrative support.
Appreciation is also expressed to Mt. Leyshon Gold Mines Limited, Battle Mountain (Aust.)
Inc., Pancontinental Resources, Placer Pacific Limited, and Woodward Clyde for their
sponsorship.
Printed by The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
(ii)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Welcome and Opening Address
Introduction to the Acid Mine Drainage
Workshop L.C. Bell
Session 1: The AMD Problem
Defining the AMD problem:
I. A corporate perspective
Defining the AMD problem:
II. An operator's perspective
Session 2: Planning for AMD
G.S.C. Murray, J.D. Robertson and
K.O. Ferguson
B. Price
Sampling and waste block modelling G.M. Johnston, G. Eastwood,
for acid producing waste rock at Cadia P. Scott, C. Joyce and P. Ryan
Advances in the prediction of acid
generating mine waste materials S. Miller and J. Jeffery
A manager's operational perspective
of AMD management at the Pajingo
Gold Mine /.A. Tredinnick and P.J. Cornwell ..... .
Session 3: Management Strategies
Practical engineering options to
minimise AMD potential A. Watson
Control of acid mine drainage through
water management at Mt. Leyshon
Gold Mine M.S. Orr
Session 4: Management Strategies (cont.)
Management of AMD at Woodlawn
Mines S.E. Tarlinton
Management of AMD at the Pine
Creek Mine M.N.R Fawcett
Development of a waste dump
management strategy at Mt. Leyshon
Gold Mine M.S. Orr
Session 5: Monitoring and Modelling Strategies
Application of oxidation rates in
rehabilitation design
Geochemical indicators of sulfide
oxidation and acid generation in the
field
A/. M. Ritchie
S. Miller
(iii)
Page
3
17
21
33
43
53
67
75
83
91
101
117
Session 6: Treatment and Control Strategies
Water flow in mine waste dumps and
their implications for AMD control L.M. Gilbert
Wetlands to treat AMD - facts and
fallacies D.R. Jones and B.M. Chapman ......... .
Assessment of protective covers and
dump behaviour G. W. Wilson
Session 7: Performance Evaluation and Risk Assessment
Financial and long term liability
associated with AMD
G. S.C. Murray, K.D. Ferguson and
C.H. Brehaut
Session 8: Future Technology Transfer and Research Needs
Assessment of the Rum Jungle
Strategy for acid mine drainage
control
Group Discussion Session
List of attendees
J. W. Bennett and M.D. Lawton ......... .
(iv)
Page
121
127
147
165
179
191
193
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I
Second Australian Acid Mme Oramage Workshop {Eds N.J Grundon and L.C. Bell), pp 1 ~ 2
INTRODUCTION TO THE ACID MINE DRAINAGE WORKSHOP
L.C. Bell
Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation Research, P.O. Box 883, Kenmore, Old 4069.
On behalf of the organising Committee, I would like to extend to you a warm welcome to this
Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) Workshop which has been organised jointly by the Australian Mining
Industry Council (AMIC)' and the Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation Research (ACMRR).
I beliwe the response that we have had to this workshop is indicative o.f the increasing interest
in the topic of AMD in Australia, and the fact that we have representatives here from Papua
New Guinea, Indonesia and New Zealand indicates that AMD is also an issue in our near
neighbours. Indeed, it is fair to say that the prevention and remediation of AMD is of a major
concern for metalliferous and coal mining operations world-wide, and we are also pleased to
have Professor Ward Wilson from Canada with us to share his experiences on the topic.
This workshop is the second of what might reasonably be called a national workshop on AMD.
The first was held at Strahan in Tasmania in 1992. That workshop, which was attended by
about 30 persons, was organised by the Tasmanian Chamber of Mines. Subsequently, the
Environment Committee of AMIC established a sub-committee to identify priorities for environmental
research for the mining industry. One of the priority areas identified was AMD. An Acid Drainage
Working Group was then established to identify specific research and technology transfer issues
that needed to be addressed in the future. This group consists of Gavin Murray (Chairperson)
{Placer Pacific Limited), Alex Armstrong (Area Coal Australia Inc.), John Bywater (Old. Dept.
of Minerals & Energy), Peter Chandler (AMIRA), Geoff Farnell (EPA- formerly with AMI C), Alan
Hayter (Renison Goldfields Consolidated Limited), David Jones, (CSIRO), Tony McGill (N.T.
Dept. of Mines & Energy), Graeme Mcilveen (Normandy Poseidon Limited), Stuart Miller
(Environmental Geochemistry International), Matthew Orr (Normandy Poseidon Limited), ian
Ritchie (ANSTO), and Peter Ryan (Woodward Clyde).
At a meeting of the group on 22 March 1994, it was recommended that there was a need for
a second workshop to follow on from the Strahan workshop. An organising committee consisting
of Gavin Murray (Chairperson), Matthew Orr, Peter Ryan, and myself was established to organise
the Charters Towers workshop.
The objectives of the workshop are:
(1) Review the current state of knowledge on (i) AMD development and associated
liability, and (ii) strategies for its prevention and remediation;
(2) Assess practical management strategies for AMD through sites visits; and
(3) Determine future technology transfer and research needs.
Now called the Minerals Council of Australia
BELL
Welcoming Address.
In determining the program for the workshop, the organising committee sought the advice of
all members of the AMIC AMD Working Group who provided constructive comment concerning
both content and speakers.
The Workshop has sessions covering (1) the AMD Problem, (2) Planning for AMD, (3) Management
Strategies, (4) Monitoring and Modelling Strategies, {5) Treatment and Control Strategies, (6)
Perfonmance Evaluation and Risk Assessment. and (7) Future Technology Transfer and Research
Needs with the latter session dominated by general discussion. Complementing the fonmal sessions
are visits to the Pajingo Mine (Battle Mountain (Aust.)), MI. Leyshon Gold Mine (MI. Leyshon
Gold Mines Limited) and Thalanga Mine (Pancontinental Resources).
There are many places where a workshop of this nature could have been held. While larger
towns would have had venues to cater for larger numbers, it was felt that Charters Towers had
the advantages of (1) being close to a number of mining operations enabling site visits each
day, and (2) the mines in the area are using a number of innovative practices which would be
of interest to a wider audience.
The organising committee believed that it was important that this workshop be a true workshop
with the maximum opportunity for discussion of the various issues. Thus the speakers will be
restricted to 20 to 25 minutes allowing 15 to 20 minutes for discussion after each paper. On
the last day, we have set aside an additional 2 hours for general discussion.
Because of the overwhelming response to the workshop, we have had to increase the number
of registrants over the 55 that we had originally planned for. I am delighted to be able to indicate
that we have 78 registrants at the workshop. Unfortunately many more wanted to attend, but
the constraints of the venue and transport at the mine-sites meant that the organising committee
had to set this as the upper limit.
At this workshop, we have a good representation from each of the industry, government, research
and consulting sectors. Additionally we have a balanced mix of formal presentations and mine-site
visits and a considerable period set aside for discussion. I am confident the workshop will be
a successful one!
BELL
2
S;:,cond Austral1an Ac1d M1ne Dra1nage Workshop (Eds N J Grundon and L C Bell), pp 3-15
DEFINING THE AMD PROBLEM I.
A CORPORATE PERSPECTIVE
G.S.C. MurrayA, J.D. Robertson
8
, and K.D. Fergusonc
APiacer Pacific Limited, G.P.O. Box 4315, Sydney, NSW, 2001.
8
Piacer Dome Inc, P.O. Box 49330 Bentall Postal Stn, Vancouver, Canada V7X 1 P1.
0
Piacer Dome Canada Ltd, P .0. Box 49305 Ben tall Postal Sin, Vancouver, Canada V7X 1 P1.
ABSTRACT
Placer Dome Incorporated (POl), a precious and base metal mining company, recognises acid
drainage (AMD or ARD) as one of the most significant environmental issues facing its activities
around the world. While the major variables involved in acid generation are known, they still
cannot be fully quantified and many of these variables remain the focus of various international
research. In response to the significance of this issue to the corporation, POl has initiated an
aggressive program to assess the ARD potential of all of its operations and activities worldwide.
To date, studies to rank the potential significance of the problem have been undertaken at more
than 20 of the company's operations and projects. The rationale and mechanics of the PO/
assessment program are outlined with the objective being the application of predictive information
to prevention and/or control strategies on a site-specific basis. Research programs are conducted
and supported on an ongoing basis as an integral component of the program.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
One of the most significant environmental issues facing the mining industry is acid drainage
(AMD or ARD, as used in this paper) which affects all sectors of the industry including coal,
precious metals, base metals, and uranium. Although this issue is not new and has an extensive
history spanning decades and even centuries in Europe, it is still not fully understood. While
the major contribution variables are known, they cannot be fully quantified. Many of these variables
are still the subject of research by various task forces and international research groups.
Empirical knowledge is being acquired to predict and prevent ARD, but the lack of a full
understanding of ARD dynamics has caused concerns among the regulatory agencies. This
is particularly reflected in the permitting and approval procedures associated with new mines.
The result has been the demand by agencies for overly-conservative control strategies and
significant performance bonds in an attempt to provide assurances that any ARD problems can
be managed, regardless of the risk.
Placer Dome Incorporated (POl) is a precious and base metal mining company based in Canada
with major operating subsidiaries in Australia, Canada, South America, and the USA. In Australia,
the operating .subsidiary Placer Pacific Limited, manages six operating mines and exploration
within Australia and the Asia-Pacific region. Placer Pacific Limited is 75% owned by PDI and
adopts a similar operating philosophy and management strategy to PD I. This paper provides
an overview of the rationale and the mechanics of the POl ARD assessment program which
was developed to establish a sound and standard corporate approach.
3
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
Defining the AMD Problem I.
2.0 ASSESSMENT AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGY
Acid rock drainage (ARD) is the term used in North America to refer to problems associated
with acid drainage, while acid mine drainage (AMD) remains in common usage in Australia.
PDI has adopted ARD as the standard reference to refer to any issues related to the oxidation
of sulfide minerals exposed by mining or exploration which may include issues associated directly
with rehabilitation or water quality. Experience to date has shown that ARD issues may involve
acid drainage from waste rock dumps and tailing residue emplacements (impacting on downstream
water quality), development of acid conditions in exposed surface materials (potentially affecting
rehabilitation), increased solubility and/or release of metals (irrespective of actual pH) and increased
salinity or solute loads (oxidation and neutralisation products).
The POl Board of Directors have approved an environmental policy and associated strategic
plans which require a thorough knowledge of the ARD risks for all of the company's activities.
Also required is the implementation of appropriate controls to minimise potential environmental
impacts during operations and after closure. In order to address these concerns in the best
practical manner, POl has initiated and conducted over the past five years comprehensive ARD
reviews of each minesite and advanced exploration projects. The acquired information forms
the basis for internal environmental operating plans and is also a key part of the rehabilitation
plans for all minesites. Some sites have required detailed investigations for more complete
assessment, and research projects have been established at a number of sites.
2.1 Corporate Philosophy
POl's mines have been classified into four general categories: future mines (advanced exploration
projects/acquisitions), newly designed/constructed mines, existing/operating mines, and
decommissioned/rehabilitated mines, for the assessment of ARD potential. While there are
different philosophies and strategies developed for each group, there is a set of underlying principles
which apply generically to ARD prediction as outlined below:
(1) Each minesite is unique with respect to geology, climate, and site configuration
and, hence, the application of rigorous routine prescriptive methods is not appropriate.
(2) Sulfide mineral reactivity is highly variable and ARO may not occur at all, or be
delayed for several years after exposure from mining. Consequently, it is never
too late to assess the ARO potential at existing mines using predictive methods
with additional integration of empirical site information.
(3) Prediction and prevention of ARO is the most desired and appropriate control plan
for all sites.
( 4) The results of the predictive assessments may justify changes in mining operations
and waste rock and tailing disposal practices to reduce the potential for ARO.
(5) The application of predictive methods at an early stage of an advanced exploration
project will allow a phased approach for further studies and, if necessary, extensive
special planning of waste dumps and tailing dams.
(6) Internal training of PDI technical staff in the prediction, assessment, and control
methods for ARO is an integral component of proper ARD management.
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
4
Defining the AMD Problem I.
(7) Ongoing applied research is needed at sites with ARO potential to track the success
of the implemented prevention strategies and to augment the knowledge base
for the development of improved techniques within the minesite and POL
(8) Continued and significant support is required for generic research through industry
initiatives and at individual POl sites to allow a better understanding of the processes
associated with ARD.
2.2 Program Approach
The POl approach to ARD assessments for its new and existing mines is illustrated as a flow
sheet in Fig. 1. This approach has evolved during the assessment and management of ARD
potential at more than 20 of POl's operations and projects worldwide. A number of key decision
points are included in the process which dictate the direction and nature of each phase of the
assessment program.
Each site-specific program consists of a team approach composed of several key players and
facilities. These personnel vary with the classification of the project, but the common denominator
is a joint effort between corporate personnel (environmental and engineering), specialised experts,
and the exploration, design and operating personnel who will eventually apply the end product
to the design or operation. An experienced site geologist and mine design engineer usually
assist the environmental personnel in an initial overview assessment and provide continuity
for ongoing work.
Each program is phased over several stages as shown in Fig. 1. The initial overview is conducted
on-site with the study team, and a plan is developed for compiling the existing information and
for collecting additional data and samples for assessment, as required. Ongoing site meetings
are held as needed after the initial data has been collated and assessed. Interim reports are
prepared by experienced internal personnel or external specialists depending on the level of
expertise and/or detail required.
Ongoing technical support is provided for each project depending on the techn.ical strengths
and capability of the site-based technical personnel and the magnitude of the potential problems.
Through this process, a rnore complete awareness of ARO is developed throughout the operating
workforce, and technical skills are developed by a variety of internal POl personnel. This achieves
self-sufficiency for each independent operation and results in less dependence on the limited
resources of the corporate technical group. However, this approach still provides continuity
across the full spectrum of POl operations and allows an exchange of information between sites.
Furthermore, the broadened experience gained by personnel through job transfers results in
a better appreciation of subsequent ARO issues.
2.3 Testing Program
The POl standard approach is to use both static (acid base accounting) and kinetic testing for
predictive assessment. The acid base account (ABA) is the balance between the theoretical
acid generating potential from sulfide oxidation and the inherent acid consuming ability of the
material. POl has also adopted the North American convention in terminology and units for
expressing the results of testing, which are used in this paper. The North American and Australian
conventions are compared below for general reference.
5
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
Defining the AMD Problem I.
Australia
North America
Acid Producing Potential (APP) Acid Potential (AP)
(both usually calculated from total sulfur or sulfide %)
Acid Neutralising Capacity (ANC) Neutralisation Potential (NP)
(both usually determined by acid addition and back titration)
Net Acid Producing Potential (NAPP)
(NAPP = APP-ANC)
Net Neutralisation Potential (NNP)
(NNP = NP-AP)
Classification of potentially acid generating materials
positive (+Ve} NAPP
negative (-ve) NNP
Standard units for expressing ARD potential
kg H2S04 t ' kg (t) CaC0
3
t-' (1 ,000 C')
(Note: 1 kg H
2
S0
4
t-' = 0.98 kg CaC0
3
t-')
While static and kinetic testing to assess the ARD potential is available from commercial
laboratories, POl has developed the capability to perform these tests on a routine basis in its
own research laboratory in Vancouver which allows continuity, better integration, rapid
implementation of additional assessment work where needed, and a standard application of
techniques. Quality assurance and quality control (QAJQC) programs are also run for each
project using external commercial laboratories for comparative analysis.
The number of samples subjected to static testing ranges from 50 to 2000, depending on the
objective and status of the program. If spatial modelling of an orebody with ABA data is warranted,
several thousand analyses may be performed in a phased approach to provide a good cross
section of the rock and mineralisation types within the deposit.
A number of kinetic testing methods are available with the standard 'humidity cell' procedure
requiring a minimum duration of 20 weeks, while most column tests are run for longer durations.
However, this time frame has been shown to be inadequate for most samples unless they are
extremely high in sulfur content, low in buffering capacity and/or highly reactive. POl programs
involving kinetic testing typically continue for a much longer time frame which may extend up
to two to three years depending on the progressive results. This strategy allows more flexibility
and a complete assessment of highly buffered and marginally reactive materials.
Consultants specialising in ARD assessment and management are utilised as required to assist
in collating and interpreting data or to provide an independent review of in-house assessments.
External specialists are also contracted for the evaluation of rock samples and thin sections
with respect to general mineralogy and the examination of oxidation of mineral surfaces. Important
correlations between mineralogy and static and kinetic test results have been discovered which
aid interpretations.
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
6
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Defrning the AMD Problem I.
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MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
Defining the AMD Problem I.
Table 1.
Summary of acid drainage assessment variables and Information availability.
Source variable
Project classification
Explor. Design Operating Decomm.
Regional information:
Groundwater quality data
Surface water quality data
Exploration/mine water/pit wall seepage water quality
Exploration database:
Total sulfur analysis and/or ABA on all samples
Drill core visual estimates of carbonates, sulfides etc
Petrologyfmineralogy information available
Samples for predictive testing:
Weathered/oxidised surface rock samples
Pit wall rock/underground chip samples
Drill core samples for static testing (ABA)
Drill core samples for kinetic testing
Bulk samples for small scale field tests (barrels)
Bulk samples for large scale field tests (test dumps)
Metallurgical testing samples (tailing residues etc)
Extensive drill core data for spatial modelling
Site facilities:
Existing waste rock dumps
Existing tailings dams
Other local historical mine facilities for review
Iron staining: seepages; pit walls, tailing, etc
Site design information:
Climate data (precipitation/evaporation)
Site hydrology (water balances)
Special waste dump designs developed
+
Special tailing design developed
Seepage containment strategies exist
Site runoff and drainage strategies exist
Unavailable,
Possibly available, + Likely available, + + + available.
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
8
Defining the AMD Problem I.
2.4 Assessment Program
Each of the four operational categories is assessed in a slightly different manner depending
on the available information. In general, the assessment consists of the compilation and integration
of a whole range of information to provide a general order of magnitude overview of the ARD
issue. Additional work is defined to clarify some areas and to refine others. In some cases,
specific projects are initiated to provide short and long term information on specific issues. Table
1 presents a matrix which summarises some of the assessment variables and indicates the
availability of information in each case.
The results from all of these studies are summarised in several formats for presentation to a
wide range of end users including the mine operators, consultants and PDI management. A
description of the form and objective of each of these formats follows.
2.4.1 Status summary table
Progress on the ARD assessment program is presented in a status summary table (Table 2)
which is designed to progressively illustrate both the information acquired and the relative risk
of ARD potential. This table also reflects the status of the implementation of prevention and
control strategies if ARDis predicted. As the control strategies become more complex through
design and implementation, the project maybe moved down a level in the general risk category.
However, some sites will always be a higher risk, and the main focus is to ensure preventive
action and systems are operational and effective .
Table 2. Example of ARD assessment status summary table.
Operational Issue Ranking Programs 1994 Status/Activities
Activity ;
2 3 4
Mine A
Mine B
Mine C
MineD
Mine E
Mine F
Mine G
Mine H
Mine I
Key:
Issue Ranking:
1 Low cost or concern
through to
4 High cost or concern"
Report Testing
1993 No Report completed
1994 Yes Continuing kinetic testing program
1993 Yes Report completed +management plan
1993194 No Report completed
1992 Yes Continuing testing program
1993/94 Research on covers continuing
1993 Yes Revised closure costs+ research plan
1994 Data reviewed
1994 Program initiated
Program Ranking:
Low knowledge or control
through to
+ + High knowledge or control.
Overview report done
Detailed report done or low risk
+ + Operating plan developed
+ + Plan verified by practice
9
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
Defining the AMD Problem I.
2.4.2 ABA presentation and analysis
There is much debate over the interpretation of ABA results for single samples in the context
of mixed waste rock dumps composed partly of acid and non-acid producing materials. Graphical
techniques to visualise the data and to compare them to literature reported criteria are important
tools for assessing the probability of ARD. However, it is important to note the limitations of
ABA and apply it conservatively as a screening tool until correlated with known field behaviour.
The database compiled by POl for all of its projects, as well as other known ARD sites around
the world, provide relative data sets to assist in the interpretation of ABA data from each new
project. Within POl, the ABA result is expressed as the 'Net Neutralisation Potential' (NNP) with
negative values indicating the potential for a sample to generate acid. A statistical approach
to the assessment of ABA data is generally applied to quantify the potential risk of ARD. This
involves preparing a frequency distribution of the NNP data obtained which also enables an
evaluation of the adequacy of existing sample selection.
An example of an NNP frequency distribution for combined and separated flotation tailing streams
is presented in Fig. 2. This figure indicates that the 'rougher' tailing have a lower risk of ARD
than the 'cleaner' tailing and that the 'combined' stream produces a material which is likely to
be classified as potentially acid generating. Based on the statistics of the distribution, a probability
of exceedance plot can be generated which provides a more refined tool for assessing the
probability of ARD.
1::
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1::
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0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
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0.1
Legend
Cleaner Tailing
Rougher Tailing
Combined Tailing
\./"/.._
0.0 = 'I - '.1 I "-J
250 -150 -50 0 50 150 250
Net Neutralisation Potential (kg CaCOJ!t)
Fig. 2. Relative Net Neutralisation Potential for flotation tailing
streams.
2.4.3 Acid generating potential unity line
A method of graphically presenting ABA data and statistics, adapted from Miller et al. (1991)
where AP is plotted against NP, is also used to assess sample distribution and the relative risk
of ARD. An important component of these ABA plots, which are illustrated in Figs. 3 and 4,
is the unity line ( N N P ~ O ) or the line where Neutralisation Potential equals Acid Potential. This
line represents an NP/AP ratio of 1 with data points above the line having the potential to generate
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON 10
Defining the AMD Problem I.
acid, while samples below the line have adequate neutralising potential to counteract the potential
acid production. This assessment is performed on all materials examined, including tailing residues
and individual rock types.
~
250
I POTENTIALLY: ACID GENERATfG I
0 200 .......--1
()
m
()
Ol 150
6
~ 100
1::
Ql
0
c..
50
"0
'(j
<(
0
NON ACID GENERATING
0 50 100 150
Neutralisation Potential (kg Caco
3
tt)
Fig. 3. Acid-base account plot for tailing composites.
200
To facilitate an assessment of the ARD potential, each ABA data set is plotted with their statistical
limits. Comparison of existing data blocks with new data provides a quick guide to the general
portion of the samples with ARD potential and also the order of magnitude of potential problems
relative to existing sites. Figure 3 illustrates the application of this technique to tailing samples
for a proposed operation with 95% confidence interval ellipse indicating that the tailing will be
potentially acid generating .
Data for four known acid-generating waste-rock dumps in British Columbia (Canada) are presented
in Fig. 4. The majority of samples for three of the dumps would be classified as potentially acid
generating. The Island Copper dump is more complex, as potentially acid generating material
appears to 'outweigh' the non-acid generating material but may also occur in discrete zones
throughout the dump. This illustrates the need to integrate ARD testing with mine planning.
2.4.4 NP/AP ratio screening criteria
The issue of appropriate Neutralisation Potential/Acid Potential (NPIAP) ratios is a key area
of debate among the regulatory agencies and the mining industry. To date, there has not been
a comprehensive compilation of case histories of minesites with significant ABA data, NP/AP
ratios, and ARD problems. The use of NP/AP ratio is one of the most significant variables which
regulatory agencies are attempting to use as a prescriptive measure. A discussion of how POl
uses this variable as a screening criteria for classifying materials is warranted.
Ferguson and Morin (1991) and Cravotta et al. (1990) presented theoretical arguments suggesting
the NP/AP criterion separating potentially acid and non-acid generating samples could be about
2:1. However, in the database presented by Ferguson and Morin, no sample with an NP/AP
greater than 1 produced acidic leachate in 166 laboratory leaching tests. Moreover, there is
no clear documented evidence of rock with a NP/AP greater than 1 producing ARD under field
conditions.
11 MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
Defining the AMD Problem I.
300
2 250
a._
t-t-----t---+----1----1-----l--1-- ~
WESTMIN
~ Legend
(/!.
(')
0
I()
10
o-
()
8 200
Ol
2!:.
]j 150
c
rt-t- - 1 ~ - ~ t ~ : - ~ o 95%M'
LJMr:AsHI 5%AP
PIT I -
I - _ ACID -----+-=-.....-.___,
I I ISLAND COPPER I GENERATING Q)
0 100
NNP=O Line
a.
"'0
o
1 - i I -- --+--
' , I NON-AaD
GENERATING
oct 50
I
'1' --r-rl
MTWASH{UJIT -'
DUMP O 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Neutralisation Potential (kg Caco
3
tt)
140 160
Fig. 4. ABA plot for acid generating waste rock dumps.
The NP/AP ratio may be considered a "safety factor" as used in other engineering analyses
where more definitive assessments of the actual risk of ARD are not available. Higher safety
factors are probably required for mines in wet climates where carbonate minerals may be
preferentially leached from the mine wastes relative to the oxidation of the contained sulfide
minerals. The criteria in Table 3 have been used by PDI as an initial screen of waste rock and
tailing ABA data.
Table 3. Categories used by PDI In screening ABA data.
Category NP/AP Range Description
Likely NP/AP < 1 Likely to generate ARD unless sulfide minerals
are relatively unreactive.
Possibly 1 < NP/AP < 2 Possible acid generating if neutralising
minerals preferentially depleted, coated or
unreactive.
Non-Acid Generating NP/AP > 2 Not expected to generate ARD.
In conjunction with the NP/AP ratios, the ABA data set for each reviewed operation is summarised
in a bar chart format. The objective is to illustrate the relative percentage of material which
falls within the various categories for the various material types such as ore, waste rock, and
tailing. An example application is shown in Fig. 5. The ore clearly has a higher probability of
generating ARD compared to the waste rock and tailing material. It is emphasised that this
form of analysis is another screening and planning tool and not the final assessment. This data
also needs to be evaluated with respect to the adequacy of the existing sample population.
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
12
~
c:
0
:;
.0
,_
u;
i:5
.!
c.
E
111
en
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Ore
Waste Rock
Sample Source
Tolling
Defining the AMD Problem I.
Category:
QNon-Acld
[SJ Possibly
II Likely
Fig. 5. ARD potential using NP/AP ratio screening criteria.
2.4.5 Modelling for spatial definition
New projects present a unique opportunity for the prediction of ARD. Historically, ARD prediction
for a new mine has involved the analysis of a couple dozen, often poorly selected, samples.
The principle adopted at PDI is that the overall economic significance to a project of the ARD
liability is comparative to the fundamental ore reserve inventory. A new mine would not be
engineered on the basis of only a few copper or gold assays, so why would a waste disposal
plan involving tens of millions of tonnes of waste be engineered on grossly inadequate ARD
data?
With the available resources, more complete ARD assessments are relatively easily achieved.
A phased approach is employed using all predictive tools, as discussed previously. If a potential
ARD problem is indicated, the first objective is to determine the order of magnitude and the
relative distribution of problematic material. The second strategy is to determine if there are
any key variables such as rock or mineral type which can be used to obtain a better view of
spatial variability in the ore body. This may require several thousand ABA analyses and extensive
computer manipulation of data, including the use of geostatistics and modelling.
This approach has been used to define waste rock which presents low, medium and high potential
for ARD. With this classification system, a mine plan can be developed which contains a range
of measures to prevent and to control ARD if it develops. Recent experience indicates that
specific waste types can be targeted in the mine plan for selective handling and disposal (Killam
and Robertson, 1994).
2.5 Research Programs
Over the past five years, PDI has supported the Mine Environment Neutral Drainage (MEND)
program and the British Columbia joint industry/government taskforce through involvement in
committees and projects. A total of exceeding $500,000 has been committed towards the overall
MEND budget of approximately $18 million. In addition to these research programs, PDI also
funds site-specific research at various minesites. Two of these research projects which have
yielded positive outcomes as discussed below.
13 MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
Defining the AMD Problem I.
2.5.1 Application of cover technology
Research is being conducted through the University of Saskatchewan to monitor and model
the moisture profile in soil covers on a number of waste rock dumps in different climatic regimes.
Compacted covers which maintain high moisture contents will significantly reduce the rate of
acid production by reducing oxygen diffusion and infiltration of precipitation. Results to date
have been encouraging with models validated in the field enabling optimum materials to be selected
for use as covers.
2.5.2 Subaqueous tailing disposal
The use of wet (saturated} covers on tailing has been studied over the past six years at several
sites in Canada. This MEND project has been managed by POl with an overall cost of
approximately $1 million. This work has successfully demonstrated that subaqueous disposal
effectively prevents sulfide oxidation and subsequent ARD generation in tailing deposits. The
results have been presented in papers at several conferences and work is ongoing to develop
design criteria for general application in the mining industry, although this may have limited
application in Australia.
3.0 CONCLUSIONS
POl has initiated an aggressive program to assess the ARD potential for all of its operations
and projects worldwide. To date, studies have been conducted at over 20 sites and a database
management system is under development to correlate all existing and future information. Research
programs are conducted and supported on an ongoing basis as an integral part of this program.
An important objective of the overall ARD program is to apply the predictive information to the
development of appropriate risk-based prevention strategies and/or controls on a site-specific
basis. This information allows the existing POl mines to modify their current waste management
practices where required. For mines which are in the planning process, the ARD assessment
program can be applied as a major variable in the evaluation of appropriate alternative waste-rock
and tailing disposal systems and practices.
All information and experience gained is directed toward yielding improved confidence in predicting
ARD potential, establishment of preventative measures, and development of precautionary strategies
across the corporation. The development of such complex programs is essential for building
confidence among the regulatory agencies for project permitting and approval. Complete programs
are essential for establishing credibility with all stakeholders and demonstrating ARD can be
managed effectively, despite some of the unknowns which will hopefully be resolved through
future research.
4.0 REFERENCES
Cravotta Ill, C.A., Brady, K.B.C., Smith, M.W., and Beam, R.L. (1 990). Effectiveness of the
Addition of Alkaline Materials at Surface Coal Mines in Preventing or Abating Acid Mine
Drainage: Part 1. Geochemical Considerations. Mining and Reclamation Conference
and Exhibition, April 23-26, 1990, Charleston, West Virginia.
Ferguson, K.O., and Morin, K.A. (1991 ). The Prediction of Acid Rock Drainage- Lessons from
the Database. Proceedings of the Second International Conference on the Abatement
of Acid Drainage, September 16-18, 1991, Montreal, Quebec.
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
14
Defining the AMD Problem I.
Killam, R., and Robertson, J.D. (1994). Application of Modelling and Subaqueous Tailing Disposal
to the Mt. Milligan Mine. Proceedings of the Eighteenth Annual Mine Reclamation
Symposium, March 1994, Vernon, British Columbia.
Miller, S.D., Jeffrey, J.J., and Wong, J.W. (1 991 ). In-pit Identification and Management of Acid
forming Waste Rock at the Golden Cross Gold Mine in New Zealand. Proceedings of
the Second International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic Drainage, September
16-18, 1991, Montreal, Quebec.
15
MURRAY, ROBERTSON & FERGUSON
20
:._,t1l-UfHJ ACJd Uratnago Workshop (Eds N J Grundon and L C Bull). pp 21--31
SAMPLING AND WASTE BLOCK MODELLING
FOR ACID PRODUCING WASTE ROCK AT CADIA
G.M. JohnstonA, G. EastwoodA, P. Scott
8
, C. Joyce
8
and P. Ryan8
ANewcrest Mining Limited, 179 Great Eastern Highway, Belmont WA 6014.
8
AGC Woodward-Clyde Pty Ltd, 49 Park Road, Milton, Old 4064.
ABSTRACT
Over the years, predictive techniques for Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) and the natural processes
affecting acid generation have received considerable attention. Less emphasis has been placed
on the sampling strategy and the integration of testwork results with the geological data base.
The sampling strategy employed and the development of a geological model to determine the
spatial distribution and volume of acid producing material are often crucial for developing cost-
effective containment and mitigation measures. The geological model provides a link between
the occurrence, timing, destination and placement of mined waste rock. Careful and accurate
interrogation of a comprehensive geological database provides this linkage.
The AMD testwork program at Cadi a in NSW has been designed to identify the temporal selective
handling requirements that will be required during operation. Sampling involved collection of
representative combinations of all waste rock types identified within an extensive geological
database. These samples were subjected to static, kinetic and accelerated weathering predictive
tests. Preliminary results have been used to construct a waste block model for the deposit that
identifies the quantity and distribution of acid producing material. Integration of the block model
with the mine scheduling determines when the material wilt be mined.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Newcrest Mining limited is currently undertaking a feasibility study for the Cadia copper-gold
deposit approximately 21 km south south-west of Orange in the Central Tablelands of New South
Wales (NSW). The Cadia project will consist of a large open-pit mine that will tre?t 15 million
tonnes of ore per year. The waste to ore stripping ratio is< 2:1. On-site processing facilities
will produce a copper concentrate with gold credits for smelting.
The project area is located in the Cadiangullong Creek Valley, a local creek that drains the southern
portion of the Mount Canobolas Park and Canobolas State Forest. The area is bounded on
three sides by moderately steep slopes rising to maximum elevation of 960 m towards the north.
Mean annual rainfall in the area is 900 mm spread fairly evenly throughout the year, and evaporation
is over 1300 mm year'.
1.1 Geological Setting
Cadia lies within the Lachlan Geosynclinal belt in south western NSW. The principal rocks exposed
in the region consist of Paleozoic volcanics, sediments and intrusives.
The Cadia copper-gold mineralisation is hosted in Upper Ordovician shoshonitic volcanics (the
Angullong Tuff). The Angullong Tuff at Cadi a contains lavas, tuffs, pyroclastics, limestone lenses,
and porphyritic and fine grained sub-volcanic rock types. Mineralisation at Cadia Hill is closely
associated with a porphyry-style hydrothermal alteration system that produced vein-controlled
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
21
'J"c,o<OII:j Li{ V<.iUid
mineralisation in the monzonite porphyry and immediate adjacent volcanic wall-rocks. The low-grade
gold-copper mineralisation that has been identified is hosted in an envelope of discontinuous
sheeted quartz veins that tend northwest and dip to the southwest
The sulfide minerals occur in two associations - as inclusions in quartz veins and as fine- to
medium-grained disseminations in the monzonite porphyry and volcanic host rocks.
1.1.1 Mineralogy
Mineralisation at Cadia Hill comprises rarely obseNed native gold, pyrite and several copper
sulfide species including chalcopyrite, bornite, digenite and primary chalcocite, and the iron oxides
magnetite and haematite.
The Cadia Hill mineralisation is indicative of a relatively oxidised and low total sulfide system,
as reflected in the generally low abundance of pyrite typically less than 1%, and the presence
of low sulfur copper minerals such as bornite and digenite.
2.0 SAMPLING STRATEGY AND TESTWORK
2.1 Sampling
The prediction of acid generation potential begins with an understanding of the geology and
mineralisation of the ore body and surrounding waste rock scheduled for removal. The general
approach adopted at Cadia is shown in Fig. 1. Preliminary screening testwork on selected
composited samples during the exploration phase indicated the potential for AMD. The results
of this screening program justified further testwork to assess acid producing potential. The
development of this program and the results to date are discussed in the following sections.
The geological database has been developed based upon the various geological categories
shown in Table 1. Geological logging was based upon 1 m inteNals, and all results were entered
into a central database.
The two major lithologic units at Cadia are volcanics generally located nearer the surface and
the monzonite intrusive. It was recognised that in each of these lithological units there was
a range of geochemical and physical conditions and types of mineralisation present Each of
these components will have different influences over the acid generating or neutralising capacity
of individual rock types (Ellison and Hutchison 1992). The type of sulfide minerals present and
the form in which sulfide mineralisation occurs (e.g. mineral particle size, whether disseminated
or vein, etc) will influence their reactivity. Other mineralogical factors affecting AMD behaviour
include:
(1) semi-conductor properties;
(2) crystal size;
(3) texture and morphology;
(4) degree of rock fracture; and
(5) spatial relationship with acid consuming materials in the host rock.
Representative samples of all combinations of rock types possible from the logging categories
were selected for testwork. In all some 36 separate categories of lithological, geochemical,
mineralogical and physical characteristics were identified.
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
22
EXPLORATION
PRE FEASIBILITY
ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT
ASSESSMENT
YES
PERMITTING
Initial Discussion with Project Geologist
Samples of ore and waste selected
In consultation with Project Geologist
Geographical , Geological, Palaeo-
environmental comparisons If available
Waste Block Modelling at Cadia.
Detailed discussions With Project Geologist
to define ore and waste rock units based ,,. ___ _,
on lithology, mlneralogy.fractures and
1
continuity. Inspect drill core
Fig. 1. Evaluating acid mine drainage potential at Cadla_
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, .JOYCE, & RYAN
23
Table 1. Sample selection criteria and description.
Hole Number (NC)
110
110
110
110
110
140
140
140
140
140
130
130
130
124
109
109
118
118
128
124
121
121
130
Interval
(m)
28-29
40-42
26-28
18-19
22-23
18-19
21-23
19-20
20-21
23-24
165-168
168-172
163-165
190-191
592-593
593-594
263-266
3-4
266-269
219-220
19-20
21-22
59-60
W;u;ta Rock Lithology % Pyl"IUI (loggild)
Monzonrte abundant
Monzonite modl!lral11
Monzonite -.bund;wt
Monzonrte abundant
Monzorute 01bundant
Monzonrte trace
Monzonite moder;J;te
Monzonite trace
Moru:omte .. ,.
Monzonite
Mon.zonrtf! abundant
Monzonite moderate
Motu:onite trace
Monzonite abundant
Monzonite
,.,.
Monzonite
""'"
Monzonite moderate
Monzonite
Monzonite trac6
Monzonite moderate
Volcanic moderate
Volcamc
"""'
Volcanic ilbundnt
WeatNtrlflgCiau
"(t<eyattlow)
sw
SN
MW
MW
FR
FR
FR
FR
FR
FR
sw
sw
sw
MW
HW
HW
FR
HW
FR
sw
sw
SN
FR
logg&i:J Oe:licrfptJon
No carbonate alteration
No carbonate alloro.tion
No carbonate alteration
No carbonate alteration
No Cilrbonate alteration
Nocarbonatealteratron
No carbonate alteratron
No c;ubonate alteration
No altoration
No carbonate alteration
Carhonate alteration
Carbonate alteration
Carbonate alteration
alteration
Carbonate alteration
Carbonate alteration
Garbonilte alteration with
calcite cavity fill
Carbonate altefOIIltonwith
calcite cavity fill
Cartxmate alteration With
calcitecavityfiU
No caruon.te alteration
No ca:rbonate alteration
Carbonilte With
l I I I I I I
130 60-61 abundant FR Carbonat!.! alt6ra!IOn with
52 36-37 Volcanic moderate
130 62-63 Volcanic trace
130 64-66 Volcanic trace
130 76-79 Volcanic abund01nt
130 23-24 Volcanic
130 18-19 Volcanic trace
130 19-20 Volcanic lrce
130 20-21 Volc01n1c traoo
52 29-30 Volcanic abund01nt
52 23-24 Volcanic moderate
99 27-29 Volcanic tl";;lce
99 29-32 Volcanic lrii.Ce
99 32-33 Volcanic
"""
99 41-42 Volcanic trce
120 325-327 Monzontte traoo
97 91-100 Volcanic abundant
100 149-157 Monzonite abundant
110 28-29 Monzonite abundant
110 26-28 Monzonite abundant
140 21-23 Monzonite modeflil.te
130 165-167 Monzonite 3bundant
124 190-191 Monzonrte abundant
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
24
FR
FR
FR
sw
sw
sw
sw
sw
sw
sw
&II
sw
sw
sw
FR
FR
FR
fNI
MW
FR
sw
-
Catbon01te alteril.tion with
calcite cavity fill
Carbonate alteration with
calcite cavity fill
Carbonate alteration with
calcite cavity fill
Cilrbonatc 01l!eration with
calcite cavity fill
with
calcite cavity fill
Carbonate alteration with
calcit6cav1tyfiH
Carbonate alteratiOn With
clcitecavityfi!t
C01tbonate alteratiOn with
calcitecvityfiU
Minor altertion
Minor carbonate alteration
Minor carbonate alteration
Minor carbonate Iteration
Minor carbonate 01lter;ation
Minor carbonate -.Iteration
Carbonate alteration with
cafcitecavityfiU
Carbonateo.lteration With
calcite cavity fill
Carbonate alteration with
caJcit6ca.Yityfill
No carbonate alteriltion
No carbonate o.Jteration
Nocarbonatealter.ttion
Carbonate alteration
Carbonate alteration
Waste Block Modelling at Cadia.
Using these categories, a search was made of the database to:
(1) confirm the presence of a rock type, i.e. were ail 36 possible rock types present
in the orebody;
(2) identify the interval containing the required rock characteristics; and
(3) determine how these rock types were distributed in the orebody.
A complete set of cross sections with the major rock characteristics were produced to show
the spatial distribution of characteristics across the deposit. Shown in Fig. 2 is a typical cross
section showing lithology, pyrite and carbonate content along with sulfide assays. On the basis
of this database, search samples of:
( 1) monzonite - high pyrite and low carbonate;
- high carbonate and low pyrite;
(2) volcanic - high pyrite and low carbonate; and
- high carbonate and low pyrite,
were selected for static, kinetic and accelerated weathering tests. Fifty six samples were selected
for static testwork and four samples for kinetic testwork.
120Ctn N
BOOm Rl
GEOCHEMISTRY LEGEND
"'''-\..Pyrite
l!imD COfb<XIatlil
ROCK TYPE
f:2Z3 Vo!ca()lc'
lliilllll1J Mon..zomre
WASTE GEOCHEMISTRY
SECTION 3820m E
Fig. 2. Typical geochemistry cross section.
Sampling was confined to waste rock outside the envelope of economic mineralisation. Tests
on tailings material were conducted separately and showed non-acid generating properties for
ali ore types except for high pyrite ores which recorded a low positive AMD potential. The pyrite
ores comprise less than 5% of the ore. Tailings material will be contained in a tailings storage
dam that will be capped and vegetated at the end of mine life.
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
25
Waste Block Modell1ng at Cadia,
2.2 Testwork Program
For each of the rock samples a complete geochemical analysis of major and minor elements
was performed. Some typical analysis results are shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Major and trace element geochemistry of waste rock at Cadia.
Sample As Cu Mn Se Zn Ca Fe Mg Tot. S
Number (mg kg-') (mg kg-') (mg kg-') (mg kg-') (mg kg-') (%) (%) (%) (%)
140 < 5 498 266 0.25 25 2.45 3.51 0.55 0.20
141 5 595 278 0.2 24 2.11 3.73 0.55 0.17
149 7 2600 199 1.06 57 0.46 3.07 0.61 0.03
150 6 2580 162 1.5 78 0.28 2.60 0.70 0.23
159 6 210 389 0.05 25 1.00 2.73 0.48 0.20
161 9 1090 213 0.65 18 1.02 3.62 0.45 0.19
164 20 690 157 0.7 15 0.21 2.81 0.68 1.38
2.2.1 Static testwork
The testwork carried out on 2-kg samples of the 58 samples consisted of:
(1)
(2)
(3)
saturation paste pH and EC;
acid/base accounting; and
leachate analysis.
2.2.2 Kinetic testwork
S-S so.-s
(%) (%)
0.19 0.01
0.16 0.01
0.06 0.01
0.12 0.02
0.19 0.01
0.16 0.02
1.29 0.01
Four 300 mm x 500 mm lysimeters were loaded with 10 kg of sample tor kinetic tests. Crushed
quartz was placed at the top and bottom to facilitate uniform flow. These tests have been running
tor 4 months under simulated average rainfall conditions. Humidity is maintained by humidifying
air entering the lysimeter. To simulate a fluctuating permanent water table in the dump, a side
tap at the base has been connected to a manometer that could be adjusted to various heights.
Another set of eight lysimeters have been constructed and will be used for accelerated weathering
tests involving repeated wetting and drying cycles based upon the average rainfall that occurs
on site.
3.0 RESULTS
The results of the static testwork are shown in Fig. 3.
The results of the static testwork show the distribution of material between acid producing and
non-acid producing ratios (maximum potential acidity/acid neutralising capacity). Fifty six percent
of material tested has a maximum potential acidity (MPA) value 2 3-fold the acid neutralising
capacity (ANC). A 'cut-off' ratio for the definition of potentially acid producing material of ANC:MPA
of s 3:1 and 0.2% S has been adopted based primarily upon the authors experience, and is
supported by Canadian AMD research experience (Brodie et al. 1991; Smith and Barton-Bridges
1991; Ferguson and Morris 1991; Ferguson and Robertson 1994).
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTI, JOYCE, & RYAN
26
t:
;f
::;:
Fig. 3.
Waste Block Modelling at Cad1a.
ANC (Kg H
2
S0
4
fT)
Static testwork on Cadla Hill waste rock.
The region between 1:1 and 3:1 ANC:MPA has been taken to be indeterminate because, in
this area, it is not possible to interpret the results as equivocally acid producing or consuming.
Nine percent of samples tested showed a high risk of potential acid producing material with
a net acidity exceeding 30 kg H,S0
4
t' waste rock.
Aside from the well documented limitations associated with static tests (they provide no information
on the rates of reaction), the graphical representation in Fig. 3 provides no information on quantities
of material, or the spatial occurrence of the material in the orebody. One way to overcome this
limitation is to use the results to construct a geological block model and this is discussed in
next section.
The kinetic testwork is designed to complement the static testwork and provide data on reaction
rates (i.e. information on quantity and changes with time). In particular, results that fall into
the indeterminate area on the static testwork graph can be resolved. Initial results from the
kinetic studies are shown in Figs. 4a and 4b.
The preliminary results indicate a slight increase in leachate pH from the columns with time,
and a decrease in leachate electrical conductivity. It is planned to run the kinetic tests for at
least 12 months to allow leachate water quality trends to emerged.
4.0 GEOLOGICAL BLOCK MODELLING
4.1 Background
A block model (as distinct from a geological model which provides spatial information on geological
units identified from drill hole information), calculates volumes (which can then be converted
to tonnages). A block model does this by defining and connecting adjacent cells with similar
properties. The spatial properties of these cells are defined by x,y, and z co-ordinates relative
to some reference point (Holding 1994).
Spatial controls tor determining the AMD category in which to place cells involved identifying
in the database common geological, physical or mineralogical characteristics that had been
shown to have the potential to produce AMD.
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTI, JOYCE, & RYAN
27
Waste Block Modelling at Cadia.
8.8 ,----------------------------,
8.4
8.0
7/
7.8
7.4.
7.2
NOV DEC JAN FEB
Month
1000r-----------------------------------------------------,
goo I - -1
BOO.\'::::: ...... =--------- "
7oo+
(i) 500 ..,
"'-
(.)
w
-+-
300
200
100 t------
NOV DEC JAN FEB
Month
Fig. 4.
Kinetic column testwork for pH (a) and electrical conductivity {b)
of leachate from Cadla Hill waste rock.
Once areas with similar AMD characteristics had been identified, the volume was calculated
by connecting cells with similar properties. With the volume of acid producing material defined
in space, it is possible to integrate these volumes into the mining schedule to determine how
much, and when, potential AMD material will be produced during mining.
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
28
Waste Block Modelling at Cadia
4.2 Results
The block model was run for potential acid producing material identified through the static testwork.
Acid producing material was defined to included material that had been shown to have an ANC:MPA
ratio< 1, as well as material with an ANC:MPA between 1 and 3. A summary of the parameters
used for block modelling is shown in Table 3. The model was run at a 0.5 g t' equivalent gold
cut-off, and the results are shown in Table 4.
Table 3.
Parameter
Summary of block modelling
parameters.
Interpolation Nearest Neighbour
technique
Search ellipse 600 m radius
Cell size
4:1 anisotropy i.e. 600 m
along strike and down dip
and 150 m perpendicular
to strike
2m North 12.5 m East
10mR.L.
Table 4. Results of block modelling for
waste AMD at a 0.5 g t'
equivalent cut-off.
Category
Potential AMD
Indeterminate
AMD
Total
Percent of total waste
volume
22%
14%
36%
5.0 DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS
A typical cross section showing the spatial
characteristics of interpolated static test
results using block modelling is shown in
Fig. 5. The results of the kinetic testwork
will be incorporated into the model when
they become available. A lowering of the
economic cut-off grade below 0.5 g !"
1
will
significantly reduce the percentage of acid
producing waste because the envelope of
economic mineralisation will expend greatly
from that shown in Fig. 5 and Table 4. In
addition, geological hard boundaries for
some sections of the ore body are still
being developed and are expected to
reduce the total volume of acid producing
material.
Validation of the model is currently being
undertaken. This will include duplicate
testwork and random sampling to detemnine
the predictive power of the model. The
next phase of work will be to couple the
waste block model results with the mining
plan to construct the mine waste schedule.
The mine waste schedule will be used to
develop a waste handling program and a
waste dump design to control potential
AMD production.
Obtaining reliable samples for acid prediction testwork is a difficult process and is often not achieved
due to a lack of understanding of block modelling techniques, and a lack of integration between
geochemistry and applied geology.
In order for the acid-generating properties of rock types within an orebody to be representative,
adequate sampling of material is essential {Rymer et al. 1991 ). Probability theory provides a
readily available means for determining a suitable sample size for a given set of geochemical
groups within each lithic unit. It is apparent that the number of samples taken to evaluate a
potential mine will often not be adequate to satisfy sampling probabilities, to achieve the level
of accuracy needed for accurate AMD prediction. Economic consideration will often preclude
the drilling of more holes to provide the necessary sample density or testing of large numbers
of samples for AMD characteristics
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
29
Waste Block Modelling at Cadia.
tlli1il
n
-
NON-A.C!O PROOUCING
INTERl.4EOIATE
AGIO PROOUCING
CADIA PROJECT
ANC/MPA BLOCK MODEL
SECTION 3620E
' """'
. '
Fig. 5.
Cross section of block modelling results at Cadia.
The design of an AMD program must therefore balance the conflicting requirements of generating
enough useful data that can be used to make predictions and containing costs against the potential
costs of remediation of unanticipated or incorrectly diagnosed AMD problems.
It is important to ensure that enough relevant geological information is recorded during the
geological logging of the core so that it is possible to tailor the sampling program to take account
of the geological features of the deposit. By utilising all the available information it is possible
to design a program that meets the above objectives and is cost effective. It the geology is
not considered in sufficient detail ear1y on or the geological database does not contain the necessary
information then the ability of any program to correctly predict AMD properties is severely
compromised.
The use of sophisticated computer block modelling techniques allows the results of an AMD
program to be used to identify the spatial distribution and volume of acid producing material
within the deposit. This information is a prerequisite if cost-effective waste handling programs
are to be developed that can be integrated with the mine development schedule for the deposit.
In summary, linking the sampling to the geology and block modelling provides the following
advantages:
(1) a cost effective approach;
(2) the total volume of problematical material can be determined; and
(3) the timing of when this material becomes available can be determined.
The Cadia example documented above illustrates how to make the most use out ol the geological
database when selecting samples for an AMD program and how to use the information provided
from the testwork program to construct a block model to assist in management strategies.
JOHNSTON, EASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
30
Waste Block Modelling at Cadia.
6.0 REFERENCES
Brodie, M.J., Broughton, L.M., and Mac Robertson, A. (1991 ). A conceptual rock classification
system tor waste management and a laboratory method for ARD prediction from rock
piles. Proceedings: Second International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic Drainage,
Sept 16 to 18, 1991, Montreal Quebec.
Ellison, RD., and Hutchison, I.P.G. (1992). Mine Waste Management. (Lewis Publishers: Ann
Arbor.)
Ferguson, K.D., and Morin, K.A. (1991 ). The prediction of acid rock drainage- Lessons from
the database. Proceedings: Second International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic
Drainage, Sept 16 to 18, 1991, Montreal Quebec.
Ferguson, K.D., and Robertson, J.D. (1994). Assessing the risk of ARD. Proceedings: International
Land Reclamation and Mine Drainage Conference and Third International Conference
on the Abatement of Acidic Drainage, April 24 to 29, 1994, Pittsburg PA.
Holding, S.W. (1994). 30 Geoscience Modelling: Computer Techniques tor Geological
Characterisation. (Springer-Verlag: New York.)
Rymer, T.E., Skousen, J.G., Renton, J.J., Zondlo, A.M., and Ziemkiewicz, P.F. (1991 ). Undetected
sources of detectable acid mine drainage: Some statistical considerations in rock sampling.
Proceedings: Second International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic Drainage,
Sept 16 to 18, 1991, Montreal Quebec.
Smith, A., and Barton-Bridges, J.B. (1991 ). Some considerations in the prediction and control
of acid mine drainage impact on groundwater from mining in North America. Proceedings
of the EPPIC Water Symposium, May 16-17, Johannesburg, South Africa.
,JOHNSTON, E:ASTWOOD, SCOTT, JOYCE, & RYAN
31
32
Second Australian Acld M1ne O r a ~ n a g e Workshop (Eds N.J Grundon and L C. Bell). pp 33--42.
ADVANCES IN THE PREDICTION OF ACID
GENERATING MINE WASTE MATERIALS
S. Miller and J. Jeffery
Environmental Geochemistry International Ply. Ltd.,
20 Rowntree Street, Balrnain, NSW 2041.
ABSTRACT
Predicting the acid generating nature of individual rock types and mine waste is the fundamental
first step in any mine waste geochemistry assessment and provides the foundation for developing
an acid rock drainage and acid spoil control and management plant. Feasible options for
management are determined mainly by the geochemical nature of individual rock types, the
quantity of each geochemical rock type and the mining schedule.
This paper presents an overview of the current prediction technologies and recent developments.
Both static and kinetic tests are described and common interpretation errors and pitfalls with
these procedures are discussed. Recent development in prediction and field identification of
potentially acid forming materials are presented including a discussion of the net acid generation
(NAG) test. Research into the NAG test applications is being carried out under an AMIRA research
project. This is an important development and provides the industry with a useful tool for identifying
and managing potentially acid generating mine waste materials.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
There are two main purposes for acid generation prediction work associated with mine wastes.
One is to predict the behaviour of individual rock types within the deposit so that a management
plant can be developed to control acid drainage and prevent acid toxicity within the revegetation
layer. The second is to predict the overall behaviour of the waste rock dump, process waste
emplacement, open pit or underground void and is an extremely complex and difficult task.
Predicting the field behaviour of a constructed dump is influenced by many factors including
the adopted management strategy which may involve deep burial of potentially acid-forming
material, blending with acid-consuming materials, placement of constructed layers or zones
to control oxygen ingress etc. The physical and hydrological properties of the material and
prevailing climatic characteristics significantly influence the field behaviour and local impact.
This paper focuses on predicting the acid generating nature of rock types. This is the fundamental
first step in any mine waste rock geochemistry assessment and provides the foundation for
developing an acid rock drainage and acid spoil control and management plan. Feasible options
for management are determined mainly by the geochemical nature of individual rock types, the
quantity of each geochemical rock type and the mining schedule.
The level of prediction and control required will depend on the environmental setting and sensitivity.
In drier climates where leachates may not be a concern, the objective may be simply to ensure
that potentially acid-forming materials are not placed in or near the plant rooting zone whereas,
where leachates are a concern, control of acid drainage may be important. In all cases it is
necessary to conduct basic investigation to categorise the geochemical rock types. The extent
of the investigation required will vary from a simple evaluation of selected rock types to a detailed
33
MILLER & JEFFERY
"'. - ~ " ' - ' ' " '
program which can be integrated with geological and mining block modelling.
A key component of an ARD/AMD prediction investigation is sampling. It is essential that all
rock types and waste types are included and that the number of samples is sufficient to provide
at least the boundaries of variability. The samples should be selected to allow development
of possible correlations with geological rock types or stratigraphic position and allow geochemical
rock type mining schedules to be prepared.
This paper presents an oveNiew of the current prediction technologies and recent developments.
Both static and kinetic tests are described, and common pitfalls with these procedures are
discussed. Recent developments in prediction and field identification of potentially acid-forming
materials are presented including a discussion of the net acid generation (NAG) test. Research
into the NAG test applications is being carried out under an AM IRA research project sponsored
by seven Australian mining companies. This is an important development and provides the
industry with a useful tool in avoiding and managing potentially acid-generating mine waste
materials.
2.0 PREDICTION OF ACID GENERATION POTENTIAL
Prediction techniques can basically be categorised into three groups:
(1) Geological assessment;
(2) Geochemical static tests; and
(3) Geochemical kinetic tests.
2.1 Geologic Assessment
Geologic comparison with other mine deposits and mine sites is a commonly used technique.
It is based on the assumption that mine sites having the same or similar paleoenvironmental
or geologic characteristics should have the same potential for acid generation.
Paleoenvironmental models have been used to predict the quality of coal mine drainage on
a regional scale. Acid drainage can be linked to the paleoenvironment of coal formation. Pyritic
sulfur formed in marine and brackish water environments generally has a higher capacity in
acid generation than that formed in fresh water environments. Fine-grained 'framboidal' pyrite
is commonly formed in marine environment and is more reactive than many other forms of pyrite.
Geological models are very useful for predicting the potential for acid generation. Some field
geologists are now logging and recording information relevant to acid drainage prediction (this
needs to be encouraged in all exploration drilling program). The following factors, which are
partly due to the geological environment influence generation of acid drainage:
(1) Oxidation state of the minerals;
(2) Sulfide mineral content;
(3) Sulfide mineralogy;
(4) Carbonate mineral content; and
(5) Rock alteration and hardness.
These factors provide the necessary information for the initial step in classifying mineral deposits
in terms of their potential to produce acid drainage.
MILLER & JEFFERY
34
Prediction of Acid Generating Materials.
Mineralogical examination of mine rock samples can provide very good insight into the potential
for ARD and is highly recommended for all mine sites. The basic data required includes microscopic
examination (reflected and transmitted light) and XRD analyses of carbonate species.
2.2 Geochemical Static Tests
A static test is a simple, rapid and relatively inexpensive test to qualitatively predict the acid
forming potential of a mine waste material. Static tests evaluate the balance between acid
generation processes (oxidation of sulfide materials) and acid neutralising processes (dissolution
of alkaline carbonates, displacement of exchangeable bases, and weathering of silicates).
The two approaches to static test are the acid-base account procedure and the hydrogen peroxide
direct oxidation procedure. There are a number of variations with the acid-base approach but
generally, in the Asia Pacific region, the net acid producing potential (NAPP) method is used.
The hydrogen peroxide-based net acid generation (NAG) test is now becoming more commonly
used, not just as a confirmation test and field test, but its application for predicting reactivity
and the lag period are very encouraging. Both these procedures are discussed below.
2.2.1 Net acid producing potential (NAPP)
The Net Acid Producing Potential ( NAPP) is calculated simply by subtracting the acid neutralising
capacity (ANC) from the calculated maximum potential acidity (MPA) using the following equation:
NAPP (kg H
2
S0
4
r') - MPA- ANC (kg H
2
S0
4
t-')
[1]
where MPA is (%S x 30.6).
The NAPP can be calculated using the total sulfur, total sulfide sulfur or pyritic sulfur content.
Each refinement results in a better estimate of the MAP but also increases the analy1ical costs.
The stoichiometric conversion factor of 30.6 assumes all sulfur is present as reactive pyrite and
that the reaction proceeds to completion. An adjustment to this factor is required if other acid
generating sulfides such a pyrrhotite or chalcopyrite occur. Allowance may also need to be
made for non-ferrous sulfides such as galena or sphalerite which are essentially non-acid
generating. Sulfates and organic sulfur are also not acid generating and must be considered
in some situations.
Generally, non-coal deposits contain little or no organic sulfur but can contain substantial sulfate
sulfur. On the other hand, much of the sulfur in coal deposits may occur as organic sulfur and
thus the total sulfur content will significantly over-estimate the acid potential.
When reporting the NAPP it is important to indicate the type of sulfur used in the calculation.
Hence, an understanding of the sulfur forms in the mine waste is essential for the correct use
of NAPP procedure. When dealing with coal reject and tailings materials, it is recommended
tha pyritic sulfur always be determined. For other types of mine rocks and wastes, selected
samples should be analysed tor the forms of sulfur to confirm the suitability of using total sulfur
in the acid-base calculation. This approach is recommended to minimise the risk of over-estimating
the acid-forming potential of the material.
The Acid Neutral ising Capacity (ANC) measures the ability of a sample to neutralise acid generated
from sulfide oxidation. The ANC is generally determined by reacting a sample with a known
amount of standardised HCI or H,SO, and back titrating to determine the amount of acid consumed.
35
MILLER & JEFFERY
Prediction of Acid Generating Materials.
Some problems encountered with this procedure occur if the ANC is relatively high and the amount
of acid added is not sufficient to react with all carbonates. It is advisable to check the pH before
back titrating to ensure that sufficient excess acid has been added.
At some operations, alternative procedures are used such as determining Ca, Mg and Mn on
the HCI digest and calculating the ANC by assuming these elements are all present as carbonates.
To provide a better understanding of the availability of the ANC, a slow titration method is
recommended. The sample is slowly titrated with a set amount of acid of known strength and
a titration curve generated (Fig. 1 ). The buffering characteristic of the material can then be
evaluated. The plot shown in Fig. 1 is for a sample with a total ANC of 55 kg H
2
S0
4
t' However,
the titration curve indicates that, after adding 35 kg H
2
S0
4
r', the pH begins to fall rapidly and
indicates that not all the ANC will be available for neutralising sulfide generated acidity.
9.00
8.00
7.00
6.00
pH
5.00
4.00
3.00
2.00
i.
I...._
--
0
~
--------
10
.....
......
.......
' i\_
'
"'
\
--- --- - - -- --- -------
20 30 40
Acid Added (kg H2S04/I)
Fig. 1. Characteristic acid buffering curve (ANC).
- --- -- --
50
The titration procedure may provide a more accurate estimation of the neutralising capacity
in the waste since no heating is involved, and the pH of the test is more realistic than the very
low pH of the back titration procedure. This is an important consideration if dolomites or ferroan
dolomites occur which have a low solubility at normal acid drainage pH (3.0-3.5). However,
if there is a close association between the sulfides and carbonates in the material, the pH at
the reaction zone may be significantly lower than the bulk leachate making even relatively insoluble
carbonates reactive under certain conditions.
It is strongly recommended that representative samples from a site are evaluated by this procedure,
particularly if a significant amount of the waste has a border line NAPP result.
Theoretically, a sample with NAPP > 0 has a MPA greater than the inherent ANC and therefore
MILLER & JEFFERY
36
Predict1on of Acid Generating Materials.
has a potential to generate acid whereas a sample with NAPP s; 0 has an ANC greater than
or equal to the MPA and has the capacity to neutralise any acid generated by the contained
sulfides.
The NAPP procedure is not a definitive test, as indicated above, and needs to be supported
by kinetic test work and NAG test to confirm that a sample has the potential to generate acid
and to provide an indication of the lag period or exposure time necessary before acid conditions
become established. These aspects are critical for developing management strategies and
assessing the environmental significance of a particular deposit or waste material.
However, the standard NAPP procedure does allow a large number of samples to be tested
and screened into relevant geochemical groups with respect to the theoretical capacity to generate
acid. When used in this way, as a first pass screening test, the limitations and pitfalls of the
procedure are not a major concern. It is strongly recommended that the NAPP procedure is
not used as a definitive test on which planning and operational decisions are based.
2.2.3 Net acid generation test (NAG)
This is a test which directly evaluates the net acid generation potential without measuring the
acid generation potential and the acid neutralisation capacity separately. Environmental
Geochemistry International Pty ltd (EGi) have been commissioned and funded by members
of the Australian Mineral Industries Research Association (AM IRA) ltd to further develop the
NAG test as a simple low cost procedure for the identification of acid forming mine rock and
process residues that could be utilised for environmental management and planning of waste
disposal. The companies sponsoring this research are Billiton Australia, BHP Australia Coal
Pty Limited, Carpentaria Gold Pty Limited, Hamersley Iron Pty Limited, Peak Gold Mines Pty
Limited, Placer Pacific Limited, P .T. Kelian Gold Equatorial Mining, and Western Mining Corporation
Limited - Kambalda Nickel Operations.
The overall project involves direct comparison of NAG, NAPP and leach column results for an
extensive and wide ranging group of mine rock and process residue samples supplied by the
project sponsor companies.
The aims of this study are:
( 1) To develop the NAG procedure as a simple low-cost test for identifying acid-forming
mine rock and waste materials for use in pre-mining and operational phases of
mining ventures;
(2) To study the kinetics of the NAG reaction by measuring pH and temperature profiles
during sample reaction and changes to these profiles under specific conditions;
(3) To evaluate whether the results can be extrapolated to the field situation for prediction
of the kinetics of the acid generation and neutralisation reactions in the field and
the exposure time necessary before acid formation occurs (i.e., the lag period);
and
(4) To assess on-site applications of the NAG test, including in-pit monitoring of acid-
forming materials.
The project began in October 1993 and is due to be completed in May 1995.
37
MILLER & JEFFERY
Prediction of Acid Generating Materials.
The Net Acid Generation Test (NAG) involves the addition of unstabilised hydrogen peroxide
to a sample of waste rock or tailings then measurement of the solution pH (NAGpH) and acidity
after the reaction with hydrogen peroxide is complete. The hydrogen peroxide reacts with sulfide
minerals, generating heat and acid. The acid in turn reacts with any inherent acid neutralising
minerals in the samples. Therefore, the amount of acid remaining in solution at the completion
of the reaction, which is quantified by titration, represents the net amount of acid generated
by the sample. The NAG test requires minimal laboratory equipment to carry out and a standard
NAG test can be completed within hours. This means the NAG test is a convenient and appropriate
for field test for operational use.
The standard NAG test is now generally accepted as a tool for assessing the acid potential
of a mine waste rock and process tailings. Problems can be encountered with organic containing
waste but these can be overcome by field calibration and modification of the procedure to ensure
that all organic residues are decomposed prior to measure NAGpH.
Interpretation of the standard NAG test requires some site input and calibration. However, generally
a NAGpH < 4 indicates that the sample is potentially acid forming where as a NAGpH ~ 4 indicates
that the sample is non-acid forming. Standard additions of NaOH or full titrations can then be
used to identify low capacity PAF material from higher capacity PAF material for refining waste
management operations.
A major objective of the AMIRA project is to evaluate if the kinetics of the NAG test reactions
can be related to real time kinetics of sulfide oxidation and acid generation in the field. Although
the results are still being evaluated and a longer time period will be required to confirm the
behaviour of some samples, the preliminary findings indicate that the NAG test can be used
to categorise materials on the basis on their lag period.
Prediction of the lag period is an important consideration for waste management as it will detennine
if materials need to be treated or buried immediately, can be left exposed for a period of time
before covering or, where sulfide reactivity is very low, only minimal controls may be required.
Figure 2 shows the pH and temperature NAG reaction kinetics for a sample which is classified
as PAF (high capacity) but has a relatively long lag period. Based on the information available
to date, a sample with a monitored NAG profile similar to Fig. 2 would be expected to have
field lag period in excess of 5 years. Other NAG profiles indicate difterent reactivity and lag
periods and full details of the research findings will be reported at completion of the current
AMIRA test work.
2.3 Geochemical Kinetic Tests
Commonly used kinetic tests include humidity cells, column tests, batch tests, soxhlet reactor
tests, field lysimeters, trial dumps and barrel test. The NAG test, discussed above under static
tests, can also be considered a kinetic test as the data generated will provide information on
reaction kinetics.
The major objectives of kinetics tests are:
(1) To provide real time data on the kinetics and rate of acid generation and acid
neutralising reactions under laboratory controlled or on-site conditions;
(2) To provide information on metal release and drainage/seepage quality; and
MILLER & JEFFERY
38
6
5
t=
4
p-l
3
2
~
0
0
-
f-- Temper ture
---&
r- d1
. . . . . .
~
~
..
~
!'q
\
.I
........
100 200 300
Time
(minutes)
Fig. 2. Monitored NAG test plot.
Prediction of Acid Generating Materials.
'
ho.
~ _pa
400
80
60
40
l
20
I
0
500
Q)
..
. B ~
cdC)
...
Q) bll
o..,
s ~
Q)
8
(3) To evaluate various treatment options such as covers, liming, layering, inundation
and chemical addition (bactericides etc.).
The methods attempt to simulate the weathering process that leads to acid and base dissolution
under lalooratory controlled or site conditions. The kinetic test results provide information on
the acid-generation characteristics and indicate if the rate of acid generation is significant or
negligible, over what period it may occur, and hence, over what time period controls would be
required. This is important in the planning of the disposal strategy, cover design and final
decommissioning.
It is common to most of the kinetic tests that water is added to a sample, the mixture is allowed
to incubate for a certain specified period, acid producing and consuming reactions are allowed
to proceed, and samples of leachate or extracts are collected and analysed. There are various
methods of adding water to the reaction flasks or columns depending on the objective of the
tests selected. Water application includes continuous or intermittent inundation, continuous
or intermittent simulating rainfall, and alternate exposure to humid atmospheres and leaching.
Sealed barrel test are used to determine oxygen consumption rates for dump oxidation
assessments.
Since kinetic methods provide information on the time of overall acid generation, the tests are
required to continue tor months or years, and generally the number of samples tested is limited.
39
MILLER & JEFFERY
Prediction of Acid Generating Materials.
The major parameters to be monitored in kinetic tests are the trends in pH, sulfate, acidity or
alkalinity, and metals. The pH of the collected leachate helps to identify the stage of the acid
drainage process. Sulfate production can be related to other rate of sulfide oxidation. The acidity
or alkalinity gives an indication of the rate of acid production and acid neutralisation. Metal analyses
are important to evaluate metals solubility and leaching behaviour.
The most commonly used kinetic test are humidity cells and column leach test. A major problem
with the humidity cells is that a high solution to solids ratio is used and the concentration of
constituents in the extracts is very low. This can effect geochemical processes within the sample
and also provides very little data on leachate quality. In addition, the humidity cell test was
originally developed for coal overburden where the lag period is generally short and the 'standard'
test is run for only 10 weeks. For non-coal materials this time period is inadequate and can
give false results.
Column test also have drawbacks and a frequent problem is that the sample becomes water
saturated or partially saturated, and interpretation of the results is therefore complicated. Provided
this problem is addressed, column test are a better representation of the field situation that the
humidity cells and provide more appropriate data on the geochemical process and leachate
chemistry. Column test also allow treatments to be tested and compared which is a major
advantage over humidity cells.
Figure 3 shows the standard column set up used by EGi. The columns are placed under heat
lamps so that the sample dries between water additions to ensure an adequate air void content
throughout the column.
Approximately 2.5 kg of samples should be placed in the column. Waste rock should be crushed
to nominal 4 mm size and tailings used in the as received state. The sample is placed in the
column and initially leached with deionised water at a rate of 400 ml kg-'; when drained, the
leachate is collected and labelled week 0. Leaching is then carried out at a rate of 100 ml
kg' for three weeks and 400 mL kg' on week 4. The leachate is collected after the week 4
addition. For the initial wetting-up and week 0 leachate, the water can be added over a 1 to
2 day period, depending on the permeability of the sample. All other water additions should
be added on one day (the same day) each week. Between water additions, the column should
be exposed to drying conditions. The residual water content in the column can be checked
by determining the initial column plus sample set up weight and comparing this to the total weight
prior to water additions. The approximate air void content can then be calculated.
Where a heat lamp is used, the distance between the lamp and the sample is adjusted to maintain
the surface temperature at about 35 C.
The objectives of kinetic test need to be clearly defined before deciding what type of test is
appropriate. With respect to evaluating the kinetics of sulfide oxidation and acid generation
under oxidising conditions, it is recommended that a standard procedure be adopted by industry.
The reason for standardising the procedure is to enable different rock and waste types to be
compared thus providing better prediction in the future.
3. CONCLUSION
The overall objective of this paper is to provide operators, government and authorities and others
involved in ARD/AMD management with fundamental information on prediction techniques for
defining waste rock geochemical types for ARD/AMD management on site.
MILLER & JEFFERY
40
Prediction of Acid Generating Materials.
SHELF
~ H e a t larrp
175mm
1 Li tro I LEACHATE
COLLECTION
VESSEL
BENCH
"'
8
~
Fig. 3. Column set up for evaluating acid generation and acid
neutralisation process.
The paper condudes that the simple acid base procedure (NAPP) is appropriate for initial screening
of samples. The net acid generation (NAG) test has proven to be reliable for evaluating the
acid-generating nature of samples, and the results of these two tests provide a sound basis
for classifying rock types for operational management.
The results of these tests allow rocks to be classified into the following categories:
(1) Acid consuming (ACM);
(2) Non-acid forming (NAF);
(3) Potentially acid forming - low capacity (PAF-LC); and
(4) Potentially acid forming -high capacity (PAF-HC).
Where further information Is required on the kinetics of the acid generation and acid neutralising
processes, column tests are recommended. The need to standardise the column test set up
and procedure is highlighted and a proposed method presented.
The NAG test has been proven as a very useful tool in the prediction process and for operational
monitoring. The test is also being developed for assessing the lag period and reactivity of a
sample. The results of this research will be completed by mid-1995.
41
MILLER & JEFFERY
42
Second Australian Acid M1no Dra1nage Workshop (Eds. N.J. Grundon and L C. Bell), pp 43-SL
A MANAGER'S OPERATIONAL PERSPECTIVE OF
AMD MANAGEMENT AT THE PAJINGO GOLD MINE
I.A. Tredinnick and P.J.Cornwell
Battle Mountain Australia Inc, Pajingo Gold Mine, P.O. Box 237, Charters Towers, Old 4820.
"The old gold mining industry usually paid little attention to the environme/11. Victorians
in the 1850's could tell when a new digging had opened up forty miles upstream:
the river water downstream quickly changed colour with the clays and gravels that
had been overturned upstream."
"Stawell, which in the late 1870's was the deepest goldfield in Australia, announced
its presence to the approaching traveller by the taste of sulphur from the kilns where
the gold bearing pyrite was roasted. People did not see Stowell as they approached:
they tasted it."
"Gold mining is not only seen by the general public as less productive of wealth than
a century ago. It is also seen by an influential minority, as more destructive of the
environment than in the past. This is a curious change because there is no doubt that
most gold producers in Australia are far more sensitive to their environme/11 than they
were a century ago." (Blainey 1991).
ABSTRACT
The Pajingo Gold Mine is situated 53 km south-east of Charters Towers, North Queensland.
The mine is owned and operated by Battle Mountain (Australia) Inc., a wholly owned subsidiary
of Battle Mountain Gold Company of the U.S.A.
Pajingo was a virgin discovery in late 1984, and mining commenced in August 1987. To date
some 350,000 oz of gold and 1 million oz of silver have been produced.
One of the many planning considerations in any mining operation is environmental management.
Pajingo has adopted a proactive role in identifying the problems, planning and implementing
a strategy, and monitoring the results. The key environmental issues at Pajingo include preventing
acid mine drainage, minimising the areas of disturbance, identifying suitable rehabilitated land
forms and adopting a tails dam capping strategy.
As an operator the measure of success is a practical, efficient, cost effective solution. It is essential
for operators in the industry to integrate rehabilitation planning and costing into any project at
the feasibility and development stage. Specific practical solutions need to be developed for
each identifiable problem, and continua/liaison between Consultants, Regulators, Contractors
and Landowners must occur to produce an acceptable result. The future of the industry depends
on it.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Acid mine drainage (AMD) was identified as being a potentially significant environmental issue
at the Pajingo Mine early in its history. A combination of corporate perspective, site management
philosophy and operational practices has lead to a series of AMD management strategies. The
following text overviews the potential magnitude of issues and provides details of the management
issues specific to the Pajingo Operation.
43
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL
AMD Management at the Pajingo Gold Mine.
2.0 THE PAJINGO MINE AND BATTLE MOUNTAIN
The Pajingo Mine site is located 75 km by road south-east of Charters Towers and some 150
km south-southwest of Townsville in North Queensland. The mine is operated by Battle Mountain
(Australia) Inc. (BMAI), a wholly owned subsidiary of the Battle Mountain Gold Company (BMGC)
of the U.S.A. In addition to the Pajingo Mine, BMGC has attributable production from live other
mines in North America, South America and Australia. The total attributable gold production
for BMGC during 1994 was 486,000 oz of gold, of which 30,000 oz came from Pajingo.
The Pajingo Mine was established upon the grassroots discovery of the Scott Lode orebody
in 1984. Mining operations commenced in September 1987 and reached full production in
December 1987. Initial reserves indicated a relatively short mine life with reserves being depleted
after6 years (1993). The Cindy vein was discovered in 1991 and mining commenced in February
1994. The Scott Lode orebody was mined out in 1993 and production from the Cindy vein is
due to be completed in May 1996. Based upon project to date production and current reserves,
total production will be approximately 407,000 oz of gold. Table 1 is a summary of the mined
areas, mining period, and estimated gold production.
Table 1. Production summary
Ore body Date Production Head grade
(oz) (g Aut-')
Scott Lode open cut Sept. 87 - Aug. 92 348,000 9
Scott Lode underground Dec. 92 - Dec. 93 9,000 7
Cindy open cut Feb. 94 - June 94 10,000 6
Cindy underground Aug. 94 - (May 96) 40,000 7
Milling completed (June 96)
Ore is treated in a conventional carbon-in-leach/carbon-in-pulp treatment plant with an annual
throughput of 180,000 t year-'. Up to 1993 the average head grade was 10 g Au c'. The head
grade thereafter will/has ranged between 5 g Au c' and 7 g Au c'.
During the course of the project, BMAI has employed between 35 and 40 permanent employees
in the mining, treatment, supply and administration departments. All mining activities (open
cut and underground) have been carried out by contractors.
3.0 ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT
3.1 Corporate Perspective
BMGC has a formal statement of environmental policy and principles. This is detailed under
the following sections: Management Commitment, Employee Participation, Conservation of Natural
Resources, Emissions to Air Water and Soil, International Operations, Leadership, Public Policy
and Assurance By Senior Management.
"BMGC's international operations are designed to meet environmental regulatory requirements
TREDINNlCK & CORNWELL
44
AMD Management at the Pajingo Gold Mine.
and to achieve the same long term expectations as our U.S. operations with respect to
Environmental Policy and Principals." (BMGC 1993). BMGC recognises the advanced environmental
requirements of Australian legislation and accepts these requirements as suitable operational
conditions. This is in contrast to BMGC operations in parts of South America where low
environmental standards have not been acceptable to BMGC. In these cases BMGC imposes
a combination of U.S. and local environmental standards upon its operations.
Pajingo management via the Vice President, Operations is required to provide an annual
environmental update to the Environmental Affairs and Ethics Committee of the Board of Directors
of BMGC.
3.2 Site Philosophy
Acid Mine Drainage is viewed on site as being potentially the longest lived legacy of the Pajingo
Operation. This, combined with corporate philosophy, a desire to be proactive, the short mine
life, and a small work force has shaped environmental and, in particular, AMD management
practices on site. The aim is to maximise the available favourable materials and develop a self
managing AMD strategy.
The short mine life meant that AMD management had to be dealt with up front. There were
not sufficient reserves to allow extensive field trials to be conducted and the results used to
develop AMD management plans. The object was to develop an AMD management program
that provided cost-effective, up-front strategies, avoided extensive post-mine management
commitments, and provided sufficient up-front data to allow realistic and appropriate environmental
standards to be agreed with Regulators. The relatively small production base meant that research,
AMD management solutions and on-going monitoring must be kept in proportion ($)to the rest
of the operation.
4.0 SCALE/MAGNITUDE OF POTENTIAL SOURCES OF AMD
4.1 Quantities
The high waste to ore ratios for the Scott Lode open pit (14:1) and the Cindy open pit (22:1)
have resulted in relatively large quantities of waste being generated when compared to the quantity
of ore processed. Tables 2 and 3 detail the quantities of waste generated and the total area
of disturbance on the mining lease.
4.2 AMD Potential
Static test work showed that both the oxide waste and sulfide waste have very low Acid Neutralising
Capacity (ANC). The ANC ranged between 0.0 and 18 kg H
2
S0
4
t-' with an average value
of 3.7 kg H
2
S0
4
r'.
AGC (1989) stated, "The static test work indicated that the oxide waste was naturally acidic
with low sulphur and low metal concentrations. Significant generation of acidic metal bearing
leachate was unlikely", and "The sulphide waste has a significant net acid producing potential
but although the more environmentally sensitive metals (e.g. arsenic, zinc, copper) are present,
the concentration of these metals are not as high as those for other projects reported in the
literature where AMD has been of concern."
45
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL
AMD Management at tho Pajingo Gold Mina.
I gl I To I IMouy w\ 0'""' [ .
,0 / I 0 8
__- '- 1D 0 .r--' N
/ I g
= ( . I .. --- ..
:I :
''""/ t 7- J-- Tt--f1-
--- I r. / \. J f ...
( ' __/ I /
I ; I /T1 / v
""'T/" "/'\'"' \ I j ' / /IHOWNG
I I \ ( . I SILTTRAPS 1 "
/ ,, .. )VIv, ,.,---
sEEPAGE RECLAIM ;: I ,r,t M I
..... ....._".. <.(
1
DAM oAM .. .1 oun
Tl . );;; Molly Dorl1ng L .
...--- . "'r' \"'GAZINE DUMP _ ''jni'A LODE
1
w ... .. <(,;, .. . '> l1'n. I : " DAM
--- '*',I .': . . ""'1!\1 :' . SAMS _______
1
'e.'\ TAILINGS ' '')\1"' '"
30000N , '-.. J ROCKORlL
- L .DAM . --i@j "" 00. IJCAMP
".., .. 2:?3 S\\ LOW E;l PlT ..::::::::::-
- ".,
j'-1/ ) \\;RADE
1
\ ...
-.:::::.-- _ -== -:::::7 , '\DUMP CAMP -....:;:'::-._
"'iN? ,.z,.fs ,.o;o /dfidNTRAcroRs'';.,oRKsHoP v .. / I --==:.
'\. ""'-"' I I '' :i ".,.
: IOFF.ICE,MlLL h//V / -. ) /'.:
.. ... .y/' / . i
2'>000N t -. =--)"''\\ I
- . - . \\ ? ROAD / ----...-
....... 1 .. CINDY WASTE
' \ \ ... .,,,, ., ....---
- "ht
11
' ,.
11
\ RADIO SHACK
,,,,, ' ";:: ---
1
"'" .,,\ , \ ''IJ.Ill' @J /Sil:'T DAM ,
', --- ,,,,, < 7'0- -- J
--- ""tf', ."' --. : DAM CINDY PIT
/'!''''''' -
---- I . ,. 11,__ _
2B000N I 1 i. ... / / ..,,\ -,r' __../' _J
/ -l-J r. rs.,; _,.---- .\ J
/-- .- .. \t- _/
27000N t ::' . .,//,. . --......__ __/ OAM
/ OOONGARA HOLDING
-.
1
/ti. Mount Ross .
.....---- - ...-......... FOUR
--- - --- ' '- \ --------
=-=-4 J Jrl\" .. /
7726000mN A.M.G \ "\ . _/ 0"---- ::>00 1000
I YO U.A H \{ rt SCALE 0 T! Top$011 Dump
440000mE A M.G 11000E 4ZOOOE I 43000E 44000E
I I f" \ ..,...-- I I
I
Fig. 1. Layout of Pajlngo Gold Mine showing areas disturbed by mining operations.
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL 46
Table 2. Waste generation.
Source
Scott Lode oxidised waste
Scott Lode sulfide waste
Cindy oxidised waste
Cindy sulfide waste
Tailings (oxidised and sulfide)
A Potentially AMD generating.
AMD Management at the Pajtngo Gold Mine
Waste generated
9 million tonnes
6 million tonnesA
1 million tonnes
20,000 tonnes
1.5 million tonnesA
Table 3. Mining lease disturbance (see Fig. 1).
Source
Scott Lode pit
Cindy pit
Scot Lode dump
Cindy dump
Tailings dam
Water catchment dams
Stockpiles
Treatment plant and offices
Haul roads
Exploration areas
Contractors yards
Topsoil stockpiles
Total
A Require AMD management or investigation.
Area disturbed (ha)
10A
3A
28A
BA
41A
11
4A
5
9
8
2
130
To further evaluate the potential leachate quality produced by sulfide waste, a series of column
leach tests were carried out Column leach tests were carried out on samples of sulfide waste
for a period of 31 months. The column test confirmed the acid-generating potential of the sulfide
waste.
The Tailings Dam facility is divided into three cells. Cells 2 and 3, and the base of Cell 1 have
had Scott Lode oxide tailings deposited into them. The middle layers of Cell1 will contain sulfide
Scott Lode and Cindy tails while the top layers will consist of Cindy oxide tails.
47
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL
li
I i
,,
AMD Management at the PaJingo Gold Mine.
5.0 PERSONNEL
Day to day responsibilities for environmental management fall under the mining department
(survey, geology, engineering). The mining department has consisted of between five and nine
personnel. Environmental responsibilities are the domain of the Senior Mine Geologist. Currently
this would account for 80% of his time. The limited available personnel has meant that operational
co-ordination and planning, and management of consultant's activities has been the key
environmental role for personnel on-site.
It was recognised early on that the operation was not large enough to support a dedicated
environmental department with sufficient expertise to assess the potential AMD issues and develop
suitable management plans. The use of Consultants was seen as a logical means of accessing
a wide range of expertise that the operation could not provide in house. Through exposure
to consultants, site expertise has been developed. This was further advanced through corporate
support of Post Graduate Environmental Studies.
Technical guidance is also provided by the Director, Environmental Services based in Denver.
As many of the policy changes in Australia over the last five years are copying the US system,
the 'inside brief' is a useful asset.
6.0 SCOTT LODE DUMP DESIGN
Early testwork in 1988 and 1989 indicated that the sulfide waste rock would need to be specifically
treated to ensure no ongoing legacy. Uterature searches, and pro-active mining practices indicated
that a careful encapsulation plan would be a practical cost-effective solution, if the correct material
was available.
Using exploration drill hole data, the oxide sulfide interface was generated on a digital terrain
model and overlain on the final pit design to evaluate the quantity and extraction schedule.
The principal features of the dump are:
(1) Basal oxide waste rock layer;
(2) 20 m thick (minimum) encapsulating oxide walls;
(3) Sulfide waste placed within oxide walls;
(4) Minimum of 3 x 0.5 m thick compacted cap layers;
(5) 0.5 m loose rock mulch surface layer;
(6) Contoured top surface to a central discharge point; and
(7) Monitoring of dump physics, surface runoff (quantity and quality), vegetation, erosion.
7.0 OPERATIONAL AND PLANNING CONSIDERATIONS
The principal operational and planning considerations involved in implementing the waste rock
encapsulation program were: contract negotiation, mine planning/scheduling, liaison with earth
moving contractor, effective control of dump construction, differentiation and segregation of waste
rock. The initial pit design consisted of an interim oxide pit from which to commence production
while final evaluation of the resource was carried out. The final dump design was not put in
place until after the open-cut mining contract was in place. To avoid additional haulage cost,
the limits of the dump were designed to be within 2 km of the pit centre. Post-contract negotiations
agreed that there would not be significantly more (or less) earth moving works required to construct
the encapsulating dump. No additional earth moving costs were incurred until the final capping
of the dump was undertaken.
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL
48
AMD Management at the Pajingo Gold Mine.
The Scott Lode pit at surface consists of a single pit which bifurcates into an East and West
pit approximately 60 m below the surface. A schedule by level of quantities of material required
to construct the waste dump was overlain on the mine extraction plan and model of material
types in the pit. Creative scheduling meant that the required quantities of oxide and sulfide
waste to construct the dump to the design parameters could be mined without the need to stockpile
and rehandle material.
By completing the East pit in advance of the West pit, it was possible to dispose of sulfide bearing
waste in the East pit. This had the advantages of enabling the dump to be capped one wet
season earlier and saved on waste rock haulage costs. The exposed sulfides in the pit walls
meant that disposal of sulfide bearing waste in the east pit would have no additional detrimental
impact on pit water quality on decommissioning.
The only material requiring rehandling was oxide waste lor the dump cap. This material was
stockpiled on sections of the dump completed earlier on. The maximum haul distance was kept
to approximately 350m. Towards the end of the mining of the Scott Lode pit, the mining fleet
was reduced from two to one excavator. The final benches of the pit were extracted by campaign
drilling and blasting followed by campaign excavation. By scheduling the capping operation
it was possible to utilise equipment that would otherwise have been idle and incurring standby
costs. No additional equipment was required to be mobilised.
The ability to differentiate oxide waste from sulfide waste visually meant that additional analysis
was not required. Waste segregation was incorporated as part of the normal grade control
procedure. No additional resources were required to maintain the waste segregation or survey
control on the dump, but a considerable amount of vigilance and control was required at times.
Particular effort was put into training contract earthmoving personnel to identify the rock type
at the digging stage, and placing it in the correct location on the dump. If in doubt, call it sulfides!!
Each 5 m bench was mapped and compared to the predictive model. As always, there were
variations, but in general, the overall quantity estimates were close to reality.
The Pajingo mine site is located in the Janet Range. The Janet Range is a series of low rocky
hills surrounded by flat open grazing land. The revegetation philosophy was based on not creating
a focal point for grazing in what would otherwise be unsuitable land for grazing. As such, all
disturbed areas are returned to woodland similar to the surrounding environment and not planted
with pasture. Pasture is only used to initially stabilise drainage lines. The erratic rainfall and
high annual variation compared to mean rainfall values makes the use of tree seedlings
unsuccessfuL All areas are direct seeded with a tree seed mix consisting of up to 20 species.
AMD management of tailings has involved the controlled deposition of sulfide-bearing tails into
the middle layers of Cell 1 only. This material will be covered by oxide tails from the upper
sections of the Cindy underground. Investigations are currently under way to refine the AMD
potential of the tails, and a final decommissioning strategy.
8.0 COSTS
The main cost centres incurred in the development and implementation of the AMD management
plan included Research/Consultants, Earth Works, Revegetation, and Monitoring Equipment.
Although additional construction supervision and survey control were required during the oonstruction
stage, these duties were conducted by the mine technical group without calling on outside
contractors.
49
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL
AMD Management at the Pajingo Gold Mine.
As previously mentioned, the most effective method for the Operation to access expert advice
was via consultants. Despite the initial apparent high cost of consultancy services and analytical
charges, they were viewed as necessary. The costs, when viewed in terms of the potential
long term liabilities, the chance to maximise the use of favourable materials, potential savings
in earth moving costs, and the ability to plan from a position of knowledge, were considered
necessary and cost effective.
Earth moving costs specific to the construction of the dump were limited to the capping. The
capping consisted of a minimum of three 0.5 m compacted layers and a loose rock mulch layer.
To achieve the desired gradients in the drainage lines, up to seven 0.5 m compacted layers
were required. The capping exercise cost approximately $50,000 ha-'. All other earth moving
costs were incorporated as operational costs. Operational costs would not have varied if the
dump had been constructed as an encapsulating dump or as a 'normal' waste dump.
Revegetation consists of establishing a cover of native trees via direct seeding. Pasture is used
to initially s t a b i ~ s e drainage lines. The cost of supplies, minor earthworks and manpower for
revegetation works is approximately $1500 ha-'.
Monitoring costs predominantly consist of analytical charges; the majority of these being for
surface water quality analysis. Monitoring of revegetation and other compliance conditions is
carried out by site personnel and the cost incorporated as part of normal operating costs.
By partially isolating the sulfide tails under oxide tails in Cell1 only, it is hoped to minimise the
thickness of additional cover required to decommission the tailings dam. Managed deposition
during the final months of operation will partially form the final required contours, minimising
the earth works required.
9.0 MONITORING
The ultimate objective of any mining company is to be able to relinquish a lease. As such it
was apparent to BMAI that accurate monitoring would need to be done to convince the Regulators
that the objectives of the Closure Plan had been adequately met. Considerable numbers of
water samples have been collected and analysed at the pre-mining stage, during mining operations,
and now during rehabilitation. Particular care has been taken to 'instrument' the water balance
on the waste dump, namely rainfall, evaporation, runoff and infiltration. A conveniently located
weather station, v-notch weir, lysimeters and temperature probes provide the base data for
the water balance to be calculated. Vegetative cover and erosion monitoring are done via visual
inspection.
10.0 MONITORING RESULTS
Monitoring of surface water quality downstream of the Scott Lode dump indicates that the sulfides
have been successfully isolated. Results are well within the compliance levels. Revegetation
on the dump is well advanced and after 2 years has already reach the target levels. This growth
provides great encouragement, as this has been achieved during periods of record drought with
no artificial irrigation at all.
11.0 CONCLUSIONS
Government, community and indeed mining companies themselves no longer find it acceptable
to behave as the alluvial miners of Victoria in the 1850's.
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL
50
AMD Management at the Papngo Gold MimJ.
Operations must now comply with stringent environmental guidelines (which no doubt will get
more stringent), and less than enthusiastic general populace.
To continue to exist as a viable operator, it is imperative to take into consideration the environmental
issues as early as possible. Careful and pro-active planning, stringent implementation and sensible
monitoring should result in an operation setting excellent environmental standards, which should
lead to compliance with lease conditions and a trouble free relinquishment.
We at Pajingo are proud of our progress to date. The final verdict will be known in some years
time.
12.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors wish to thank the fellow members of the staff at Pajingo who contributed to the
preparation and review of this paper and to Battle Mountain (Australia) Inc. for permission to
write and present it.
In addition, the authors acknowledge A.G.C. Woodward Clyde's input into environmental
management at the Pajingo Mine and in particular Peter Ryan for his contribution to AMD
Management at Pajingo.
13.0 REFERENCES
A.G.C. (1989). Pajingo Gold Mine Preliminary Waste Characterisation Study (unpublished).
Blainey, G. (1991). Gold- A Lesson or Two? Luncheon Address at the Australian Gold
Conference, Burwood Convention Centre, Perth, 16th March 1989. In 'Biainey Eye on
Australia.' (G. Blainey.) (Schwartz Books.)
BMGC. (1993). Statement of Environmental Policy and Principals, BMGC 1993 Annual Report.
51
TREDINNICK & CORNWELL
52
Second Australian Ac1d Mine Dra1nage Workshop (Eds N J Grundon and L.C. Bell). pp. 53-65.
PRACTICAL ENGINEERING OPTIONS
TO MINIMISE AMD POTENTIAL
A. Watson
AGC Woodward-Clyde Pty Ltd, 49 Park Road, Milton, Old 4064.
ABSTRACT
The potentia/liabilities related to the occurrence of Acid Mine Drainage (AMD) within metalliferous
mines throughout eastern Australia are substantial. The management of the AMD problem is
an integrated process involving the key elements of identification and characterisation, quantification,
scheduling, and finally engineering for control. This paper identifies several engineering options
to minimise the occurrence, or control the effects of AMD within mine waste dumps or tailings
impoundments. Integrated strategies related to design and construction of new waste dumps
and tailings storages to mitigate AMD potential are investigated. Options for closure, rehabilitation
or remediation of existing dumps and impoundments to reduce AMD effects are also explored.
Finally, a summary of key engineering design issues related to each of the options is presented.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
The recognition and control of acid mine drainage (AMD) are key issues that currently confront
the Australian mining industry. The AMD issue is one that has received increased exposure
over past years, and therefore the industry is becoming more aware of the potential scale and
long-term environmental significance of the problem.
Against a background of increasing regulatory control (e.g. recently introduced Environmental
Protection Legislation in Queensland), the potential financial liabilities of AMD occurrences need
to be more seriously considered. These liabilities could be associated with up-front 'securities',
increased control for waste handling and placement, or site rehabilitation and clean-up. The
significance of these liabilities, given the public attention on environmental, land use, and water
quality issues, and now with substantial support from government legislation, can not be
understated.
The control of AMD is clearly at the hands of the industry; initially in the diagnosis of the problem,
but then in the implementation of appropriate control measures. To this extent, this paper provides
a broad overview of some practical engineering options to either minimise the potential for AMD,
or to control AMD effects.
The paper has been structured to investigate initially the engineering process related to
implementation of AMD control measures. Several engineering options for AMD control are
then described. Finally, a summary of key engineering design issues related to each of these
options is presented.
The problem of AMD is relevant to mine waste dumps, mine tailings impoundments, heap leach
pads, mine adits, open-cuts and other areas. This paper focuses on the control of AMD around
mine waste rock areas and tailings impoundments as potentially the most serious AMD-related
problem currently facing the industry.
53
WATSON
Options to Minimise AMO Potential.
2.0 THE ENGINEERING PROCESS
The fundamental principle to minimise AMD potential is the isolation of the source material from
either of the key ingredients of AMD- air or water. Current technology and practice (and associated
economics) indicate that the concepts of encapsulation or entombment (in accordance with general
landfilling principles) comply with these objectives.
The generic engineering process related to design and implementation of AMD control measures
includes such steps as materials characterisation and quantification, evaluation of
performance/design criteria, definition of the solution and performance auditing. This process,
shown in logic form on Fig. 1, can be applied equally to a proactive or reactive approach to
design.
The proactive approach would involve the fomnulation and implementation of controls in anticipation
of an AMD problem. The design of such preventative measures would typically be applied at
the onset of development of a new waste impoundment or containment area and would continue
throughout the life of the faculty.
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
r
Materials characterisation/guantification
Geochemical
Physical
I
Siting
Constraints
Physical site conditions
I
Design QhilosoQh'!'/Qerformance criteria
I
Potential interactions
Performance standards/criteria
I
I
Solutions design
Engineering analysis
Predicted performance against criteria
'
I
Economic evaluation
Feasibility assessment
Techniques for cost control
I
lmolemeo"lloo, mooltoclcg ~ d m""''"'"'' I
Cradle-to-grave philosophy
Actual against predicted performance
Ongoing performance
Fig. 1. The engineering process
WATSON
54
Options to Minimise AMO PotentiaL
Conversely, the reactive process would be initiated in response to the occurrence of AMD and
would be implemented as a form of remediation. The engineering process for appropriate remedial
measures related to AMD control would typically apply to the closure, rehabilitation, or clean
up of existing dumps and impoundments to reduce or control AMD effects.
The following provides a brief description of each step included within the engineering design
process.
2.1 Materials Characterisation and Quantification
Geochemical and physical characterisation of materials to be handled within the impoundment
or containment area would be as follows:
(1) Geochemical: Delineation between 'problematic' and 'benign' materials with respect
to AMD potential. This may involve identification of the threshold conditions
(e.g. %S) which may generate AMD.
(2) Physical: Definition of the relative quantities of material types and the schedule
under which these materials may be encountered or exposed.
This step would dictate the need to consider AMD control as a key criteria to design of the
impoundment or to confirm the occurrence of AMD.
2.2 Siting
The proposed siting (or current siting) of a waste rock dump or tailings impoundment is an integral
part to the engineering process in relation to AMD control. The sensitivity of background site
conditions to impact, or the beneficial uses of these conditions, are relevant in the selection
of appropriate design standards.
2.3 Design Philosophy and Performance Criteria
The design philosophy for a containment or impoundment area can be established tiy identifying
the potential interactions between the site and the facility, and assessing the tolerance to which
the site conditions (e.g. water quality) could be impacted without affecting some assumed beneficial
use, or without exceeding some adopted environmental standards.
The design philosophy would guide the selection of the performance standards or criteria to
which the facility or works, as appropriate, would be engineered.
2.4 Solutions Design
Based on the adopted performance criteria, the design of the containment or impoundment area
could be carried out by applying appropriate engineering techniques (e.g. computer modelling)
to predict the perfonnance of the selected solution against the adopted standards. Key engineering
considerations would include seepage generation quantities, water quality and stability.
2.5 Economic Evaluation
Following completion of design of the facility or works, an economic evaluation of the proposed
solution would be appropriate. This costing would link with either the project feasibility assessment,
or the consideration of end-of-project profitability.
55
WATSON
Options to Minimise AMD Potential.
This costing would be influenced by the strategy of implementation of the works. Techniques
to minimise overall cost would be to integrate the construction work with the existing mining
operation (e.g. use of run-of-mine waste as cover, and use of mine plant in construction).
Furthermore, as a means of reducing large capital outlay at the completion of the project, staged
implementation of AMD control measures should be considered.
2.6 Implementation, Monitoring and Maintenance
Full implementation of the proposed scheme would be based on a cradle-to-grave philosophy
in order to achieve the adopted performance criteria. The implementation would culminate in
the final decommissioning and closure of the containment/impoundment area, whether based
on the proactive or reactive process.
Monitoring and maintenance of the works would form an integral part of both the implementation
and post-closure care plan. Monitoring would be used to gauge actual performance against
the predicted performance and adopted performance criteria. Maintenance would be necessary
to ensure on-going performance through the phases of implementation and post-closure care.
3.0 ENGINEERING OPTIONS
A broad review of the engineering options to minimise AMD potential or to control the effects
of AMD is provided in the following discussion. Options for both waste rock dumps and tailings
impoundments are described. The options investigated are methods that have been tria/led
and found to be effective, and have proven to be, under certain circumstances, economically
feasible to implement. Table 1 summaries the options investigated.
Table 1. Summary of engineering options.
Design approach
Proactive:
Preventative
measures
Reactive:
Remedial measures
WATSON
Waste dumps
1. Encapsulation
2. In-pit disposal
3.
4.
5.
1.
2.
3.
Mixing/Co-disposal
Micro-encapsulation
Uncontrolled
placement with
downstream
recovery and
treatment
Covers
Downstream
recovery and
treatment
Removal
56
Tailings impoundments
1. Containment and
cover
2.
In-pit disposal
3.
Co-disposal
1.
Containment and
cover
2.
In-pit disposal
3.
Co-disposal
I
I
Options to Minimise AMD Potential.
3.1 Waste Dumps
3.1.1 Encapsulation
The encapsulation option would be applicable for an above-ground dump area. Conceptually,
benign (i.e. non-acid producing) materials, such as oxide mine waste, would be used to encapsulate
the AMD portion of the waste stream, thereby isolating the problematic waste from air and water.
Typically, a deep basal layer of benign materials would be formed (or otherwise reliance on
the containment propertes of the in situ foundation sequences be made) with perimeter containment
wings formed using similar materials. The cell formed would be utilised for placement and
containment of problematic waste. This surface of this cell could be covered using benign materials,
either in staged manner, or on closure of the dump. The design issues related to the concept
include:
( 1) Achieving low permeabilities within the encapsulation zones, particularly the surface,
which is subject to direct rainfall;
(2) Providing adequate surface water management in and around the encapsulation
cell to avoid periods of inundation of AMD-producing waste during the operation;
and
(3) Providing a competent foundation/basal layer to reduce seepage throughflows
and protect downstream groundwater or surface water resources. The use of under-
drainage beneath the impoundment, particularly on steep/valley slopes, could be
considered.
The encapsulation option is shown conceptually in Fig. 2.
3.1.2 In-pit disposal
The use of in-pit disposal would only be applicable provided that a void (e.g. completed open
cut) of sufficient volume was available. In many cases, this is not the case. However 'creative'
pit management within an existing open cut operation can enable allocation of air space for
placement of waste rock prior to completion of mining.
Similar design concepts to the encapsulation option would apply to in-pit disposal, including
provision of basal, perimeter and surface encapsulation layers. The requirement for basal and
pit wall encapsulation would depend on the permeability of these faces, and also on the
constructability of these layers. The thickness of the encapsulation layers would be determined
by the waste volume balance (problematic to benign waste from the mining area) and available
supplementary borrow sources, as required. The design issues related to this option include:
(1)
(2)
(3)
Achieving low permeability encapsulation zones on the base, walls and surface
of the AMD waste cell;
Providing adequate surface water management in and around the encapsulation
cell; and
Assessing the potential connection between the pit and the local groundwater system
and to ensure limited 'cross flow' from the encapsulation zone to the aquifer.
The in-pit disposal option is shown conceptually in Fig. 2.
57 WATSON
Options to Minimise AMD PotentiaL
! 1 !
/
CO-DISPOSAL
OXIDE I BENIGN
WASTE
NOTE: ARROWS INDICATE
POTENTIAL WATER
MOVEMENT
MIXTURE
Fig. 2. Diagrammatic representations of engineering options of waste rock dumps using
the encapsulation, In-pit disposal, co-disposal, and mixture methods.
3.1.3 Mixing and co-disposal
The principles of the mixing/co-disposal option are the blending or selective placement of
problematic waste with a benign or non-acid producing material. The AMP potential of these
wastes are reduced through a combination of reducing the net acid producing potential of the
waste, in addition to partial encapsulation.
This option is shown conceptually in Fig. 2, in two forms. The first form comprises the development
WATSON
58
Options to Minimise AMD Potential.
of small cells for placement of problematic waste. These cells would be formed from benign
waste or other suitable borrow materials. The second form would be the mixture of both the
benign and problematic waste streams. This method would rely more on the neutralisation capacity
of the benign materials than its encapsulation properties.
3.1.4 Micro-encapsulation
A methodology for coating of certain mine wastes has been developed to prevent pyrite oxidation.
The mechanism of this coating technology involves the leaching of mining waste with a phosphate
solution containing hydrogen peroxide. When this solution reaches pyrite surfaces, the hydrogen
peroxide oxidises the surface portion of the pyrite and releases iron oxides so that phosphate
precipitation forms a passive surface coating. It is understood that this process has not been
trialled on a large scale.
3.1.5 Uncontrolled placement with downstream recovery and treatment
A possible option for control of marginally acid producing waste is the uncontrolled or undefined
placement of the problematic materials, then use of downstream recovery and/or treatment of
any acidic drainage that may subsequently be generated. Possible recovery systems would
comprise recovery ponds, subsurface seepage drains, and groundwater recovery bores. Treatment
system options could include reagent treatment (e.g. lime dosing), wetland filter treatment, and
dilution in an adjacent water course. A key engineering issue related to this option is provision
of an appropriate surface waste management system leading to effective collection and/or
containment of drainage to facilitate treatment. Careful siting of the waste dump is therefore
critical under this option, to avoid the misdirection of acidic drainage. A typical representation
of this scheme is shown on Fig. 3.
3.1 .6 Covers
Applying the principles of encapsulation, a low permeability cover can be constructed over an
existing waste rock dump area to reduce the infiltration of surface water and to minimise the
infusion of air. The use of locally available borrow or suitable benign mine wastes are favoured
in forming these covers, largely on the basis of economics. Additionally, the cover thickness
would be minimised to reduce the overall earthworks requirements. The design process related
to this option would include detailed hydrological and seepage/mass balance modelling based
on the physical properties of the cover materials to attempt to optimise the required cover thickness.
Key design issues related to this option are:
(1) Assessment of requirements to include capillary breaking or barrier layers within
the cover to minimise salt rise or root penetration through the thin encapsulation
zone. The need for these layers would depend on the hydraulic behaviour of the
waste rock mass;
(2) Consideration of constructability of covers, based on design thickness and
slope/grade of waste dump surfaces; and
(3) Consideration of durability/serviceability with respect to long-term periormance
of covers. This would be related to desiccation/shrinkage cracking, weathering
and erosion potential. The use of surface protection layers would need to be
considered in this event.
This option is shown conceptually in Fig. 3.
59
WATSON
Options to Minimise AMD Potential. I Options to Minimise AMD Potential.
' ~
OXIDE I BENIGN
WASTE -...
~
y
COVERS
WETLAND
GROUNDWATER II ~
RECOVERY BORE c ~
NOTE: ARROWS INDICATE
POTENTIAL WATER
MOVEMENT
ELEVATION
DOWNSTREAM RECOVERY AND TREATMENT
Flgo 3, Diagrammatic representations of engineering options of waste rock dumps using
covers, and downstream recovery and treatment niethodso
3.1.7 Removal
The removal of waste rock materials is an option that would not be considered routinely. However,
some advantage may be assessed in selective mining of severe waste from an existing dump
for isolation either within an open cut, void, or an alternative, suitability prepared waste dump.
WATSON
60
3.2 Tailings Dams
3.2.1 Containment and cover
Typical tailings storage development within northern Australia comprises above-ground containments
designed for sub-aerial tailings deposition methods. The resulting structure would comprise
a perimeter (on flat sites) or containment (on valley- fill sites) embankment, with an exposed,
dried tailings surface.
The features of such a storage, included for AMP control, would be a low permeability core
or blanketing within the embankments, partial or full storage floor lining (typically earthfill
construction) and a low permeability cover formed over the final tailings surface. Typically, a
'starter' embankment and storage lining would be constructed initially, followed by staged lifting
of the containment to reach the design storage capacity. The surface covering would likely
be constructed following closure of the facility.
The key issues related to the design of this option is the detailing of the storage floor lining and
the surface cover. The use of locally sourced, clay-dominant soils is common in this application.
Alternatively, for the storage lining, synthetic membrane (e.g. HDPE) has been used in some
cases, principally for containment of particularly problematic waste, or lor protection of particularly
sensitive site conditions. (The cost implications and uncertain design life of this alternative is
significant).
For the surface cover, a number of additional design considerations apply and a number of cover
alternatives exist. The additional design considerations relate to the reduction of capillary rise
which would bring dissolved salts through any earthfill cover to the layer surface. This rise may
hinder vegetation growth. Similarly, root penetration through the surface cover would promote
downward migration of moisture which would recharge the AMD mechanism. A capillary breaking
layer or similar barrier layer within the cover may therefore be considered.
The alternatives for the cover. which could be applied with or without the capillary breaking barrier
layer as appropriate, would be synthetic membranes (e.g. HDPE), organic blankets, cementitious
covers, surface chemical methods (e.g. hardpan development), or wet covers.
Other design issues related to the development of this option include:
( 1) Surface water management, particularly diversion of storm flows around valley-fill
sites;
(2) Management of the underlying groundwater related to the reduction of seepage
losses from the storage; and
(3) Long term embankment stability. related to both slope failure protection and control
of erosion and scouring.
This option is shown conceptually in Fig. 4 for both a flat and valley-fill site.
The downfall of the described method of tailings storage development in relation to AMP control
is that typically, the containment layer cannot be stage constructed. This has implications in
long term AMP potential and in high rehabilitation costs to the end of the project.
61
WATSON
Options to Minimise AMD Potential.
OXIDE I BENIGN
WASTE
~
/
~
OXIDE I BENIGN
WASTE
'
DIVERSION
BUND
NOTE: ARROWS INDICATE
POTENTIAL WATER
MOVEMENT
Fig. 4. Diagrammatic representations of engineering options of tailings dams using the
containment and cover method.
3.2.2 In-pit disposal
Similar to the in-pit disposal option for waste rock placement, such a scheme for tailings disposal
would only be appropriate in the event that a decommissioned or unused void of adequate storage
volume was available. Due to the difficulties of an encapsulation zone within the open pit, the
in situ low permeability of the pit walls and floor would typically be relied upon to enable adequate
containment. A surtace cover would be constructed on closure of the system. The design issues
related to this cover and appropriate cover alternatives would be as discussed in the Containment
and Cover option (see 3.2.1 ). The key design issues related to the in-pit disposal option are:
( 1) Assessing the possible connection between the pit and the loca: groundwater system;
and
WATSON
62
IN-PIT DISPOSAL
Opt1ons to M1n1mise AMO Potential
NOTE: ARROWS INDICATE
POTENTIAL WATER
MOVEMENT
t . . " ' ' < : : { ~ ' ' " '
P//htt: ( f ( &!&V?7b.-
Fig. 5. Diagrammatic representations of engineering options of tailings dams using the
In-pit disposal and co-disposal methods.
(2) Providing adequate surtace water management within the void to prevent long
periods of inundation of the tailings.
This option is shown diagrammatically in Fig. 5.
3.2.3 Co-disposal
The concept of co-disposal varies between the various mining industries. Related to coal mining,
a co-disposal system typically describes the mixture of the fine and coarse reject fractions.
More detail on this method is provided in Williams (1992). Related to metalliferous mining, a
not too widely used technique is the co-disposal of mine waste (rock) with process tailings.
This method would involve creation of a series of tailings cells using stable and suitably non-acid
63
WATSON
I
'
~ ~ ~ ~
I'
I
II'
'li
,1::
I'. I
li
1
1
1
iii
li;
~
I H\!
Options to Minimise AMD Potential
producing waste rock. Conceptually, each cell would comprise a relatively small volume to enable
rapid filling, followed by a period of drying, then covering. Sequential cells would be developed
to meet the process requirements. The specific requirements of the system would be the use
of low permeability materials to form each cell, and reduced cell volumes to control water
managements aspects and to minimise ongoing seepage potential. This option is shown
conceptually in Fig. 5.
4.0 SUMMARY OF KEY ENGINEERING ISSUES
On the basis of the engineering options described in the previous sections, a summary of key
engineering issues has been compiled. This summary provides a general list of issues, not
all issues being relevant to the one option:
(1) Providing adequate characterisation/quantification of the waste stream.
(2) Achieving desired permeability within waste encapsulation zone.
(3) Providing adequate water management system. This may include:
(a) Surface water- diversion of surface water around the site, or containment
of surface water, as appropriate;
(b) Groundwater - mitigation of seepage into adjacent groundwater systems,
or alternatively recovery and treatment of seepage; and
(c) Unsaturated zone use of capillary breaking or barrier layers to limit salt
rise or downward root penetration.
(4) Ensuring long term stability of the waste containment areas.
(5) Undertaking appropriate monitoring and maintenance of the system to assess ongoing
performance and to ensure long term serviceability.
(6) Use of appropriate techniques and construction materials to provide an effective
and economical solution which is stable and non-polluting.
It is further emphasised that the direct cost and related financial liability of AMD control measures
is a significant engineering design issues for waste dumps and tailings dams. Intuitively, many
advantages are foreseen with taking a proactive approach to AMD control, with respect to staged
development of the works and the effective reduction/control of the AMD process.
5.0 REFERENCES'
Phinney, K.D. (1992). Planning for acid generation : An engineer's perspective. Second
International Conference on Environmental Issues of Waste in Energy and Mineral
Production, Calgary, Canada.
Vick, S.G. (1983). 'Planning, Design and Analysis of Tailings Dams.' (John Wiley and Sons:
New York.)
1
Editors' Note: These references have not been cited in the text. They are included at the
author's request to provide background information relevant to the subject of the paper.
WATSON
64
Options to Minimise AMD PotentiaL
Ryan, P.A., and Joyce C.J. (1991). Prevention and remediation of acid drainage from mine
waste rock in Australia. Second International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic
Drainage, Montreal, Canada.
Ahmed, S.M. (1994). Surface chemical methods of forming hardpan in pyrrhotite tailings and
prevention of the acid mine drainage. Third International Conference on the Abatement
of Acidic Drainage, Pittsburgh, PA.
Meek, F.A. (1994). Evaluation of acid prevention techniques used in surface mining. Third
International Conference on the Abatement of Acidic Drainage, Pittsburgh, PA.
Williams, D.J. (1992). Emerging techniques for disposal of coal wastes. Second International
Conference on Environmental issues and Management of Waste in Energy and Mineral
Production, Calgary, Canada.
65
WATSON
66
CONTROL OF ACID MINE DRAINAGE THROUGH WATER
MANAGEMENT AT MT. LEYSHON GOLD MINE
M.S. Orr
Normandy Poseidon Group, P.O. Box 6080, Townsville Mail Centre, Old 4810.
ABSTRACT
The issue of long-term acid mine drainage at Mt. Leyshon Gold Mine is being addressed via
a waste dump rehabilitation strategy comprising selective waste handling and dump sealing.
However, during the mine life, there will always be unsealed areas of active waste dump, and
also ore stockpiles. To minimise the impact of these areas on the quality of local surface water,
the mine has implemented a site runoff control strategy. This comprises a system of diversion
weirs, dams, and sumps that achieves containment and treatment of all flows, but allows a
proportion of high flows to safely leave the site. The system includes continuous monitoring
of the duration, volume, and quality of discharge.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Mt. Leyshon Gold Mine (MLGM) is located 24 km south of Charters Towers, in northern Queensland
(Fig. 1 ). It is a large open-pit mine, producing gold, silver and copper. The operation is owned
by Mt. Leyshon Gold Mines Limited, which is a member of the Normandy Poseidon Group, a
predominantly Australian-owned mining finance company.
Mt. Leyshon Gold Mine began operations in 1987. Operations were initially restricted to the
heap-leaching of oxide ore. Ongoing testwork revealed a much larger resource of unoxidised
ore at depth, which lead to the construction and operation of a conventional carbon-in-pulp (CIP)
plant. Throughput is currently 5.5 Mt year'. Heap-leaching of oxide ore has now ceased due
to depletion of the resource, but a heap-leach process is now being used to treat copper-enriched
supergene ore.
2.0 SITE FACTORS
2.1 Climate
Mean annual rainfall at Charters Towers is 660 mm, with most rain occurring from November
to March. An important feature is the great variability in rainfall, from year to year and from
location to location. Much of the rainfall is typically received in high intensity storms associated
with high rates of runoff. Droughts are common. Average pan evaporation is 1,965 mm (Fig.
2). Average maximum and minimum temperatures for Charters Towers are 30 oc and 17 oc
respectively.
2.2 Geology
The Mt. Leyshon orebody is hosted in an intrusive breccia and igneous complex approximately
1.6 km in diameter. Polymetallic mineralisation (Au-Fe-Cu-Zn-Pb-Ag-Mo-Bi) is hosted in
breccias and associated intrusives. The main host to mineralisation is the MI. Leyshon breccia,
a roughly pipe-like body enveloped within the larger (predominantly barren) Main Pipe Breccia.
A second host, the Mine Porphyry, accounts for approximately 15% of the mineralisation.
67
ORR
Control of AMD Through Water Management.
ORR
c:-J
\j
o 10 20 XI raan
L..._l 1......,1 '---..1
Fig_ 1 _ Location of Mt Leyshon Gold Mine.
E
E
200
150
100
5
]111111 b L L lll L B
Jan March May July Sept Nov
Feb April June August Oct Dec
g w,J
P-efiTP
v sv
where g is acceleration due to gravity, Wv is the molecular weight of water, R is the universal
gas constant, Tis temperature, and Psv is the saturation vapour pressure at temperature T.
Heat flow is coupled with the mass transfer given by Eqn. [1] and is computed as:
C OT _ (1.. 8TJ- L ( P + (
0
8Pvl
h 81 oy ( 8y v ( P By v By)
[3]
where Chis the volumetric specific heat of the soil as a function of water content, 1.. is the thermal
conductivity of the soil as a function of water content, Lv is the latent heat of vaporisation, and
pis the total gas pressure in the air phase of the soil. The finite element solution for the coupled
system of equations is given by Joshi et al. (1993).
The upper boundary conditions for the heat and mass transfer equations are defined through
coupling with climatic conditions. Precipitation events are specified as a positive flux boundary
condition. Should this flux exceed infiltration capacity, the excess is set equal to runoff. Actual
evaporation depends on both atmospheric forcing conditions and the actual vapour pressure
at the surface of the soil cover and is determined using the modified Penman formulation proposed
by Wilson (1990) as follows:
E- 1'.0 + y.
6.+A
[4]
where E is evaporative flux, 1'. is the slope of the saturation vapour pressure versus temperature
curve at the temperature of the air, Q is net radiation, y is the psychrometric constant, and E.
is equal to f(u) e.(B- A), where f(u) is a function dependent on wind speed, surface roughness
and eddy diffusion, e. is the vapour pressure in the air above the soil surface, B is the inverse
of the relative humidity of the air, and A is the inverse of the relative humidity at the soil surface.
Temperature at the surface of the soil, T sis simultaneously defined using the relationship proposed
by Wilson (1990):
T
8
T. + (_
1
-J(O- E)
(r
where T. is the temperature of the air above the soil surface.
[5]
Equation [ 4] for computing the rate of evaporation is used for the special case of a non-vegetated
soil cover. Actual evapotranspiration is calculated by including a transpiration flux computed
using a modified form of the method proposed by Ritchie (1972). Tratch (1995) modified the
function given by Ritchie (1972) such that the potential transpiration is reduced by a plant limiting
factor if the values of matric suction in the root zone exceed 100 kPa.
In summary, the system of coupled equations listed are used in SoiiCover to compute heat and
moisture fluxes through the soil cover system on the basis of climatic parameters including
precipitation, all net radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed and vegetation
factors such as leaf area index, root density and root depth. Soil, vegetation and atmospheric
WILSON
\50
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
conditions are integrated to form a coupled soil/atmosphere continuum such that the surface
flux boundary condition for evapotranspiration depends on both climatic demand and soil suction.
The oxygen flux through the soil cover is determined on the basis of the degree of saturation
in the soil cover profile. The flux of oxygen is computed assuming that steady state conditions
exist for each day. Assuming an oxygen concentration of 21% at the surface of the cover and
zero at the base, the mass flux of oxygen, J, is determined on the basis of Fick's First Law as
follows:
J- 0 6.C
o 6.x
[6]
where Dais the coefficient of oxygen diffusion as a function of the degree of saturation, /'.C is
the change in oxygen concentration, and l'.x is the change in elevation. The coefficient of oxygen
diffusion may be measured experimentally but for this study the value was calculated as a function
of the degree of saturation using the empirical relationships developed by Millington and Shearer
(1971) and Collin and Rasmussen (i 988). The application of SoiiCover to the protective soil
cover systems at Sites I and II as well as the numerical results will be described in the next
sections.
4.0 SITE I
An extensive field instrumentation program for the protective cover system at Site I was initiated
in August 1992 as part of the research program. Instrumentation for the measurement of oxygen
profiles and temperatures within the waste rock dump was previously installed. A total of 7
oxygen probes and 1 0 temperature probes were installed at various locations and depths.
Furthermore, 14 lysimeters were installed at various locations under the protective cover as
construction of the cover proceeded. The lysimeters were installed in the waste rock at the
base of the cover to measure drainage from the cover to the underlying waste. The specific
details for this instrumentation are not included in this paper in the interest of space; however,
details for the instrumentation installed in the cover itself are described below.
4.1 Field Instrumentation and Material Properties
The instrumentation installed in the cover system consists of thermal conductivity sensors for
the in situ measurement of matric suction and temperature, neutron probe access tubes for
the in situ measurement of volumetric water content and a weather station for the measurement
of climatic conditions. Figure 2 shows the location of the main instrumentation installed at Site
I. The key features for the cover instrumentation are the weather station on the Main Dump
and the three culvert stations located on the Main Dump and Southern Tails Dump. The purpose
of this instrumentation was to measure moisture and temperature conditions in the profile of
the protective cover along with the climatic conditions which control heat and mass flow in the
soil profile. The weather station on the Main Dump is fully automated to provide continuous
measurement of precipitation, global and net radiation, air wind speed and relative
humidity. Measurements are recorded each minute and averaged to give mean hourly values.
The weather station contains a data logger which stores all records for a period of up to 3 months
at which time it is down loaded.
The three access culvert stations are installed on the top of the Main Dump (TMD), on the South
West Face (SWF) of the main dump and on the Southern Tails Dump (STD). Figure 3 shows
a cross-section for the culvert and sensor installations. Each culvert measures 0.9 min diameter
and 2m in length. The culverts extend through the protective soil cover and into the underlying
waste rock.
151
WILSON
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
. ~ \
) ) ~
.# / / - ~
,. .../ l/"' \ ... ?
LEGEND
X WS - Weather Station
TMD -Top of Main Dump Site
\
>
'ft. ....
---. (
SWF - Southwest Face of Main Dump Site
STD -Southern Tails Dump Site
0 NP-X - Neutron Probe Access Tube
-- Crest
-- 20 m Contour
-Toe
Fig. 2. Site plant showing the location of field
Instrumentation at Site I (from O'Kane 1995).
Eight thermal conductivity sensors
are installed in the cover and waste
rock materials at a distance of 0.6
m from the edge of the culvert. The
thermal conductivity sensors consist
of a 2 ern diameter porous ceramic
stone which is placed in direct
contact with the soil cover material.
The water content in the ceramic
comes to equilibrium with the pore
water pressure in the soil. When
the pore water pressure is negative,
which is almost always the case, the
water content of the stone will be
at a value of less than 100%
saturation. A small heating element
within the stone is used to generate
a heat pulse and the decay rate is
measured by a thermocouple. The
rate of cooling provides a measure
of thermal conductivity, water content
and matric suction. A calibration
curve for each sensor is determined
which allows for the measurement
and calculation of the matric suction
in the soil at the tip of the porous
stone. The thermal conductivity
sensors are connected to a data
acquisition system and continuous
readings of matric suction and soil
temperature are obtained and stored
for subsequent retrieval.
In addition to the three culvert
systems installed at Site I, 14
neutron access tubes were also
installed at various locations to
provide greater coverage for
moisture conditions of the soil cover
through the total area of the three
waste dumps. These access tubes
were pushed through the cover layer to the underlying waste rock. A neutron source was manually
inserted down the tubes to give a continuous profile of water content. A calibration curve for
each access tube was produced by retrieving small samples of the soil materials adjacent to
the walls of the tubes for the direct determination of water content. Moisture profiles were obtained
for the access tubes at various times and compared to the measurements obtained at the culvert
station in order to assess spatial performance of the cover. Some of the measurements for
matric suction, water content and temperature obtained from the culvert stations will be presented
in a subsequent section.
WILSON
152
DATA ACQUISITION
AND
SOLAR PANEL
THERMAL CONDUCTIVITY
I
I
RS
NOT TO SCALE
Fig. 3. Cross-section of the access culverts
and sensor Installations for Site I (from
O'Kane 1995).
0.26
~ 0.22
C'
8 0.18
l!l
~ 0.14
~
0.10 'l!)
.!;;
~ 0.06
0
0.02
1e2 1e4 1e6
Suction (kPa)
Fig. 4. Soil water characteristic curves for the
uncompacted till, compacted till, and
waste rock (after Swanson 1994).
153
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
The till material used to construct the
protective cover at Site I is classified as
SC-CL according to the Unified Soils
Classification System with approximately
23% cobble and gravel size, 28% sand,
40% silt and 9% clay size particles. The
till for the lower 0.5 m of the cover was
compacted to a minimum of 95% of the
saturated proctor density of 1.9 t m_, at
an optimum gravimeter water content of
approximately 14%. The same till material
was used for the upper 0.3 m of the cover;
however, this upper section was not
compacted. This effectively created a
layered cover system. The soil water
characteristic curves, SWCC, for the
compacted and non compacted tills are
shown in Fig. 4. The effect of compaction
on the SWCC relationship can be seen
in Fig. 4 with respect to an increase in
the air entry value, AEV (i.e. approximately
1 00 kPa versus 1 0 kPa), and the reduction
in the saturated water content (i.e. 0.20
versus 0.22) for the compacted till. The
SWCC used to represent the waste rock
underlying the cover is also shown in
Fig. 4. Figure 5 shows the relationship
between hydraulic conductivity and matric
suction computed for each of the materials
based on the SWCC curves in Fig. 4 using
the commercially available software
package called KCAL (Gee-Slope Int.
1993). Relationships between thermal
conductivity and specific heat capacity
versus water content were also
determined for the uncompacted till,
compacted till and waste rock using the
commercially available computer program,
TheHyProS (Tarnawski and Wagner,
1992).
The hydraulic and thermal properties
described above were used in the
computer program SoiiCover to simulated
flow through the layered system of
uncompacted till, compacted till and waste
rock. Climatic parameters obtained from
the weather station were used as input
parameters. The output from the model
simulations was then compared to
measured values obtained from the field
instrumentation.
WILSON
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
1e-04
::'
E
.g_ 1e-08
.
.2:
u
]
1e-12
.Q
1e-16 ""5
"0
f
te-20
1e0 1e2 1e4 1e6
Suction (kPa)
Fig. 5. Unsaturated hydraulic conductivity
versus matrlc suction for the cover
materials and waste rock (after Swanson
1994).
4.2 Modelling and Assessment of
Cover Performance
The TMD culvert site was selected for
the model simulations because it was
located next to the weather station_ This
area is gently sloping to flat and was
sparsely vegetated at the time. A
simulation period of approximately 150
days commencing at the beginning of
June 1993 was selected. Initial water
contents and temperature profiles through
the cover used for the transient modelling
were obtained from the culvert station
and a nearby neutron access tube.
Figure 6 shows the surface flux boundary
condition for the simulation period. The
positive fluxes represent precipitation
events measured at the weather station,
while negative fluxes are evaporation
events intermittent to periods of rainfall. The values of evaporation were computed by SoiiCover
using the Modified Penman formulations given in Eqn. [4].
Figure 6 also shows the cumulative water balance for the simulation period. The total precipitation
for the period was approximately 360 mm with runoff computed to be slightly less than 100 mm.
The actual evaporation was computed to be 290 mm which exceeded the total precipitation
less runoff. Hence, a decrease in soil moisture storage within the cover profile should have
occurred.
It should be noted that the cumulative value of AE is less than the cumulative value of PE which
exceeds 400 mm. During the initial period of June, AE was approximately equal to PE since
precipitation was adequate to keep soil moisture conditions wet. The cumulative AE fell below
the PE as the simulation continued since precipitation was not sufficient to maintain the wet
soil conditions and high evaporation. Had the values of PE been used to define the upper flux
boundary condition in the simulation, excessive soil moisture depletion would have been calculated.
"E 20
E
; 15
::J
u:: 10
(!)
5 0
rei
'I::
0
::J
(J)
- -5
CD
Z-10
June July Aug. Sept Oct.
"E 4oo
..
2.l 200
c
rei
(ij 0
m
li5 -200
-400
E
8 June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
Fig. 6. Surface flux boundary condition for Site I (after Swanson 1994).
WILSON 154
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
Figure 7 shows the computed and measured values of matric suction for a depth of 13 em and
18 em in the loose till. These shallow depths were selected for comparison because they show
the most dynamic response in suction as compared to those for the lower compacted till. It
can be seen from Fig. 7 that there is a good correlation between measured and computed values
for matric suction. The response is most significant during the drying period in September and
October where suctions increase to high values.
ro-
c
.2
0
200
()
0
.
-
1 Computed Matric Suction 1
o Measured Matric Suction
I
I 1/ /
/l v
18 em I
H 13 em I
I
/;
A
.I l_y.,
/.....-: .-/
_,a ...,.
ln. II
_,.
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. May June July Aug. Sept Oct.
Flg. 7. Measured and computed values for matrlc suction versus time at two depths In
the soli cover at Site I (after Swanson 1994).
Figure 8 shows the computed and measured values of soil temperature at depths of 13 em and
31 em in the soil profile. Good agreement between the measured and computed temperatures
is apparent.
20
::J
!
& 10
E
c;
(J)
0
a,
'b
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct. May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
Fig. 8, Measured and computed values of soil temperature within the cover system at
Site I (after Swanson 1994).
Figure 9 illustrates the effect of vegetation on the water content profile in the protective cover.
The measured and computed water contents correspond to bare and vegetated soil surfaces
at neutron access tube locations NP 1 and NP 2 near the SWF culvert station (Fig. 2). The
results plotted are for the month of September which was the most arid. It can be seen that
the water content profile corresponding to the vegetated site is the driest as one would expect.
However, it is interesting to note that the water content profile in the lower compacted till layer
remained high at approximately the saturated water content of 20%. The removal of water from
the protective cover occurred in the upper loose layer leaving the lower compacted layer saturated.
This is a positive result since the maintenance of saturated conditions in the lower section of
the cover will help minimise the diffusion of oxygen to the underlying waste rock.
155 WILSON
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
1.8
1.6
.s
c
0
"iii 1.4
>
.Jl1
w
1.2
-------
\..
.-:--
y
I I
o Sept. 30
I<> Aug. 121
r\\i' .
t. Aug. 31
..
j - Computed I
j.
[ Measured 1
J R Vegetated Cover I
H Bare Soil
I
:
:
1
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Gravimetric Water Content % Gravimetric Water Content %
Fig. 9. Measured and computed water content profiles for bare soli and areas with protective
vegetative cover at Site I (after Swanson 1994).
'"'' 1e-1
E
.s
c
CD
;g 1e-3
CD
0
0
c
0
'gj 1 e-5
:1::
0
c
CD
Ol
S( 1e-7
0 0
Fig. 10.
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Degree of Saturation
Oxygen diffusion coetflclent
versus degree of saturation
for till cover at Site I (after
Swanson 1994}.
Estimates of oxygen flux through the protective
cover at Site I were conducted with SoiiCover
based on the computed water content profiles
and Eqn. [6]. Figure 1 0 shows the relationship
between the oxygen diffusion coefficient and
the degree of saturation used for the analysis
determined on the basis of experimental data
and the Millington and Shearer (1971) method.
The oxygen concentration was assumed to
be atmospheric at the surface of the cover
and zero at the base of the cover or top of
the waste rock. Simulations were carried out
for dry, mean and wet years and were
determined on the basis of regional climate
data extending over a fifty year period from
1943. The dry, mean and wet years
corresponded to 343 mm, 549 mm and
760 mm of total annual precipitation. The flux
of water infiltrating through the cover was also
computed for the same periods. The mass
flux calculations for Site I showed that the
amount of water infiltrating through the cover
to the waste rock was < 3 mm year' for all three typical years. In other words, less than 1
%of all precipitation entered the waste rock dump. This compares to 203 mm (60%). 371 mm
(68%), and 593 mm (78%) for the dry, mean and wet years, respectively, for bare or uncovered
waste rock. Infiltration through the cover is controlled largely by the low saturated hydraulic
conductivity of 2 x 1 o-" em s' for the compacted till. Increasing this value by one order of
magnitude increased the infiltration somewhat, but in general did not increase it to values exceeding
5% of the total annual precipitation. This maximum value corresponded to the bare soil condition.
Oxygen fluxes were computed to be low for each of the dry, mean and wet years. The maximum
flux of oxygen through the protective cover occurred in the dry year and with vegetation. This
value was computed to be 0.02 kg m-' year-'. Increasing hydraulic conductivity by 1 0-fold resulted
WILSON 156
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
in a higher flux of 0.148 kg m' year'. These numbers are considerably lower than those computed
for the diffusion of oxygen into the uncovered waste rock (range 7.695 kg m' year' to 9.232
kg m' year-'). In summary, the analysis shows the oxygen fluxes to be reduced by a factor
of at least 50 and more typically in the order of 400 when the protective cover is installed. The
analyses described above indicate that the installation of the protective cover at Site I will
significantly reduce the flux of water and oxygen entering the wasle dump. It is difficult to fully
assess performance at this time since full closure with the cover has only recently been completed.
However, early trends indicate that lime quantities for the treatment of the acidic drainage have
decreased by up to 30%. Furthermore, total discharge quantities have also decreased significantly.
Fig. 11.
c
2
c
0.4
l5 0.3
Q;
0.2
.!2
Instrumentation layout
(neutron probes and erosion
troughs only) for the High
Grade Waste test plots (after
Swanson 1994).
-
"''
L Topsoil Cover}
j Waste Rock
/f
0.1
E
- Oxide Cap 1
J :::J
g
0
1e-2
Fig. 12.
1e0 1e2 1e4 1e6
Suction (kPa)
Soil water characteristic curves
for the topsoil, oxide cap, and
waste rock materials used at Site
II (after Swanson 1994}.
157
5.0 SITE II
The field instrumentation installed at Site II
was installed by the mine operator prior to the
initiation of work for the research program
described here. The instrumentation used
for this study was principally the neutron
access tube for the measurement of in situ
water content through the cover. The neutron
access tubes were installed on the level dump
top and on the test slopes which were
regraded to 2:1 and 3:1 slopes as shown in
Fig. 11. Erosion control is a potential concern
and erosion troughs were installed to monitor
soil losses. A weather station similar to that
described for Site I was also installed at a
location near the test plots.
5.1 Material Properties and Numerical
Modelling
The protective cover installed at the test
area consists of 0.6 m of topsoil over 0.6 m
of an oxide cap. The oxide cap is
essentially fully weathered waste rock with
little or no acid generating potential. The
top soil layer, as previously stated, is
comprised ol natural soil horizons which
were excavated prior to dump placement
and stockpiled for final reclamation.
Figure 12 shows the SWCC for the topsoil,
oxide cap and undertying waste rock. The
SWCC relationships for the three materials
are quite similar. The waste rock, oxide
cap and topsoil all have a relatively low
AEV ranging between approximately 1 kPa
and 3 kPa. The most significant variation
in the SWCC relationships is the slope of
the curves at values of matric suction
exceeding the AEV. The SWCC
relationship for the waste rock drops most
WILSON
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
1e-1
D Topsoil
E
!:!.-
1e-5
<> Oxide Cap
.A. Waste Ro
.c
:;;;
= u
:::>
1e-9
u
c:
0
()
.!2
1e-13
u
:t
1e-17
1e-1
Flg.13.
'
I
'
=1
"'
i
'
I
I
"
I
- --- -- ---- ---
1e1 1e3 1 e5
Matric Suction (kPa)
1e7
Unsaturated hydraulic
conductivity functions for the
topsoil, oxide cap, and waste
rock used at Site II (after
Swanson 1994).
rapidly when compared to the oxide cap
and topsoil. This suggests that the oxide
cap and topsoil have a more uniform
gradation. In general, the SWCC
relationships for the topsoil and oxide cap
appear to be a slightly modified form of
the curve for the waste rock. This is a
logical result since all materials are
basically derivatives of the same parent
rock.
Figure 13 shows the hydraulic conductivity
versus matric suction relationship for each
material calculated on the basis of the
SWCC relationships shown in Fig. 12.
These properties along with the
relationships determined tor thermal
conductivity and heat capacity versus water
content determined using TheHyProS
(Tamawski and Wagner, 1992) were used
for numerical simulations in Soi!Cover.
The section of the test cover simulated
was the level top of the dump at Neutron
Probe NP-1 (Fig. 11). This area was
vegetated, hence, transpiration fluxes were included in the analysis.
Figure 14 shows the computed surface fluxes used for the period of May 1 through mid November
of 1992. Total precipitation, most of which occurred before mid July, was approximately 225 mm.
Runoff is shown to be insignificant while actuaJ evapotranspiration is slightly higher than precipitation
and equal to approximately 230 mm. Potential evaporation for the period greatly exceeds actual
evapotranspiration (i.e. 820 mm versus 230 mm}.
>: 30
25
i 20
15
u:: 10
(])
1il 5
't:
J5 0
Q) -5
z
-10
I I .1 I I
r r
rr
-
L
1.JL
]
I I I
200 =
(])
u
c
(1j
(ij
Cil
"-
(])
-400
1 --+I -+! ...::-,m*------+PE----1--l
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
0
May June July Aug. Sept. Oct.
Flg.14.
WILSON
Calculated dally net surface flux and cumulative water balance components
for Site II In 1992 (after Swanson 1994).
158
'
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
Figure 15 shows the measured and computed water content profiles through the topsoil, oxide
cap and waste rock for the same period shown in Fig. 14. Reasonably good agreement can
be seen between the measured and computed values of water content. In both cases, the oxide
cap shows lower water contents than the topsoil above and waste rock below. This can be
attributed to the slight differences in the SWCC for each material which creates a somewhat
layered system. Little change in the water content profile occurred over the simulation period.
In general, the profiles show that progressive drying occurred during the period which is consistent
with the surface fluxes shown in Fig. 14.
Figure 15 also shows the water content profile for the test cover system to be unsaturated for
the entire period of the simulation. Comparing measured and computed water contents for each
material with the SWCC relationships shown in Fig. 12 indicates degrees of saturation ranging
between 50% and 60%. It is clear, based on this observation, that the protective cover will not
function as an effective oxygen barrier. The primary focus tor the subsequent analysis is therefore
directed towards the evaluation of the net infiltrative fluxes which will enter the waste rock through
the cover system.
3.5
3
I 2.5
c:
0
-.:;
2
(])
iii
1.5
0
Fig. 15.
-o- 8/6/92
--9/17/92
5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Volumetric Water Content Volumetric Water Content
Measured and computed water content profiles for Site II (from Swanson
1994).
Predictive modelling cases to estimate net infiltrative fluxes were carried out for the mean year
and the extreme wet and dry years with respect to total precipitation. Regional climatic records
for a period of approximately 75 years extending back to 1920 were used. The extreme dry
year (1924} had a recorded precipitation of 159 mm, while the extreme wet year (1993), also
the most recent year on record, had a total precipitation of 509 mm. The mean year (1973)
precipitation was determined to be 263 mm.
In addition to varying climatic conditions, the effect of varying the quality of vegetation and hydraulic
conductivity of the cover layers was also evaluated. Table I summarises the results of the analysis.
The base case used the material properties previously described. The good vegetation case
was the same as the base case except the root depth was extended to 80 em from 60 em and
the leaf area indices (LA!) for a poor grass stand were increased by a factor of two to represent
159 WILSON
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
a good grass stand (Schroeder et al. 1984). Simulations were also performed with the topsoil
and oxide cap layers hydraulic conductivity values increased and decreased by one order of
magnitude compared to the values used for the base case as shown in Fig. 13.
Table 1. Annual Infiltration rates to the waste rock for Site II.
Scenario
Amount (mm year-') Percent of annual precipitation
Dry year Mean year Wet year Dry Mean year Wet
159 mm 263 mm 509 mm year year
Covered: Base case Upward 0 50 0 0 10
net flux
Covered: Good vegetation Upward Upward 35 0 0 7
net flux net flux
Cover layers: High k Upward Upward 0 0 0 0
net flux net flux
Cover layers: Low k 1 3 30 6
Uncovered waste rock 12 20 80 7 7 16
Final simulations were conducted for the case of uncovered waste rock. The SWCC relationship
for the waste rock shown in Fig. 12 was used; however, the values of saturated hydraulic
conductivity shown in Fig. 13 were increased from 1 x 1 0_. em s-' to 1 x 1 o-' em s-' for suctions
less than 4 kPa. The SWCC relationship shown in Fig. 12 for the waste rock represents a relatively
fine-grained material; however, field studies have shown the waste rock to also contain coarse
materials which daylight at the surface. The hydraulic conductivity for the waste rock was therefore
increased by three orders of magnitude for the simulation in an attempt to emulate the higher
bypass permeability associated with the coarse-grain macro-pores.
Table 1 shows that the maximum infiltration into the waste rock occurred for the uncovered case
with 12 mm, 20 mm and 80 mm of infiltration entering the waste rock for the dry, mean and
wet years, respectively. These values correspond to between 7% and 16% of total precipitation.
The quantity of infiltration through the cover to the waste rock was found to be extremely small
and even negative for the cases with dry and mean year precipitation. Infiltration through the
covered systems was produced only for the wet year. Approximately 50 mm or 10% of the
total precipitation infiltrated through the base case cover. Improving the quality or density of
vegetation reduced this quantity to 35 mm. In addition, decreasing the hydraulic conductivity
of the cover layers decreased infiltration to 30 mm or 6% of the total wet year precipitation.
It is interesting to note, however, that the simulations showed that increasing the hydraulic
conductivity by one order of magnitude decreased the infiltration to zero. At first glance, this
appears erroneous. A higher hydraulic conductivity should allow infiltration to penetrate more
rapidly. However, the increase in hydraulic conductivity also enhances upward flow or exfiltration
due to evapotranspiration. Since the evaporation events extended over prolonged periods, the
increased evaporation capacity of the cover layers more than offset the increase in infiltration
rates which occurred during short precipitation events. Hence, overall net infiltration was reduced.
In summary, the numerical simulations suggest that very little infiltration will enter the waste
rock with the protective cover installed. In addition, only a moderate amount of infiltration will
enter the waste rock in an uncovered state. The mean net infiltration into the bare or open waste
rock has been computed to be 20 mm per year. This represents the average expected infiltration
into the waste rock prior to reclamation.
WILSON 160
Plate 1. Exposed benches of waste rock, Site II.
Plate 2.
Close-up of exposed waste rock, Site II.
Plate 3. Newly deposited waste rock at Site II.
161
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
5.2 Waste Rock Excavation
and Dump Assessment
Over the past several months, a
large section of the East Dump
at Site I was excavated and
moved to another location. Shear
stresses induced by the surcharge
load of the dump caused the
reactivation of a deep seated
landslide block measuring
approximately 300 hectares in
area. Approximately 15 Mt of
waste rock was removed from the
crest of the landslide area to
unload and stabilise the landslide.
The excavation of a vertical
section of the dump with a total
height of approximately 1 00 m
provided an excellent opportunity
to investigate the behaviour and
oxidation processes within the
dump.
Plate 1 shows a cross-section of
the excavated face of the waste
dump. The first three benches,
each approximately 20 m in
height, are shown. The plate
shows the profile of each bench
to be well structured. Beds
dipping at approximately 45are
apparent both in terms of colour
and gradation. This natural angle
of repose occurred during
placement by end-dumping. The
waste rock consists of
sedimentary and intrusive rocks
with disseminated pyrite and
various amounts of massive
pyrite. Oxidation rates vary with
rock type and time.
Plate 2 shows a close-up of the
oxidised waste rock which further
illustrates the coarse and fine
layering. The coarse layers are
mainly slow weathering latite,
while the fine-textured soils are
highly oxidised shale. In contrast,
Plate 3 shows the condition of
fresh waste rock at the time of
WILSON
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
placement. This material appears to be relatively uniform in terms of appearance and particle
size (i.e. rock and cobble). Examination of the exposed benches indicates that the unoxidised
or fresh waste rock weathers to the condition shown in Plates 1 and 2 within a few years.
Construction of the dump began in 1983 with the oldest sections of the dump located in lifts
below those shown in Plates 1 and 2.
A field research program was initiated in October of 1994 to obtain field measurements and
in situ samples of the waste rock. A total of thirty test pits were excavated. Samples of the
individual layers as well as in situ measurements for water content, temperature, matric suction
and relative humidity were obtained. Testing for the samples returned to the laboratory will
be carried out for grainsize distribution, hydraulic conductivity, SWCC and paste pH. This work
is currently in progress, and the results and analysis will be published at a later date; however,
preliminary observations will be discussed here.
All of the waste rock encountered in the test pits and exposed bench faces was found to be
unsaturated. Coarse layers were fully drained while the upper 20 m of the fine layers in the
waste rock were moist with volumetric water contents ranging between 9% and 23% (degree
of saturation ranging between 30% and 75%). This is in strong contrast to the waste rock
encountered at greater depths which was found to be dry with volumetric water contents ranging
between 0.4% and 5%. Dust control problems were frequently encountered during excavation
due to these lower water contents.
Temperatures up to 65 ac were measured in the upper 20m of the waste rock where the water
contents were high, whereas temperatures in the lower dry regions ranged between 15 ac and
25 ac. Numerous vents were observed at the surface of the exposed waste rock. It is believed
that the vapour from these vents originates in the upper 20 m of the waste rock. Excavation
of the vent areas typically showed that a coarse layer of rock was the predominant pathway
tor vapour migration.
In general, the field observations made during the excavation of the waste rock indicate that
seepage is not occurring at the base of the dump. The lower 80 m of the dump was found to
be dry and inactive. The upper 20 m of the waste rock was moist but remained unsaturated.
This moisture may in part be attributed to infiltration through the uncovered surface of the waste
rock. However, it is reported that freshly blasted waste rock can have a high water content.
In any case, the upper most zone remains unsaturated. The principle vertical pathway for the
infiltrating water is the fine layers of waste rock which have the ability to retain water under negative
pore water pressures. The coarse layers are fully drained and appear to serve only as pathways
tor the transfer of water vapour and oxygen.
The reason for the dry condition of the dump at depth has not yet been fully explained. One
possible explanation may be that the water has been previously evacuated through vents when
in situ temperatures were at elevated levels during active oxidation. Active oxidation is apparent
in the upper moist region where steam vents are clearly a mechanism for the discharge of water
to the atmosphere. Furthermore, water is a reactant in the oxidation of pyrite and is therefore
consumed. Numerical modelling for the operative heat and mass transfer processes and
geochemical reactions active in the dump have not been carried out at this time. Subsequent
modelling will be a valuable tool to help explain field observations.
6.0 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Field instrumentation, monitoring and numerical modelling tor protective cover systems installed
over waste rock at two sites has been completed. Covers may be installed to restrict oxygen
WIL.SON
162
Protective Covers and Dump Behaviour.
fluxes and/or water fluxes to the waste rock. Results of the research to date show that a fine-
grained cover material can be successfully used in a humid environment to significantly reduce
both liquid water and oxygen fluxes to the underlying waste rock. The analysis shows that liquid
water fluxes were reduced to between 1% and 5% from approximately 70% with the protective
cover installed at Site I. Furthermore, oxygen fluxes were computed to be reduced by a factor
of up to 400 with the addition of the saturated cover. Designing a cover system to function as
an oxygen barrier at an arid site is not an option. However, the protective cover installed at
Site II appears to be functioning as a barrier to infiltration. The analysis indicates that the protective
cover will prevent infiltration for all but the extreme wet years.
The excavation of the waste rock at Site II shows that acidic drainage is not occurring from the
base of the waste rock dump. Numerical analyses predict relatively low rates of infiltration into
the uncovered waste rock equal to approximately 20 mm per year. The upper 20 m section
of the dump is moist but dry conditions prevail at depth. The heat and mass transfer processes
within the dump are strongly controlled by the interbedded structure of the dump. Numerical
analyses for the transfer processes in the dump must be carried out to help explain field
observations.
7.0 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
All of the field instrumentation, laboratory testing and numerical modelling work for this research
program was performed by Mr. Greg Herasymuik, Mr. Michael 0' Kane and Mr. Darren Swanson
as part of their research towards a Master of Science Degree. In addition, supervision of their
work was supported by Professors Lee Barbour and Del Fredlund who are co-investigators for
this research project. Ms Brenda Bews helped with editing and preparation of the manuscript.
Financial support for the research program was provided by Placer Dome Inc. and the Natural
Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. Mr. Mike Aziz and Mr. Troy Smith
of Placer Dome gave valuable field support and access to historical data. Mr. Keith Ferguson
initiated the research program and provided technical and logistical support. The completion
of this work would not have been possible without the contributions of these individuals and
agencies and their assistance is gratefully acknowledged.
8.0 REFERENCES
Collin, M., and Rasmussen, A. (1988). Comparison of Gas Diffusivity Models for Unsaturated
Porous Media. Soil Science Society of America Journal 52, 1559-1565.
GEO-SLOPE International Ltd. (1993). SEEP!W User's Manual. Calgary, Alberta, Canada.
Joshi, B., Barbour, S.L., Krause, A.E., and Wilson, G.W. (1993). A Finite Element Model for
the Coupled Flow of Heat and Moisture in Soils Under Atmospheric Forcing. Rnite Elements
in Analysis and Design - The International Journal of Applied Finite Elements and Computer
Aided Engineering 15, 57-68.
MEND (1993). SoiiCover User's Manual for Evaporative Flux Model. University of Saskatchewan,
Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Millington, R.J., and Shearer, R.C. (1971 ). Diffusion in Aggregated Porous Media. Soil Science
111 372-378.
O'Kane, M. (1994). Instrumentation and Monitoring of Engineered Soil Covers for Acid Generating
Mine Waste. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan,
Canada.
Ritchie, J.T. (1972). Model for Predicting Evaporation from a Row Crop with Incomplete Cover.
Water Resources Research 8, 1204-1213.
Schroeder, P.R., Morgan, J.M., Walski, T.M., and Gibson, A. C. (1984). Hydrological Evaluation
of Landfill Performance (HELP) Model, Volume I. User's Guide for Version I, International
163 WILSON
II
Protective Covers and Dump Behavtour.
Ground Water Modelling Center.
Swanson, D.A. (1994 ). Predictive Modelling of Moisture Movement in Engineered Soil Covers
for Acid Generating Mine Waste. M.Sc. Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Saskatchewan, Canada.
Tamawski, V. R., and Wagner, B. (1992). A new Computerized Approach to Estimating the Thermal
Properties of Unfrozen Soils. Canadian Geotechnical Joumal29, 714- 720.
Tratch, D. (1995). Moisture Uptake Within the Root Zone. M.Sc. Thesis, University of
Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Wilson, G.W., Fredlund, D.G., and Barbour, S.L. (1994). Coupled Soil-Atmosphere Modelling
for Soil Evaporation. Canadian Geotechnical Journal31, 151-161.
Wilson, G.W. (1990). Soil Evaporative Fluxes for Geotechnical Engineering Problems. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
Yanful, E.K., Bell, A.V., and Woyshner, M.R. (1993). Design of a composite soil cover for an
experimental waste rock pile near Newcastle, New Brunswick, Canada. Canadian
Geotechnical Journal30, 578-587.
WILSON
164
Second Australian ACid Mine Oramage Workshop (Eds. N J. Grundon and L.C. Bell), pp. 165-177
FINANCIAL AND LONG TERM LIABILITY ASSOCIATED WITH AMD
G.S.C. MurrayA, K.D. Ferguson
8
and C.H. Brehautc
APiacer Pacific Limited, G.P.O. Box 4315, Sydney, NSW 2001.
8
Piacer Dome Canada Ltd, P.O. Box 49305 Bentall Station Vancouver, Canada V7X1 P1.
cPiacer Dome Inc, P.O. Box 350, Toronto-Dominion, Ontario, Canada M5K 1 N3.
ABSTRACT
Acid drainage (AMO or ARD) can have significant long term and financial implications for mining
companies and, in some cases, the community through abandoned minesites. Recent examples
highlighting the scale and nature of these implications are presented. This potential liability
and, in most instances, a 'fear ofthe unknown' has resulted in the demand by regulatory agencies
for overly conservative control strategies and significant performance bonds in an attempt to
provide assurances that any acid drainage problems can be managed, regardless of the risk.
Acid drainage predictions usually focus on assessing the probability that samples and waste
units will generate contaminated leachate. The rate of acid generation, migration potential and
possible consequences of acid drainage are usually considered in far less detail. Such analyses
are deficient and do not fully assess the risk of acid drainage. Examples of the application of
risk assessment techniques to acid drainage for all phases of mine development from exploration
through to mine closure are discussed. These risk assessment tools need to be applied more
consistently by operators and regulators to facilitate effective decision making at all stages of
a mining project.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Environmental legacies associated with acid drainage, or Acid Rock Drainage (ARD) as it is
referred to by Placer Dome Inc. (PDI), at abandoned mine sites in North America have attracted
considerable media attention over the last few years. High profile 'disasters' such as Summitville
in Colorado have resulted in a public demand for more stringent government regulations and
standards with rehabilitation bonds (security deposits) based on actual site liabilities. As a result
of this adverse publicity and political pressure, regulators are now seeking overly conservative
ARD control strategies and performance bonds. However, the mining industry has been unable
to defend itself against these demands due to a lack of proven performance and successful
decommissioning of ARD sites. The trend is also for governments not to relinquish leases if
there is any doubt over the long term integrity of the rehabilitation strategy implemented, or to
request the establishment of reclamation trust funds to provide for the ongoing operation and
maintenance of ARD control strategies.
To date, assessments of the potential for ARD often focus primarily on the probability that the
waste will generate acid conditions. The migration potential is not usually considered in detail,
and the possible consequences of ARD release are examined only in broad terms. Such
assessments do not fully consider the risk of ARD. The consequences of ARD release depend
upon the nature of the ARD (strength and volume), the assimilative capacity of the receiving
environment, and the proximity and value of aquatic resources. In short not all impacts are
equal.
This paper discusses the significant long term and financial implications associated with ARD,
in two parts. Recent North American examples highlighting the scale and nature of these
implications are presented along with details of the Equity Silver mine where a reclamation trust
165 MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
Liabilities Associated with AMO.
lund has been established. The second part of the paper addresses the application of risk
assessment techniques to ARD for all phases of mine development from exploration through
mine closure. These risk assessment tools provide the opportunity lor more effective decision
making by operators and regulators and more realistic estimates of actual ARD liabilities.
2.0 ARD LIABILITY ESTIMATES AND PROVISIONS
To indicate the scale and nature of the potential liabilities associated with ARD, some examples
of the estimated rehabilitation costs for North American abandoned sites and operating mines
are presented. Recent examples of the impact of these liabilities on the provision of performance
bonds are also discussed, with particular reference to the requirement for reclamation trust funds.
However, it should be noted that the major ARD liabilities in North America are associated with
the control of off-site impacts (e.g. water treatment prior to discharge).
2.1 Financial ARD Liabilities
In the USA, no estimate of the total liability attributable to existing and potential ARD problems
in the mining industry has been published. However, the MEND (Mine Environment Neutral
Drainage) program in Canada has estimated an ARD liability lor Canada's mining industry in
excess of CDN$5,000 million (Feasby and Jones 1994). This liability estimate has been the
main impetus behind Canada's co-operative approach (government and industry) in addressing
the ARD issue.
2.1.1 North American examples
The Summitville abandoned mine in Colorado has been declared a Superfund site by the US
EPA who estimated the total rehabilitation liability to be in excess of US$100 million. The US
EPA has taken over management of the site in order to minimise the off-site impacts associated
with ARD and are reportedly spending in the order of US$50,000 per day on containment and
treatment alone. The US mining industry has also contributed to the funding of studies to fully
define the problem and develop remedial strategies lor the site.
Similarly, Leadville in Colorado has been declared a Superfund site due to ARD impacts associated
with over a century of mining in the area. The State of Colorado estimated the clean-up costs
for Leadville to be in the order of US$290 million in 1986. Current lease holders in the area
are contributing to the control of ARD having spent US$27 million on a water treatment plant
and US$8.75 million on government response costs in 1993. In this case, some responsibility
for historic problems has been assumed by current operators in the area.
Sulfate contamination of groundwater at a large operation in Utah has attracted the attention
of US regulators who estimate the liability to be in the range US$500 million to US$1 ,200 million.
The operator of the mine is currently spending some US$35 million a year addressing the problem,
while the US EPA wants to declare it a Superfund site. The company believes it can ameliorate
the problem over time; however, should it be declared a Superfund site, it would be the first
operating mine in the USA to fall into this category. The result would be the company funding
the US EPA to manage the problem.
2.2 ARD Liability Provisions
As discussed previously, the potential liabilities associated with ARD have resulted in regulators
seeking financial assurances that rehabilitation strategies will be effective. Examples of the nature
and form of these securities follow.
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
166
liabilities Associated with AMD.
2.2.1 Performance bonds
At the Golden Sunlight mine in Montana USA, operated by POl, a progressive pertormance
bond of US$41 million is required by the State of Montana, the US Bureau of Land Management
and the US Bureau of Mines. As at the end of 1994, some $30 million had been provided to
the government as required by a pre-determined schedule. While Golden Sunlight is a relatively
dry site (evaporation exceeds precipitation), concerns regarding the scale of the waste dumps
and the potential for ARD have resulted in the demand for this substantial performance bond.
Field trials are being conducted in an attempt to demonstrate the adequacy of the proposed
strategy and thus reduce the security required.
The Equity Silver mine in British Columbia, Canada, also operated by PDI, was required to lodge
a reclamation bond of CDN$5.5 million, while modified waste dump rehabilitation strategy was
being implemented to ensure that these works were carried out. A post-reclamation trust lund
was also required and is discussed in the next section. Total reclamation expenditure on waste
dump rehabilitation including resloping and installation of a compacted clay layer following the
cessation of mining in early 1994 amounted to approximately CDN$12.5 million. The BC
government has released the security as the success of the waste dump rehabilitation strategy
is subject to the provision of the reclamation trust fund.
2.2.2 Reclamation trust fund
In 1981, the Equity Silver mine in BC detected ARD being produced by the waste rock dump
with associated downstream impacts. A program involving the collection of drainage from the
waste dumps was implemented and a water treatment plant constructed. The treatment plant
neutralises the ARD with lime which also precipitates the dissolved metals prior to discharging
the excess water to the environment.
Reviews of Equity Silver's proposed decommissioning plan between 1988 and 1990 highlighted
the long term requirement for treatment of ARD as the most significant issue yet to be resolved.
At the time of these reviews, lime demand and environmental operating expenditure were escalating
at a significant rate. Discussions regarding a long term reclamation bond were also proceeding
at this time and became more critical as the cessation of operations approached. It was soon
evident that no progress was being made in establishing long term trends and the potential cost
liability to the company.
In early 1991, a technical committee was formed to identify and resolve outstanding differences
between the groups. The mandate of the committee was to arrive at an unbiased probability
distribution of the expected long term post-closure operating costs. The committee was comprised
of representatives from Equity Silver, the Ministry of Environment, the Ministry of Mines and
an independent consultant who acted as a facilitator for the committee. Two specific rehabilitation
strategies were considered; the first employing the existing waste dump rehabilitation approach
of an uncompacted cover and the other involving dump resloping and placement of a 0.5 m
compacted clay layer under the cover.
This latter option had been tested over a 16 hectare site on the waste dump during 1990 which
suggested this strategy could significantly reduce treatment costs. Where the existing cover
design reduced infiltration to 40% of precipitation, the compacted clay layer reduced infiltration
to 5% although 1 0% was assumed for cost estimates. Models were used to predict ARD quantities
and qualities over time and thus lime consumption. Post-closure reclamation bond requirements
were calculated as the net present value ( 1 993 Canadian dollars) of annual operating costs
for a 100 year period using a 3% discount rate.
167 MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
Liabilities Associated with AMD.
The post-closure reclamation bond estimates are presented in Table 1 lor a range of cases.
The reclamation bond size required varied from a low of CDN$22.8 million for the compacted
clay layer to a maximum of CDN$56.6 million should no additional rehabilitation work be undertaken.
On the basis of these estimates, it was concluded that a cover strategy incorporating a compacted
clay layer would significantly reduce the annual volumes of ARD generated and ultimately treatment
costs which would reduce the final reclamation bond required. On the merit of this work, the
BC Government requested a reclamation trust fund of CON $32 million be provided by Equity
Silver and commit to the compacted clay layer strategy for all waste dumps.
Equity Silver Mines Limited negotiated conditions associated with the reclamation trust fund
to enable the size of the fund to be reduced over time as the annual operating expenditure
decreases. The trust fund is only required to produce sufficient income to cover the annual
cost of operating and maintain the collection and treatment facilities. The lime demand to date
has peaked and is expected to reduce substantially now that installation of the clay layer and
waste dump rehabilitation have been completed. While this reclamation trust fund has been
implemented to address the ARD liability associated with the site, Equity Silver cannot relinquish
their liability (or responsibility) for the site.
Table 1. Reclamation Trust Fund estimates for equity silver.
Parameter Estimated Reclamation Bond Requirements (CDN$M)
Minimum Most Likely Maximum
Existing cover strategy
(40% Infiltration}
- Fixed costs
13.2 13.2 13.2
- Variable costs
4.1 4.1 4.1
-Lime costs
16.9 25.2 39.3
Total Cost
34.2 42.5 56.6
Clay Layer Strategy
(10% Infiltration}
- Fixed costs
13.2 13.2 13.2
- Variable costs
1.2 1.2 1.2
- Lime costs
8.4 11.5 17.7
Total Cost
22.8 25.9 32.1
The concept of reclamation trust funds is also being considered elsewhere for operations with
long term ARD liabilities. The Ontario Provincial Government is apparently proposing a post-closure
security for an operation in Ontario where significant ARD problems exist. In this case, a security
in the order of CDN$100 million has been suggested, although the justification for a bond of
this size is unknown. The tax liability of reclamation trust funds has recently been addressed
by a parliamentary committee in Canada involving submissions from the mining industry who
are proposing they be treated like retirement savings plans (superannuation funds) where tax
on income is deferred.
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT 168
Liabilities Associated with AMD.
3.0 RISK ASSESSMENT TECHNIQUES AND APPLICATIONS
Evaluating and accepting risk is a necessary part of deciding to acquire or proceed with any
new mining project. Risk can be defined as the product of three questions:
(1} What can go wrong?
(2) How likely is it to go wrong?
(3} What are the consequences if it goes wrong?
Mathematically, risk is often defined as the probability of an event occurring multiplied by its
potential consequences. The result may be modified through the development of contingency
plans. In the context of ARD assessments, the above three questions could be interpreted as:
(1} Could ARD generation occur?
(2) What is the probability of ARD generation?
(3} What are the consequences of ARD generation?
The first question relates to possible sources of ARD, including ore and low grade stockpiles,
underground and pit walls, waste rock dumps, heap leach pads, tailing residues, road cuts, and
borrow pits. If a prevention strategy has been defined for the project, the possible failure modes
of the strategy may be examined in detail through a risk assessment. The probability of ARD
is usually examined in a geochemical testing program, e.g. acid/base accounting (ABA) and
kinetic testing. The ABA results are often compared with criteria, or the researcher may use
experience to estimate the probability of ARD generation.
ARO is not necessarily a concern if it does not migrate from the waste emplacement. This is
relevant in very arid climates or when materials with significant acid neutralisation capacity are
down gradient of the ARO generating material. Therefore, the probability of ARD generation
needs to consider both the capacity of the material to generate acidic or metal contaminated
drainage and the potential of any contaminated drainage to migrate from the waste emplacement
(consequences}.
Several methods of risk assessment are available that may be applicable to more completely
assess the risk of ARD. These include ranking schemes, pointscoring schemes, potential problem
analysis, failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA), fault and event trees, consequence evaluations,
modelling, and quantitative probabilistic analysis.
Simple qualitative risk assessments have been used by mining companies and regulatory agencies,
either intentionally or unintentionally, in assessing mining plans. The more sophisTicated techniques
have been used infrequently. FMEA was used for the assessment of two mining projects in
British Columbia (Pelletier and Dushnisky 1993; Van Zyl and Bamberg 1992}. Some techniques
being developed by POl and their applications are discussed in the following sections.
3.1 ARD Category Visualisation
As discussed by Murray et al. (1995}, in a paper presented at this workshop, POl have adopted
the NP/AP ratio as a screening criteria to access the risk of ARD from the data generated by
the predictive static tests (acid-base accounting). The distribution of samples within the different
NP/AP categories (ratio ranges} can be presented graphically to highlight the relative risk. However,
it should be noted that this approach does not take into account the potential consequences
of ARO generation and therefore should be applied within its limitations.
The NP/AP ratio may be considered a "safety factor" as used in other engineering analyses.
169
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
Liabilities Associalsd with AMD.
Higher safety factors are probably required for mines in wet environments where neutralising
(caibonate) minerals may be preferentially leached from the wastes relative to the rate of oxidation
of sulfide minerals. This is particularly relevant to waste rock materials where any samples
with a NP/AP ratio < 3 are usually subjected to further (kinetic) testing to assess the relative
reaction rates of the different constituents. A less conservative approach can usually be applied
to tailing materials as they are finer grained and more homogeneous than waste rock.
3.2 Issue Ranking Matrix
When evaluating new projects lor possible acquisition or development, relatively little information
is usually available to assess the risk of ARD. A simple approach is therefore required and
Fig. 1 presents an issue ranking matrix which has been developed by POl for this use. The
probability of ARD and parameter migration potential are ranked according to subjective low,
medium, and high ratings. The risk is categorised from 1 to 4 and can be modified by one level
depending upon the degree of environmental sensitivity (consequences).
Migration Potential
Low
Medium
High
Add one level for high environmental sensitivity
NOTES Deduct one level for low environmental sensitivity
Fig. 1. Issue ranking matrix for ARD potential.
The probability may be defined by; observation of ARD from existing facilities or outcrop seeps,
the presence of massive sulfides or carbonates in core, or the availability of mineralogical and
geochemical data. The parameter migration potential reflects climatic conditions, possible isolation
of sources (e.g. dry mine walls), or limited quantities of wastes (e.g. small waste rock dumps
in underground operations). Because the analysis is entirely subjective, the information and
assumptions used are generally explained in supporting documentation for future reference.
Also, the matrix can be re-evaluated and updated as more information becomes available, and
can be used for illustrating the relative differences between sites.
3.3 Fault Trees and Event Trees
The concept of examining possible 'faults' and resulting 'events' are integral parts of designing
a mine but have rarely been applied in a rigorous manner to ARD assessments. Fault trees
are typically used to identify all the mechanisms by which an undesirable event could occur.
The undesirable event is identified at the top of the tree, and all the subordinate events occur
in the lower tree structure. The technique is well suited to examining the probable success
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
170
Liabilities Associatad with AMD.
Failure of Flooded Tailing Impoundment
Fig. 2. Fault tree for failure of flooded tailing Impoundment.
of an ARD prevention plan. Figure 2 presents a fault tree for a plan to flood a tailing impoundment
to prevent ARD formation. Probabilities can be assigned to each event, the total probability
of failure calculated which identifies the most likely failure mode.
Event trees are used to examine the consequences of an initiating event in detail. For example
Fig. 3 examines the effect of an excessive storm causing an environmental release from a tailing
impoundment. The loading of contaminants could be estimated and possible impacts on the
environment determined based on the presence or absence of aquatic resources. These forms
of risk assessments can also be used to identify those potential events where contingency measures
are required.
Fish Not Present
'>J ? Fish Present
~
Fish Not Present
Excessive Storm
Fig. 3. Event tree for off-site release due to excessive storm.
171 MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
Liabilities Associated with AMD.
3.4
Consequence Evaluation
Simple models can also be constructed to examine the consequences of ARD release. For
example, in some cases, the natural environment may have a significant capacity to assimilate
ARD. While this should not be relied on to control ARD, an evaluation of the possible consequences
may help to focus effort. An example of a POl application of consequence evaluation follows.
An open pit mine was proposed in an area of very high rainfall (> 4 m) with large streams containing
high alkalinity (both as dissolved bicarbonate and as calcite in sediments). In order to assess
whether ARD from the waste rock dump and open pit could cause a pH depression or problems
with heavy metal concentrations in the river downstream, a simple model was developed of
the following assumptions:
(1) The pH in the river may fall if the total alkalinity reaches zero;
(2} The total alkalinity is zero when the acidity load equals the alkalinity load;
(3} Acidity and alkalinity behave as conservative water quality parameters; and
(4) The open pit and waste rock dump would not generate ARD concurrently.
The critical acidity of the ARD from the waste rock dump and open pit was back-calculated using
a simple mass balance equation and average monthly flows.
( Fd X Ad} - (Fu X A)
As ~ ---=---
Fs
[1]
where; A.= acidity (negative alkalinity) of ARD (mg L-')
Fd =flow in river downstream of source (L sec-')
Ad = alkalinity in river downstream of source (assumed in this case to be 0 mg L-')
F" =flow in river upstream of source (L sec-')
Au= alkalinity in river upstream of source (mg L-')
F.= flow of acid water from sources (L sec')
Results indicated that the maximum acidity of the waste rock dump ARD that could be assimilated
by the receiving streams without a pH depression ranged from 1 ,600 mg L-' to 6,500 mg L-'
(as CaC0
3
}. Since ARD from other acid generating waste rock dumps of equivalent size around
the world has acidity concentration at these levels, it was concluded that, ARD generated by
the dump could be of concern. The dilution of ARD by the river ranged from ratios of 18:1 to
73:1 which are considered to be relatively low values, so the river could also be sensitive to
significant dissolved metal concentrations in any ARD.
The maximum acidity that could be tolerated from the open pit ranged from 5,500 mg L-' to
22,000 mg L-' (as CaC0
3
); which are relatively high values and unlikely to be realised in the
field unless the pitwall rock is extremely reactive. The dilution of pitwater by the river ranged
from ratios of 63:1 to 251 :1. Therefore, ARD from the pit is not as likely to cause a downstream
metal problem as drainage from the waste rock dump; hence the assessment and prevention
of ARD from the pit assumes a lower priority.
3.5 Probability Analysis
In quantitative analysis, a single discrete number in most instances does not adequately describe
risk as inputs to the assessment are uncertain. Probability analysis may assist in more fully
describing the actual risk. Probability analysis has been applied by Annandale and Chantler
(1992) to a mine site water and contaminant balance in order to estimate the probability of achieving
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT 172
L1abil<ties Associated with AMD.
water quality parameters. The following case illustrates an application to estimate only the
probability of ARD.
For one particular mine, PDI assessed the probability that mass-weighted and surface-area-weighted
net neutralisation potential (NNP) for a waste rock dump would achieve selected criteria. The
analysis involved three steps; first, probability distribution functions were fitted to the NP and
AP datasets for each of five rock types with log-normal distributions providing the best fit. Second,
a spreadsheet model was constructed to combine the synthesised NNP distributions according
to the mass and the surface area of each rock type into single distributions for the entire waste
rock dump. One rock type was extremely friable and slaked to a much finer particle size than
the other four types and therefore had a greater contribution to the surface area weighted NNP.
Third, the distributions were sampled using a latin hypercube stratified sampling method to construct
the weighted NNP distributions.
The probability of the entire dump achieving selected criteria could then be determined directly
from the probability distributions. For example, the probability of the mixed waste rock dump
achieving a mass and surface area weighted NPP value less than zero (potentially acid generating)
were about 7% and 30%, respectively. However, criteria should not be the sole basis on which
predictions are made and the shape of the probability distribution functions also indicate the
range, central tendency, and moments of the data. In the case described here, the analysis
showed that the friable rock type caused a disproportionate increase in the acid generating potential
of the waste dump. Special material handling plans (subaqueous disposal) were developed
to address the higher potential for ARD from this material.
3.6 Modelling Consequences of ARD
Even where waste has an intrinsic capacity to generate ARD, acid drainage may not be generated
by the waste emplacement if sufficient neutralising minerals are present in the flow path. This
may be particularly relevant to tailing impoundments where carbonate minerals can occur in
the natural materials underlying the impoundment. Examples where modelling of ARD
consequences has been applied by PDI are outlined below.
The tailing residue contained an average of about 3.5% sulfur as pyrrhotite and pyrite and about
7% carbonate as calcite. Kinetic tests indicated the sulfide minerals were amenable to oxidation
and that in the long term, acid generation would occur if sufficient oxygen were present to support
oxidation. However, the phreatic surface (watertable) remained high in the deposited tailing
(maintaining a saturated state) and may limit the depth and degree of oxidation.
The model WATAIL (Scharer et al. 1993) was used to study the effect of various depths of the
phreatic surface on acid generation in the tailing. The model was applied to four separate areas
(nodes) of the impoundment. For node 1 the phreatic surface was assumed to be 4 m below
the surface; for node 2 it was assumed to be 2m and for nodes 3 and 4, 1 m below the surface.
Essentially the model examined the possible drawdown of the phreatic surface near one of the
impoundment walls.
The total depth of the tailing deposit was assumed to be 5 m for all nodes and the model simulated
100 years of oxidation and seepage. The generation of acid seepage did not occur for nodes
2 to 4 but was predicted to occur in 55 years for node 1 (Fig. 4). Even though the model indicated
acid seepage would not occur for some nodes, migration of those metals mobile at an alkaline
to neutral pH, such as zinc and cadmium, may still occur. Based on this analysis, it was decided
to increase the depth of tailing in the lower portion of the impoundment and to raise the phreatic
surface by constructing a water-retaining dam.
173 MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
Liabilities Associated with AMD.
8.0
7.0
,
~
6.0
c:
::s -Nodel
:z: 5.0
.e:
--o-- Node2
:z:
4.0 c.
--+-- Node3
3.0
------Node 4
_)
2.0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Years In Simulation
Fig. 4. Predicted pH In seepage based on model simulation.
In a second example, a simple model was constructed to predict the sulfate and metal
concentrations in drainage from a waste rock dump where potentially acid-generating rock was
to be placed on top of a dump because of the mining sequence. A geochemical rather than
oxygen-limiting model was used since the quantity of potentially acid generating rock was small
and exhibited a low intrinsic oxidation rate in kinetic tests; calculations also indicated oxygen
was not limited, given the depth and reactivity of the material.
Results from a series of seven field kinetic (barrel) tests were used to determine oxidation rates
(sulfate and metal production rates). A mean sulfate production rate was normalised to the
percentage sulfur in the sample and the number of days between leachate sampling. The
normalised rate of sulfate production was found to occur over a fairly narrow range (highest
value two to three times the lowest value). An exponential decay rate was applied (time
0
5
)
to account for the build up of coatings during long dry periods and the resulting decrease in
sulfate production. To estimate metal concentrations, zinc, copper, and cadmium were correlated
with sulfate for the field kinetic data with correlations considered adequate for this level of modelling.
Figure 5 presents the data for zinc, where relationships were established for three ranges: high,
medium, and low reactivity based on sulfate production.
The model was run to predict sulfate and metal concentrations in drainage from the waste rock
dump based on recorded precipitation during the period July 1992 to October 1993 which was
the duration of the field kinetic tests. The drainage from each type of waste (high, medium,
and low reactivity and no acid generation) was weighted according to the possible tonnage and
surface area of the dump. The drainage was then diluted by the receiving water according to
simple ratios of catchment areas. The model predictions for zinc are presented in Fig. 6 which
indicates that high concentrations of zinc may occur. While the model was very simple, the
results produced are adequate for assessing the potential risk on which management decisions
can be based. As the results of this exercise indicated that zinc concentrations could be significant
in the receiving environment, a system for the identification and selective handling of problematic
ARD material was developed. An evaluation of contingency strategies was also conducted to
develop a plan should monitoring of receiving water indicate a need for mitigative measures.
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT 174
Liabilities Associated with AMD.
I . H3 +CP120 * CP121 CP122 X CP123 + CP124 ... CP12i]
1 , 0 0 0 ~ - - - - -
...
.------
c
.Q
(i1
I..
c
; Cll
(.)
c
0.1L_:
8 :
(.)
c
N
X
LOW REACTIVITY
+ + + +
0.001 L.,_ ____ _L_ _____ __L ____ ___jL__ __ ....J
10 100 1,000 10,000
Sulphate Concentration
Fig. 5. Correlation between zinc and sulfate concentrations In lyslmeter leachates.
4.0 CONCLUSION
The formal application of risk assessment to environmental analysis in mining is relatively new.
The assessment need not be complex to provide a useful insight into the probability and
consequences of ARD and the need or level of mitigative measures. Risk assessment techniques
such as those discussed above show much promise for analysis of ARD problems, particularly
since the assessment of ARD remains an inexact science. Some possible applications of risk
assessment techniques to the various phases of mine development are shown in Table 2. These
tools are applicable to both operators and regulators of mines.
With the increasing application of these risk assessment techniques, more rational decisions
in mine design, approval, and operation should be possible. This approach will assist in reducing
the financial and long term liability associated with ARD, and the need for overly conservative
performance bonds and reclamation trust funds. The development of case studies where potential
ARD problems are prevented through good management practices is needed to promote confidence
amongst the regulators and public, alike.
175
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
Liabilities Associated with AMD.
40
'a; 35
.s 30
c
.S!
co
25
....
20
'E
Q)
0
15
c:
0
(.)
10
0
c:
5
N
0
Jul-92 Oct-92 Jan-93
May-93 Aug-93 Nov-93
Model Output Date
Fig. 6. Predicted zinc concentration by model simulation.
Table 2. Possible application of selected risk assessment techniques to ARD.
Risk assessment Project phases
technique
Operators Operators/Regulators
Acquisition Pre- Feasibility/ Operation Closure
feasibility Design
Ranking Matrix
Category
Visualisation
Fault/Event Trees -
Consequence
++
Evaluation
Probability - -
Analysis
Modelling - -
~
probably not applicable
+ possibly applicable
+ possibly applicable but may not have sufficient definition
very applicable
4.0 REFERENCES
Annandale, G.W., and Chantler, A.G. (1992). Uncertainty in planning ARD control measures:
Risk modelling and interpretation. In 'Risk AssessmenVManagement Issues in the
Environmental Planning of Mines'. (Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration,
MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT 176
Liabilities Associated with AMO.
Inc.: Littleton, Colorado.)
Feasby, G., and Jones, R.K. (1994). Report of results of a workshop on mine reclamation, Toronto,
Ontario, March 10-11, 1994, Ottawa. (CAN MET and Mining Sector: Natural Resources
Canada.)
Murray, G.S.C., Robertson, J.D., and Ferguson, K.D. (1995). Defining the AMD problem. 1.
A corporate perspective. In 'Proceedings of the Second Australian Workshop on Acid
Mine Drainage, Charters Towers, Queensland, 28-31 March 1995'. (Eds. N.J. Grunden
and L.C. Bell). pp. 3-15. (Australian Centre for Minesite Rehabilitation Research: Brisbane,
Australia.)
Pelletier, C.A., and Dushnisky, K. (1993). Qualitative environmental risk assessment applied
to the proposed Windy Craggy Project. Proceedings of the Seventeenth Annual British
Columbia Mine Reclamation Symposium, May 4 to 7, 1993, Port Hardy, B.C.
Scharer, J.M., Annabele, W.K., and Nicholson, R.V. (1993). WATAIL 1.0 User's Manual: A Tailing
Basin Model to Evaluate Transient Water Quality of Acid Mine Drainage. (Falconbridge
Ltd. and MEND Ontario, Institute of Groundwater Research: University of Waterloo,
Waterloo, Ontario.)
Van Zyl, D., and Bamberg, S. (1992). Qualitative environmental risk assessment for mine
development. In 'Risk Assessment/Management Issues in the Environmental Planning
of Mines'. (Society for Mining, Metallurgy, and Exploration, Inc.: Littleton, Colorado.)
177 MURRAY, FERGUSON & BREHAUT
178
Second Australian Acid Mine Dra1nage Workshop (Eds N.J. Grundon and L.C. Ball), pp. 179-190
ASSESSMENT OF THE RUM JUNGLE STRATEGY
FOR ACID MINE DRAINAGE CONTROL
J.W. BennettA and M.D. Lawton
9
AEnvironmental Science Program, Australian Nuclear Science and Technology
Organisation, PMB 1, Menai, NSW 2234.
"Water Resources Division, Power and Water Authority, G.P.O. Box 1096, Darwin, NT 0801.
ABSTRACT
By the time it was abandoned in 1971, the Rum Jungle copper and uranium mine site was a
major source of acid mine drainage, impacting regional river and groundwater systems.
Rehabilitation works were carried out from 1983 to 1986 and monitoring from 1986 to 1993
demonstrated that rehabilitation had been successful in terms of the original design criteria.
The Commonwealth Government has subsequently funded a five--year research program to
enable generic information to be obtained about the effectiveness of the various acid mine
drainage control measures adopted at the site. The work aims to quantify key processes,
including oxygen fluxes through the covers on the waste rock dumps, pollution generation rates
in the dumps, chemica/loads from the dumps, and pollution transport mechanisms through and
from the site, including through the water-filled open-cuts. The program also includes the
monitoring of water chemistry in the East Finniss and Finniss Rivers downstream of the site
and a study of the use of biological indicators to quantify the ecological impact of the chemical
pollution on downstream receiving waters. The further five-year period provides the
opportunity to monitor the long-term integrity of the engineered earthworks on the site and the
viability of the revegetation.
1.0 BACKGROUND
Ore treatment at the Rum Jungle uranium and copper mine began in 1954 and continued until
shutdown in 1971. Pollution of the Finniss River system by the mining and milling operations
had become apparent in the 1960's. As well as direct contamination by the uncontained
release of tailings and process effluent, there was also overflow and seepage of polluted water
from the open-cuts and surface and groundwater pollution by drainage from the waste rock
dumps and a heap leach pile.
The major environmental impact of the site was a consequence of the production of acid and
heavy metal salts by the process of acid mine drainage occurring in the sulfidic materials. The
three largest waste rock dumps were estimated to contain between 0.9% and 3% sulfur, mainly
as pyrite. Table 1 presents a summary of results of an extensive environmental survey carried
out in 1973-7 4 to quantify the annual release of heavy metals from each of the sources at the
mine site (Davy 1975). The location of these entities is shown in Fig. 1. The characteristics
of the waste rock dumps at this time are given in Table 2.
The 1973-74 survey also found that pollutant releases affected aquatic species in the river
system, with an almost complete absence of flora and fauna species for 8.5 km down the East
Finniss River, to the confluence with the Finniss River, and a reduced biodiversity in the
Finniss River evident for at least a further 15 km.
179
BENNETT & LAWTON
Rum Jungle Strategy for AMD ControL
Table 1. Annual release of heavy metals from each source at the Rum Jungle site
(1973-74).
Source Annual release (tonnes)
Copper heap leach pile
White's waste rock dump
White's open-cut
Intermediate waste rock dump
Intermediate open-cut
Dyson's waste rock dump
Dyson's open-cut
Tailings area
Old acid dam
Total
BORROW
AREA 1 /
\ .
\
-/;.3<,
ij/ '
'<' /)
~ / 60RAOWAREA6
~
. : ~ J ,..,..
Cu
32-42
29-53
8
16-30
3
0.2
1
5
-
95-142
'-y
\
I
Fig. 1. Rum Jungle mine site plan prior to rehabilitation.
BENNETT & LAWTON
180
Mn Zn
11-19 17-31
30
2.5-4.5 13-25
3 0.3
5
3
3.5
12
70-80 30-56
'
i
I'
'
~
N
I
0 500 1000m
SCALE
Table 2. Characteristics of waste rock dumps
before rehabilitation.
Parameter White's Intermediate Dyson's
Area (ha) 26 6.9 8.4
Volume (m
3
) 4x10
6
0.8x10
6
1.2x10
6
Mass (Mt) 8 1.6 2.3
Sulfur (g kg-') 32.7 30.6
Copper (g kg-') 0.86 2.0
2.0 REHABILITATION WORKS
Rum Jungle Strategy for AM 0 Control.
Furthermore, 100 km
2
of the
Finniss River floodplain were
affected to some extent by
heavy metal contamination.
The Davy report (Davey 1975)
made it clear that the waste rock
dumps were likely to remain
sources of pollution in the long
term, and proposed that the site
be rehabilitated.
In 1980 the Commonwealth Government made the decision to rehabilitate Rum Jungle, with
the Northern Territory Government to carry out the work. A detailed engineering report was
completed in 1982 and a Memorandum of Agreement was signed in 1983 by the
Commonwealth and the Northern Territory for the work to proceed. The objectives of the
rehabilitation works, as defined in the Agreement, were to achieve:
(1) A major reduction in pollution in water courses feeding the East Branch of the
Finniss River and in particular the reduction of the average annual releases of
copper, zinc and manganese in that river by 70%, 70% and 56% respectively,
as measured at the junction of that river with the Finniss River, in comparison to
the loads anticipated on the basis of the 1969-74 monitoring data;
(2) A reduction in public health hazards and in particular reduction of radiation levels
at the site at least to the standards set out in the Code of Practice on Radiation
Protection in the Mining and Milling of Radioactive Ores published by the
Australian Government Publishing Service in 1980;
(3) A reduction of pollution in the water contained in the open-cuts known as White's
and Intermediate; and
(4) Aesthetic improvements including revegetation.
The principal features of the rehabilitated program which was implemented between 1983 and
1986 are summarised below:
(1) White's, Intermediate and Dyson's waste rock dumps were reshaped, covers with
low hydraulic conductivity were constructed, drainage was constructed and the
dumps were revegetated. White's North dump was moved to the base of White's
dump before the latter was rehabilitated. The area originally occupied by White's
North waste rock dump was limed, covered with topsoil and revegetated;
(2) Tailings from the tailings dam and the low grade copper ore from the copper
heap leach pile were moved and placed in Dyson's open-cut. Ail three areas
were then covered, installed with drainage and revegetated;
(3) Water in White's and Intermediate open-cuts was treated using a water treatment
181
BENNETT & LAWTON
Rum Jungle Strategy for AMD Control.
plant based on a hydroxide precipitation process and then the East Branch of the
Finniss River was diverted through the open-cuts. The resultant precipitate was
buried on site; and
(4) Stream beds were cleaned up and the area was generally cleaned up.
The rehabilitation program has been fully documented by Allen and Verhoeven (1986). The
total cost of the work in 1986 dollars was $18.6 million; component costs are summarised in
Table 3. It is interesting to note that the cost of rehabilitating the waste rock dumps was some
$68,500 ha-
1
, including reshaping of the dumps before covering.
Table 3. Cost of components of
rehabilitation work.
Component Expenditure
1986 $(Aust)
Copper heap leach pile/tailings 3,685,925
dam/Dyson's open cut
Waste rock dumps 2,826,997
Open cut water treatment 6,234,221
Other areas 904,720
Management 4,666,040
Monitoring 322,346
Total 18,640,249
3.0 MONITORING TO 1993
Monitoring was recognised at the time
of the original agreement as being
important in demonstrating the
effectiveness of the rehabilitation
engineering works and was
incorporated as an integral part of the
program. There has been continuous
monitoring of a range of parameters
since 1986, and in a few cases the
monitoring was begun well before
rehabilitation started.
Statutory responsibility for the
management of the site passed to the
Conservation Commission of the
Northern Territory (CCNT) and the
monitoring program has been coordinated through the Rum Jungle Monitoring Committee,
chaired by a representative of the CCNT.
Through the Monitoring Committee, the Power and Water Authority (PAWA) of the Northern
Territory has been responsible for monitoring the surface water quality and hydrology in
waterways on the site, in the open-cuts and in the Finn iss River system, the Australian Nuclear
Science and Technology Organisation (ANSTO) (formerly the Australian Atomic Energy
Commission) has monitored chemical activity and water balance in the waste rock dumps,
groundwater hydrology and the ecology of receiving waters, and the CCNT has been
responsible for site maintenance and revegetation.
A report produced by the CCNT (Kraatz and Applegate 1992) described the results of
monitoring from 1986 to 1988. Another report covering monitoring from 1989 to 1993 is in the
final stages of preparation. What follows in this section is a summary of conclusions and
recommendations from the monitoring carried out to 1993.
3.1 Chemical Activity and Water Balance of the Overburden Heaps
Collection lysimeters were used to measure water infiltration through the covers on White's and
Intermediate waste rock dump. Infiltration through White's cover remained fairly steady since
the cover was completed in 1984, the average over the period 1988-1993 having been 2.2%
of incident rainfall, compared with 2.1% from 1984 to 1988. These figures are well below the
BENNETT & l.AWTON
182
Rum Jungle Strategy for AMD Control.
specified design value of 5%. The interpretation of data from Intermediate dump has been
made difficult due to the progressive failure of a number of lysimeters due to incorrect
installation, but it is most likely that the cover has continued to perform to specification.
Temperature measurements have indicated that both White's and Intermediate dumps
continued to cool since rehabilitation. In the five years to 1993 the maximum temperature at
the base of each dump had fallen by about 4 oc to around 34 C, with the rate of decrease
slowing with time as the temperatures approach lower values. This cooling is qualitatively
consistent with the oxidation rate having been greatly reduced by the rehabilitated works.
Measured pore gas oxygen profiles have shown generally lower concentrations since
rehabilitation. This is consistent with the covers acting to limit the rate of transport of oxygen
into the dumps and hence to limit the oxidation and pollution generation rates. In Intermediate
the concentration contours have not shown much variation with time of day or season,
indicating that the transport of oxygen into the dump has been controlled by diffusion and that
the diffusion coefficient of the cover remained fairly constant.
In White's dump the oxygen contours were more dynamic, with data indicating that there was
a greater penetration of oxygen into the dump in the dry season. It seems likely that the effect
is related to moisture content changes in the cover, such that as the cover dries after the end
of the wet season the gas-filled porosity increases, leading to higher gas diffusion coefficients
and a consequent increase in oxygen flux through the cover. This suggests that the cover
system on White's may not have been as effective in limiting the ingress of oxygen as it could
have been.
3.2 Groundwater Hydrology
Based on mathematical modelling of water and pollutant transport through waste rock dumps,
there would be a timescale of about 20 years for leaching soluble contaminants already
generated in White's dump before rehabilitation to the groundwater system. There has been
a measured decrease in rainfall infiltration through the dump due to the cover system, so over
a period of about 20 years the pollutant load leaving the dump could be expected to decline.
Such a decrease in pollutant load would represent a transient phase arising from the slow
response time of the system, but eventually a new equilibrium would be reached in which the
average load equals the pollution production rate. In the long term, any decline in the pollutant
load as a result of covering the dump must depend on a reduction in the pyritic oxidation rate
in the dump.
This picture is supported by field measurements which have shown that the concentration of
pollutants in the vicinity of White's dump did not change significantly in the five years to 1993.
The observations could alternatively be explained, however, by the presence of a large
reservoir of polluted water below the dump, which would respond only slowly to changes in
pollutant input rates.
3.3 Water Quality and Mixing Regimes of the Open,Cuts
The flooded White's open-cut was only about 50 m deep at mine closure, with a surface
diameter of approximately 360 m. Intermediate open-cut, although of similar 50 m depth, was
significantly smaller in volume with an approximate surface diameter of 210m to 270m.
Detailed physico-chemical measurements of the water column in both White's and Intermediate
open-cut water bodies were made prior to rehabilitation. These profiles have continued to be
183 BENNETT & LAWTON
Rum Jungle Strategy for AM D Control.
measured as an important element of the monitoring program since rehabilitation. Data from
the profiles have allowed the initial water treatment process to be closely monitored and the
effectiveness of the annual flushing of the open-cuts during the wet season flows to be
determined (Kraatz and Applegate 1992). With speculation concerning the source of pollutants
leaving the open-cuts and their contribution to the overall pollutant loads from the mine site,
a more detailed and systematic monitoring program was implemented in March 1992.
In White's, the initial water treatment in 1985 provided a lower density treated water layer of
20 m depth overlying the denser, untreated and highly polluted lower waters. A transitional
mixing layer was rapidly established and became a feature of the water column. Subsequent
flushing over six wet seasons resulted in the lower density surface layer deepening to about
27 m by mid 1993 and the transitional zone being almost totally eroded.
In 1993 White's had a reservoir of pollutants at depth, with copper concentrations of 60 mg L-'
in an acidic matrix, whereas Intermediate and minimal acidity throughout the profile and copper
concentrations decreased in the dense anoxic water below the pycnocline. Although the mixed
upper layer in Intermediate contained heavy metals, this pollution was a function, in part at
least, of the overflow water quality from White's which, in turn, depended on the degree of
flushing the water bodies received from wet season flow from the upper East Finniss River.
Temperature and conductivity profiles during inflow clearly demonstrated the influence of
vertical turbulence to depths of almost 30 m, well below the expected depth (Allen and
Verhoeven, 1986).
Measurements have shown that almost all the copper in White's above 32 m AHD can be
transported to the East Finniss River during a wet season, and that this can contribute around
half of the total annual copper load being carried from the site. During the following dry
season, prevailing dry south-easterly air flow, coupled with cooler conditions, can provide
conditions conducive to mixing of the White's water body to a depth of some 27 m. This
mixing is a mechanism whereby pollutants from the dense, heavily polluted waters can move
to the upper surface mixed layer. Diffusion from the lower waters and/or pyritic oxidation by
oxygenated surface waters on the mineralised walls of the pit have been found to be
insignificant mechanisms for pollutant transport.
3.4 Water Quality and Surface Hydrology
The principal aim of the work was to quantify loads of heavy metals at a point 5.6 km
downstream of the site on the East Branch of the Finniss River to check that the designed
reductions had been achieved. Further studies of water quality and surface hydrology on the
site and downstream of it were also undertaken to describe the pollutant transport mechanisms
and pathways.
Data on water quality and hydrology in the East Finniss was collected at gauging stations
GS8150097 (5.6 km downstream of the site) and GS8150200 (at the site boundary) (Fig. 2).
Data was also collected from a survey of waters downstream of the mine site along the East
Branch. Apart from the open-cuts, collection of data from within the mine site was largely
curtailed after 1988 and was halted completely after 1991. The results of the studies are
summarised below.
3.4.1 East Finniss River
Annual metal and sulfate loads leaving the mine site were calculated from data collected at
gauging station GS8150097. These results, together with historical data, are presented in
BENNETT & LAWTON
184
'1.' 1\_
'\..' "\ \{_/,." '
. " (
GS 1150097
\--I---
I _,fl.,... -.
'- I '
q
0 , lo;m
'--- J I
I
I
I
I
I
I-
I',
--1,
I''
\\
\'.
;' I /
.... ' 1.'
.v 1-
/ .,
I
'
Rum Jungle Strategy for AMD Control.
LEGEND
GS 11S0200 r- GAl,IG.ti() STATIOH
STAUL!
/
I
0
. '
,,_ .
, "
.I o ...
- ,_
Fig. 2. Location of gauging stations on the East Flnnlss River.
Table 4. They indicate that the rehabilitation has been successful in achieving the required
reduction In metal loads. As expected though, pollution continues to be discharged from the
site.
Concentrations of copper, manganese and zinc in the East Branch immediately below the mine
site were measured in 1993 to be two to three orders of magnitude above those measured at
control sites upstream of the site and were generally much higher than recommended for
drinking water and for the protection of freshwater ecosystem. Metal concentrations declined
with distance downstream of the mine site.
3.4.2 1991/92 Cumulative heavy metal loads at GS8150097 and GS8150200
In 1991/92 flow-weighted composite samples were collected at gauging stations GS8150200
and GS8150097 to check that loads at GS8150097 provided good measures of the pollution
loads leaving the mine site and that heavy metals were not precipitating along the 5.6 km of
river between the two stations.
Good agreement was found between the stations for the copper and zinc loads. In the case
of manganese and sulfate, however, there was an increase in the loads (from 6.5 I to 8.9 t Mn
and from 9,160 t to 12,600 t S0
4
). No surface flows were found to be entering the river
between the two stations but it has been suggested that groundwater flow discharging into the
East Branch through springs provides the additional source of manganese and sulfate.
Such groundwater discharge could be an important hydrological factor in determining the water
chemistry of recessional flows and residual water holes in this section of the river.
185
BENNETT & LAWTON
Rum Jungle Strategy ior AMD Control.
Table 4. Historical load data (tonnes) from GSB150097 together with a record of flow
and rainfall.
-----
Year Flow Rainfall Copper Zinc Manganese Sulfate
(x10
6
m
3
) (mm) total total total
--------
1969/70 '7 896 44 46 3300
1970/71 33 1611 77 24 110 12000
1971/72 31 1542 77 24 84 6600
1972/73 22 1545 67 22 n 5500
1973/74 69 2000 106 30 87 13000
1982/83 9.5 1121 23 5 6 1520
1983/84 48 1704 28 9 21 3600
1984/85 11.7 1136 9.1 4.1 '7.2 1600
1985/86 11.4 1185 3.7 2.7 8.2 4400
1986/87 13.2 1222 5.6 2.7 8.6 2870
1987/88 6.3 1064 3.2 2 5.4 1230
1988/89 35 1600 5.4 4.4 19.2 3940
1989/90 3.1 900 1.8 1.6 3.9 760
1990/91 40.5 1590 14.9 7.4 30.5 4000
1991/92 7.1 1002 3.8 2.7 9.1 1260
1992/93 29.9 1421 11.9 3.9 24.7 2696
3.5 Macro-Invertebrate Ecology of Receiving Waters
In 1993 a survey of macro-invertebrates in the East Branch of the Finniss River repeated and
extended an earlier survey carried out in 1973/74.
Macro-invertebrate fauna was stili less diverse and less abundant in the lower reach of the
East Branch compared with control sites. Nevertheless, the total number of macro-invertebrate
families found in the East Branch were found to have increased in comparison with the pre-
remedial survey, indicating some recovery.
3.6 Site Maintenance and Revegetation
Overall, the covers have remained intact and have required minimal attention although die-
back has occurred on the infilled Dyson's open-cut.
Pasture remains vigorous on revegetated areas despite the cessation of regular fertilisation
and some impact from wildfire. Weed invasion is a significant problem and consumes more
resources than originally envisaged.
BENNETT & LAWTON
186
Rum Jungle Strategy for AMD Control.
Despite fencing and declaration as a Restricted Use Area, site security remains a problem and
has implications for the future monitoring program.
4.0 RESEARCH PROGRAM 1993 TO 1998
Following a recommendation early in 1993 from the Rum Jungle Monitoring Committee, an
agreement was signed between the Commonwealth and Northern Territory Governments for
a further five years of monitoring and maintenance. The research was to be carried out by the
same Territory and Commonwealth agencies as before.
The primary objective of the further work was to ensure that the goals set in the rehabilitated
program continue to be met in the medium to long term. In addition though, it had been
recognised that the understanding of many aspects of acid mine drainage had improved since
the rehabilitation scheme had been designed, particularly with respect to rate control and
transport mechanisms, and that an expanded program of study was warranted. There was an
appreciation of the importance of the Rum Jungle site as a national facility, offering a unique
opportunity to provide generic information to the mining industry on the effectiveness of various
acid mine drainage control measures and monitoring techniques.
A particular aim of the current 1993/98 program is to quantify many of the key parameters and
processes involved in the generation and transport of pollutants at the site. The main activities
included in the program, with total Commonwealth funding of $1.13 million, are listed below:
( 1) To quantify the effectiveness of the covers on White's and Intermediate waste
rock dumps;
(2) To quantify the pollution loads flowing from the base of the dumps;
(3) To quantify the pollution loads from Dyson's waste rock dump and assess the
effectiveness of its limited cover system if it is found to be a significant source;
(4) To quantify the time dependent loads of pollutants flowing from White's and
Intermediate open-cuts to the East Finniss River;
(5) To measure the water and sediment quality in the Finniss River system
downstream of the site; and
(6) To quantify the ecological impact in the river system of pollutants from the site.
A description of the broad components of the program is given in the following sections.
4.1 Effectiveness of Cover Systems
Since the primary objective of the rehabilitation of the waste rock dumps was to reduce the
pollution loads generated in them, the effectiveness of the cover systems should be assessed
by quantifying oxidation rates in these dumps, since these rates determine the pollution
generation rates and represent the source of pollutants on site.
Two approaches will be taken to determine oxidation rates. The first will be to analyse
measured temperature profiles to determine the heat source distribution giving rise to the
profiles and relate that to the heat generated in the oxidation reaction. The second will be to
analyse measured pore gas oxygen concentration profiles and use measured oxygen transport
properftes of the covers and bulk material to estimate the oxygen consumption rates.
4.2 Pollution Loads from Waste Rock Dumps
The current monitoring program aims to quantify pollution loads entering the groundwater
187
BENNETT & LAWTON
Rum Jungle Strategy for AMD Control.
system from the waste rock dumps and to determine the relative contribution of each dump
to the total load in the East Finniss River. These loads will be correlated with estimates of
past and present pollution generation rates in the dumps (described above), making
allowances for transport timescales determined from measured water infiltration rates, to test
the understanding of these processes in waste rock dumps.
It is intended that the following projects will be undertaken initially to achieve these aims and
to address a number of issues which arose from the previous monitoring (Section 3.2):
4.3
(1) make measurements of any stratification in the groundwater below and around
the waste rock dumps;
(2) attempt to use geophysical methods to establish the size and position of any
plumes of polluted water from the dumps;
(3) estimate the velocity of water in these plumes, possibly taking stratification into
account; and
(4) install field equipment to allow loads from the waste rock dumps to be monitored
in the long term.
Pollution Loads from Open-Cuts
Conjecture concerning the pollution regime within the open-cut precinct was aired in several
reports detailing the results of monitoring from 1986 to 1991. The PAWA Water Resources
Division has embarked upon a reinvigorated program of sampling and analysis of data to
define the wet season flushing mechanisms of the open-cut water bodies.
The program includes monthly profiling using a Hydroiab Surveyor II multi-parameter probe
(measuring depth, pH, temperature, conductivity, dissolved oxygen and ORP) coupled with a
submersible pump and discharge hose to the surface which allows for collection of samples
for chemical analysis, including analysis of heavy metals.
In addition, gauging stations have been installed at the inflow to White's open-cut and at the
outflow from Intermediate. These stations will allow pollutant loads entering and leaving the
open-cuts to be determined and to be reconciled with estimates made from analysis of the
open-cut profile data. A re-examination of the surrounding bore monitoring data including
levels and water quality will be made to establish the degree of interaction between the
groundwater and open-cut surface waters.
4.4 Water and Sediment Quality in the Finniss River
Hydrographic and water quality data will continue to be collected at gauging station
GS8150097 on the East Finniss River for the duration of the program. This will ensure
continuity of data for annual load estimates of the specified pollutants to be generated and for
the temporal distribution of pollutant concentrations to be charted. Gauging at GS8150200,
just downstream of the rehabilitated mine site, will be discontinued after wet season 1994/95.
An assessment of load estimate variations between GS8150097 and GS8150200 over the
period from 1991/92 to 1994/95 will be made.
In conjunction with the ANSTO biological impacts studies (see Section 4.5 below). water
quality surveys of residual flows in the East Finn iss will be made in April/May of each year to
assess the impact of low dilution seepages from the mine site on water chemistry and to
examine the possibility of contaminated groundwater discharging off-site to the East Finniss
River. A gauging station has also been reinstated on the Finniss River (GS8150204),
BENNETT & LAWTON
188
Rum Jungle Strategy for AMD Control.
downstream of the East Finniss confluence, to collect hydrologic and water quality data for the
biological impact studies in that reach of the Finniss River system.
4.5 River Ecology and Biomonitoring
There has been an increasing awareness of the role which biological monitoring can play in
establishing the impact on the environment of activities such as mining and in assessing the
effectiveness of any rehabilitation measures implemented.
The two projects outlined below will be undertaken in this monitoring period to provide
quantitative measures of the degree of ecological recovery that has taken place in the Finniss
River system since the Rum Jungle rehabilitation.
4.5.1 Macro-Invertebrate survey of the Finniss River
A study in the Finniss River system will investigate the annual cycles of the diversity and
abundance of benthic macro-invertebrates in relation to water chemistry. The study will identify
the time in the annual cycle when detriment takes place, as well as those water chemistries
that are responsible. This information may be used to predict the degree of further recovery
that could be expected following any further reductions in annual pollution loads.
4.5.2 Archival monitoring of metal levels in the Finniss River
it has been found recently that laminations in the shells of freshwater mussels can provide a
record of historical water concentrations of a variety of metals, including copper, zinc and
manganese. More significantly, they record the bio-available fraction of these metals, being
most relevant to the assessment of the toxicity of these metals.
Shells of the mussel Velesunio angasi will be collected from the Finn iss River and analysed
to obtain a record of changing concentrations of heavy metals in the river over the past three
or four decades (being the lifespan of the mussel). This offers the possibility of charting the
rate of improvement in the river following rehabilitation of the mine site.
4.6 Integrity of Earthworks and Vegetation
Monitoring work will continue in the development of an appropriate long-term strategy for
vegetation on the site. The structural integrity of earthworks on the site will also be closely
monitored.
Further studies will be carried out to determine the cause of an area of die-back on the
landform over Dyson's open-cut and to suggest possible remediation approaches.
Site security for the protection of the rehabilitation works remains a problem and will be
addressed in this period.
5.0 CONCLUSIONS
Monitoring at the Rum Jungle site to 1993 had the primary aim of testing the effectiveness of
the rehabilitation works in terms of the original design criteria and these were found to have
been met.
The current research program has the principal aim of quantifying pollution generation rates,
189
BENNETT & LAWTON
Rum .Jungle Strategy for AMO Control.
pollutant loads and transport mechanisms in, through and from the various entities on the site.
It is expected that the measurement techniques and improved understanding of mechanisms
and processes developed in this work, in conjunction with the biological monitoring studies and
monitoring of the continued viability of vegetation and landform stability, will provide information
of value to the broader mining industry in dealing with problems of acid mine drainage.
6.0
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We wish to acknowledge our colleagues on the Rum Jungle Monitoring Committee and within
the participating agencies, whose work we have freely drawn upon.
7.0 REFERENCES
Allen, C.G., and Verhoeven, T.J. (1986). The Rum Jungle rehabilitation project, final report.
Northern Territory Department of Mines and Energy for the Commonwealth
Department of Resources and Energy.
Davy, D.R. (1975). Rum Jungle environmental studies. Australian Atomic Energy Commission,
AAEC/E365.
Kraatz, M., and Applegate, R.J. (Eds) (1992). The Rum Jungle rehabilitation project
monitoring report 1986-88. CCNT Technical report number 51.
BENNETT & LAWTON
190
Second Austrahan Ac1d M1ne Drainage {Eds. N.J. Grundon and L.C. Bell), pp_ 191-192
SUMMARY OF GROUP DISCUSSION SESSION
Objectives of Session
The objectives of this 2-hour session were to identify future technology transfer and research
needs in the area of acid mine drainage.
Although it was originally the intention to have small group discussions with reporting back to
a plenary session, the consensus of the group was to stay together for the whole of this session.
The major areas identified for future attention were:
1. Research Needs
Assessment of the National Extent of AMD and the Associated Liability
Document the extent of the problem in the context of mining type and climatic zone.
Acid-generating Processes In Waste Rock Dumps and Tailings
Clarify effects of such factors as oxygen, temperature, water, salts and bacteria on intrinsic
oxidation rate of sulfides.
Identify relationship between pollution loads exiting system and oxidation rate.
Determine effect of waste rock dump characteristics (sulfide content, particle size
distribution, bulk density, preferred flow paths, water balance, geochemistry) and time
on pollution loads.
Identify minimum set of parameters of waste rock dump or tailings which need to be
measured so that processes can be monitored.
Calibrate Laboratory Methods against Field Performance
Oxidation kinetics.
Neutralisation kinetics.
Effectiveness of Dry Covers/Barriers
Need to assess performance of covers over time in different climates.
Identify instrumentation required to assess cover performance (lysimeters, water
content/potential).
Determine effect of vegetation on cover efficiency (cover protection, water balance, root
penetration, oxygen consumption, differential effects of grasses, shrubs and trees).
Role of Models
Determine their role in prediction of AMD and long-term performance evaluation.
2.
Technology Transfer Needs
Future Workshop
The next AMD Workshop should be held in the Northern Territory in June 1997 soon
after the Fourth International Conference on Acid Rock Drainage in Canada (30 May
6 June 1997).
191