What Methods of Quality Control are used in Friction Welding?

Frequently Asked Questions

Most production friction welding applications employ 'in-process' monitoring of the major welding conditions as a Quality Control Method which for continuous drive rotary friction welding include: -

Rotation speed Friction force Axial displacement (shortening of the two components) Forge force A machine shut down facility or alarm system can be operated by the monitoring system if incorrect welding conditions are indicated, thus avoiding poor weld quality. However, not only are the welding conditions monitored but, Quality Control starts with the raw materials to be joined and the following should be checked:

Chemical analysis Microstructures Strength and hardness Dimensions, tolerances As supplied condition Following these checks the dimensions of the component are measured for compliance with the specification, and the surfaces are cleaned for welding. The tooling or clamping fixtures holding the components to be welded should also be checked for:

Accuracy of alignment Excessive clamping forces Permitted overhang from the fixture A welding procedure (in accordance with BSEN ISO 15620:2000) is usually agreed between contractor and customer, which will usually involve most of the aforementioned topics. Weld procedure approval usually requires that destructive testing be undertaken after the production of an agreed number of welds. In the event of failure during bend or tensile tests then preceding samples will also be tested until the source of failure is isolated. Ultrasonic testing has been applied to friction welded components and techniques are being developed which are said to be capable of detecting non-welded regions.

Published Papers The future of fracture assessment Low Power Laser Surfi-Sculpt Wet welding repairs (May 2006) Moving contact arc welding (March 1998) Fabricating LNG carriers (September 2006) Friction stir welding of aluminium alloys Developments in A-TIG welding (March 1998) Welding aluminium by laser (November 1996) Welding of titanium alloy risers (May 2000)

Fatigue Life Prediction in Welded Structures Validation of CIVA software (September 2005) The early days of laser cutting (August 2007) Advanced hybrid joining technology (June 2009) Sound field modelling using SimulUS (May 2008) The new age of pipeline inspection (July 2007) Avoiding PWHT - Can it be justified? (May 2005) Friction stir welding developments (April 2002) Performance of weldments in advanced 9%Cr steel Laser welding for plastic components (May 2002) Viewpoint - Value and Quality [robotic welding] Advanced joining techniques for the 21st century Digital Radiography - Is It for You? (July 2004) Mechanical testing of plastics welds (Sept 2002) Welding fume - Do you know your WEL? (July 2006) Welding technologies for polymers and composites Transmission laser welding of plastics (May 2002) TWI: Corrosion, welds and pipelines. (March 1999) A review of plastic welding processes (March 2005) Advances in rail inspection technology (June 2005) Material selection for supercritical CO2 transport Modelling of adhesively bonded joints (April 2001) Resistance welding - state of the art (March 2003) Computerising your welding information (April 2001) Reliable technical failure investigation (May 2005) Bonding plastics? Stuck for a solution? (April 2006) BS 7910: History and future developments COMELD - An innovation in composite to metal joining Creating a stir in the rail industry Evaluation of CrackFirst fatigue sensors Friction stir welding of aluminium ships (June 2007) Hybrid joining - the best of both worlds (Sept 2002) Laser welding of thermoplastic materials (June 2001) Predicting adhesive joint life-times (February 2002) Recent Developments in Welding Technology (May 2006) The Medical Devices Faraday Partnership Adhesive joining of metallic materials (October 1999) R-Curve Modelling with Constraint Effect? (July 2009) Welded aerospace structures pass the test Friction stir welding of magnesium alloys (March 2003) Friction welding of aero engine components Shielding gases for arc welding and cutting (May 2001) Sustained load cracking in titanium alloys (July 2003) Validating the integrity for re-use of a land pipeline A competitive advantage through innovation (March 2001) European-sponsored NDT Research at TWI Ltd Modelling the radiography of thick-section welds (1999) Review of rail axle inspection methods (September 2003) Tandem MIG welding for improved productivity (May 2001) Industrial lasers and applications in automotive welding Innovation in Materials Joining Technologies (July 2006) Laser welding automotive steel and aluminium Structural integrity methods, where next? (October 2002) Fatigue design rules for welded structures (January 2000) Friction stir welding - tool developments (February 2001) Friction Stir Welding in Series Production (October 2004) The SINTAP fracture toughness estimation procedure (2000) Welding engineering knowledge on the Internet (July 2001) Foresight - Future trends in materials joining (June 2001) Resistance spot welding of high strength steels (May 2003) Emerging technologies for ceramic joining. (September 1998) Friction based welding technology for aluminium (July 2002)

Friction stir welding of steel - a feasibility study (1999) J-fracture toughness of polymers at slow speed (March 2001) Modelling guided waves in complex structures - Part 1: Rail Pressure vessel corrosion damage assessment (November 2005) Some developments in the joining of light alloys (Nov.2001) Transition joints between dissimilar materials (April 2006) TWI: Corrosion, welds and pipelines - An update (July 2000) Dual-rotation Stir Welding - Preliminary trials (April 2004) Friction stir welding of titanium alloys - A progress update Hybrid laser/GMA welding of new land pipelines (August 2003) Advanced joining processes for repair in nuclear power plants Glob top materials to chip on board components Hydroprocessing reactor integrity: The basics (November 2004) The application of ultrasound to refine weld metal structures The potential of high power lasers in nuclear decommissioning The use of power beams in surface modification (January 2007) Adaptively Controlled High Brightness Laser-Arc Hybrid Welding Canister sealing for high level waste encapsulation (May 2001) Four decades of electron beam development at TWI (August 2006) Novel Techniques for Corner Joints Using Friction Stir Welding The feasibility of friction stir welding steel (February 1999) Weld modeling of thin structures with VFT software (July 2004) A review of the concept of mildly sour environments (June 1998) Environmental Lining Systems - Raising the Standards (May 2001) Novel technologies for repair and refurbishment (November 2006) Rotary friction welding of an Fe3Al based ODS alloy (July 2000) Sustained load cracking of titanium alloy weldments (June 2005) Taking fabrication management into the 21st century (June 2006) The laser alternative....to nuclear decommissioning The weldability of vanadium-microalloyed steels (November 2000) Advances in welded creep resistant 9-12%Cr steels (October 2007) Fatigue life prediction for toe ground welded joints (July 2009) Material selection requirements for civil structures (July 2003) Demonstration of in-situ weld repair to a FPSO hull (August 2004) Developments in fusion welding of stainless steels (January 1994) Optimisation of resources for managing competing risks (May 2009) The reliability of radiography of thick section welds (July 1999) Welding and testing of thermoplastics tanks and pipes (June 2006) Corrosion of welded components in marine environments (April 2003) In the beginning ... [the history of laser cutting] (October 2002) In-line reciprocating friction stir welding of plastics (May 2007) Innovation and the Medical Devices Faraday Partnership (June 2005) Laser diode based vision system for viewing arc welding (May 2009) The effect of low H2S concentrations on welded steels (March 2000) ADIMEW Test: Assessment of a cracked dissimilar metal weld assembly Friction stir welding - process variants - an update (October 2007) Laser welding of low-porosity aerospace aluminium alloy Recent trends in the implementation of EN 729 (ISO 3834) - May 2001 Reliability of manually applied phased array inspection (June 2009) Risk based optimisation of inspection planning in ships (June 2010) Silsesquioxanes - Tailored multifunctional oligomers (October 2007) The importance of welding quality in ship construction (March 2009) The phased array inspection of friction stir welded aluminium plant Validation of arc welding equipment - revision of BS7570 (May 2001) Virtual fabrication technology (VFT) and shipbuilding Bringing aerospace welding specifications up to standard EB welding of large components without a vacuum chamber (April 2007) Fatigue performance of riser girth welds for deep-water applications Friction welding of near net shape preforms in Ti-6Al-4V (June 2007) Management processes for innovation in joining technology (Nov.2001) Manufacturing with Lasers Developments and Opportunities (July 2004) Moving weld management from the desk to the desktop (September 1999)

Process monitoring methods in laser welding of plastics (April 2006) Production of titanium deposits by Cold Gas Dynamic Spray (May 2005) Testing of superduplex stainless steel for sour service (March 2003) Trends in the design and fabrication of rolling stock Welding of Ti-6Al-4V with fibre delivered laser beams (October 2007) A review of adhesive bonding techniques for joining medical materials A review of ball grid arrays for electronic assembly Industry survey of risk-based life management practices (August 2002) Laser welding of plastics - process selection software (October 2003) Modelling of time reversal focussing in straight pipes (October 2007) Radiography of thin-section welds, part 2: modelling (September 2002) TELETEST (R) Guided wave technology - case histories (September 2001) Ultrasonic phased array inspection of FSW lap joints (September 2004) Aero engine improvements through linear friction welding Corrosion fatigue behaviour of welded risers and pipelines (June 2007) Development of a fatigue sensor for welded steel structures (May 2006) Development of HVOF sprayed aluminium alloy engine bearings (May 2003) Developments in the use of adhesives in industrial applications (2005) Materials processing with a 10kW Nd:YAG laser facility (November 1999) NOMAD - Autonomous manufacture of large steel fabrications (June 2002) Operational Excellence through an asset management optimisation system Plume attenuation under high power Nd:YAG laser welding (October 2002) Trials using the Instrumented Indentation Technique (IIT) (March 2005) Welding new stainless steels for the oil and gas industry (March 2000) Development of corrosion resistant coatings by HVOF spraying (May 2000) Digital radiography for the inspection of small defects (February 2006) Evaluation of weld metal strength mismatch in X100 pipeline girth welds Fracture toughness estimation for pipeline girth welds (September 2002) Friction based technologies for joining and processing (September 2001) Reduced pressure electron beam welding in the power generation industry Welding and joining techniques for polymeric medical devices A review of postweld heat treatment code exemption - Part 1 (March 2006) Development of the Trivex(TM) friction stir welding tool (February 2003) Hydrogen cracking - its causes, costs and future occurrence (March 1999) Performance Improvement through an Asset Maintenance Optimisation System Heat insulation and fire resistance using composite materials (June 1999) Modelling of Guided Ultrasonic Waves in Aircraft Wiring (September 2008) Overview of the European Fitnet fitness-for-service procedure (June 2008) Reliability of inspection for root flaws in riser girth welds (June 2004) Techniques for welding polymeric devices using laser sources (April 2003) Yb Fibre Laser/MAG Hybrid Processing for Welding of Pipelines (July 2005) Advanced welding processes for fusion reactor fabrication (September 1999) Corrosion fatigue of steel catenary risers in sweet production (June 2008) Enhancements to power beam welding processes for land transport (May 2004) Fracture mechanics assessment of flaws in pipeline girth welds (June 2006) Friction stir welding conquers austenitic stainless steels (November 2000) Laser-vapour interaction in high-power cw CO2 laser welding (October 2003) National and international qualifications for welding personnel (May 2005) Novel joining and sealing processes for solid oxide fuel cells (July 2002) Use of infrared dyes for transmission laser welding of plastics (May 2000) Application of extreme value analysis to corrosion mapping data (June 2009) Inspection reliability and periodicity for rail axle inspection (June 2006) Joining polyethersulphone to aluminium by ultrasonic welding (January 1999) Laser welding of aluminium alloys using different laser sources (June 1998) Magnesium joining - process developments and future requirements (May 2001) Nd:YAG laser welding of titanium alloys using a directed gas jet (May 2010) New Advances in Plastics Joining for High Speed Production (September 2001) Re-evaluation of fatigue curves for flush ground girth welds (October 2008) The fibre laser - a newcomer for material welding and cutting (August 2005) The Generation Of Autogeneous Surface Features Using A Low Power Laser Beam Assessment of flaw significance in a pipeline weld - a case study (May 2000) Friction stir welding - how to weld aluminium without melting it (May 2001)

Friction stir welding - invention, innovations and applications (March 2001) Steeling the competitive edge: is there a place for robots? The development of lightweight self-piercing riveting equipment (March 2001) Training and Certification in Long Range Ultrasonic Testing (September 2008) A general review of recent developments in resistance welding (November 2002) Assessing toughness levels for steels to determine the need for PWHT - Part 2 Autogenous Nd:YAG laser welding of 6mm thick dissimilar steels (October 2001) FPSO Structural integrity - a TWI collection of case studies (September 2004) Friction stir weld integrity and its importance to the rolling stock industry Friction stir welders provide prefabricated components and panels (July 2004) Hybrid Nd:YAG laser/gas metal arc welding for new land pipelines (March 2002) Laser-vapour interaction in high-power cw Nd:YAG laser welding (October 2003) Long-range ultrasonic testing (LRUT) of pipelines and piping (September 2004) Radiography of thin-section welds, part 4: Further modelling (September 2004) Solid state joining of metals by linear friction welding: A literature review Activating Flux - Improving the Performance of the TIG Process (February 2000) Effects of plastic strain on cleavage fracture predictions in steel (Dec.2001) Evaluation of necessary delay before inspection for hydrogen cracks (May 2001) Fibre lasers for surface removal of contaimated concrete in the nuclear sector Finite Element Residual Stress Prediction After Pwht Of Branch-Pipe Connection Radiography of Thin Section Welds, Part 1: Practical Approach (September 2002) The simultaneous use of two or more friction stir welding tools (January 2005) Friction stir welding and related friction process characteristics (April 1998) Friction Stir Welding for the fabrication of aluminium rolling stock (May 2008) Laser and Hybrid Laser MAG Welding of Thick Section C-Mn Steel (September 2005) Modelling of long range ultrasonic waves in complex structures (September 2008) Nd:YAG Laser welding of a stiffened panel demonstration component (August 2001) Plastics welding and adhesive bonding - Innovative applications (November 2000) Resistance seam and laser welding of large hybrid metal packages Signal processing for quality assurance in friction stir welds The significance of softened HAZs in high strength structural steels (May 2003) Welding supermartensitic stainless steels for corrosive service (November 2007) Achieving low-porosity laser welds in aerospace aluminium alloy Friction stir welding: invention, innovations and industrialisation (March 2002) Novel joining methods applicable to textiles and smart garments (September 2005) Novel joining techniques for repair in the power generation industry (June 2002) The special importance of personnel competence in welding fabrication (May 2009) Adaptively controlled hybrid welding using a high brightness laser (October 2010) Application of friction stir welding in the shipbuilding industry Critical review of joining processes for powder metallurgy parts (September 2008) Electron beam welding of crack sensitive nickel super alloy MAR-M-002 (July 2006) Energy absorbing joints between fibre reinforced plastics and metals (April 2006) Friction and forge welding processes for the automotive industry (September 1999) Low-porosity laser welding of 12.7mm thickness aerospace aluminium Modelling of crashworthy welded joints of aluminium railway carbodies Programme of mitigation for in-service damage of FPSO hull structures (June 2001) Quality requirements for an FPSO hull and marine piping fabrication (August 2004) Review of the effect of hydrogen gas on fatigue performance of steels (June 2010) Yb-Fibre laser single sided tube cutting for nuclear decommissioning applications Corrosion fatigue of simulated C-mn steel HAZs in sour produced fluids (June 2008) FSW process variants and mechanical properties (July 2004) Laser and hybrd laser-MAG welding of steel structures for shipbuilding (June 2007) Overview of recent welding-related pipeline technology advances at TWI (June 2008) Railway rolling stock manufacturers implement friction stir welding (October 2002) Review of statistical methods used in quantifying NDT reliability Spectroscopic studies of plume/plasma in different gas environments (October 2001) The resistance spot welding of high and ultra-high strength steels (November 2004) Validation of fracture assessment procedures through full-scale testing (May 2008) Validation of idealised Charpy impact energy transition curve shape (October 2001) Detection of corrosion in offshore risers using guided ultrasonic waves (June 2007) Hydrogen cracking of ferritic-austenitic stainless steel weld metal (February 2000) Industrialisation of friction stir welding for aerospace structures

PD 6493 becomes BS 7910; what's new in fracture and fatigue assessment? (June 1999) Remote crack repair welding in steels using high power Nd:YAG lasers (October 2000) Structure/property relationships in polyetheretherketone vibration welds (May 1999) Surfi-Sculpt - Revolutionary surface processing with an electron beam (August 2005) The influence of vanadium-microalloying on the weldability of steels (October 2001) The use of bobbin tools for friction stir welding of aluminium alloys (August 2009) Coatings for offshore applications by high velocity wire flame spraying (April 2005) Comeld - A New approach to damage control for composite to metal joints (April 2005) Laser welding of ultra-high strength steels for automotive applications (April 2008) Mechanical Properties of Friction Welds in High Strength Titanium Alloys (June 1999) Which procedures for fitness-for-service assessment: API 579 or BS 7910? (July 2003) Analysis of crack arrest event in NESC-1 spinning cylinder experiment (November 2002) Application studies using through-transmission laser welding of polymers (April 2006) Eddy current and thermography application for robotic aircraft inspection (July 2002) Independent qualification of phased array inspection of fillet welds (September 2002) Laser sealing of plastics for medical devices Static and fatigue behaviour of spot welded 5182-0 aluminium alloy sheet (March 1999) Adhesive shear properties - development of a simplified test specimen (September 2002) An investigation into arc constriction by active fluxes for TIG (A-TIG) welding (2000) Corrosion damage assessment and burst test validation of 8in x 52 linepipe (July 2001) Corrosion fatigue performance of welded risers for deepwater applications (March 2004) Heat affected zone microstructures in supermartensitic stainless steels (October 2002) Influence of spraying parameters on the properties of HVOF alumina coatings (May 2005) Significance of liquation cracks in thick section welds in Al-Mg-Si plate (April 1998) Static shoulder friction stir welding of Ti-6Al-4V; process and evaluation (June 2007) The application of finite element modelling to guided wave testing systems (July 2002) The special importance of personnel competence in welding fabrication A new technique for girth welds in land pipelines: hybrid laser-arc welding (June 2003) A novel polymeric coating for enhanced ultrasound imaging of medical devices Condition monitoring of large structures using piezoelectric transducers (October 2007) Loading rate effects on tensile properties and fracture toughness of steel (April 1999) Review of fatigue assessment procedures for welded aluminium structures (December 2003) Risk-based inspection and maintenance - industry feedback and user needs (October 2002) A review of K-solutions for through-thickness flaws in cylinders and spheres (July 2007) Correlation of phased array inspection and fatigue performance of FSW joints (June 2007) Design of pipelines subject to lateral buckling to resist corrosion fatigue (March 2009) Friction stir welding - recent developments in tool and process technologies (July 2003) Information technologies and their influence on joining and construction Modelling and measurements for the assessment of a full scale pipe bend test (July 2007) Radiography of thin section welds, Part 3: Additional Flaw Measurements (September 2004) Recent developments & applications in electron beam and friction technologies (May 2001) The prediction of maximum HAZ hardness in C-Mn and low alloy steel arc welds (June 2008) A review of joining processes for packaging with plastics (May 1999 + Addendum July 2001) Advanced transducer development for Long Range Ultrasonic inspection systems Application of friction stir welding for the manufacture of aluminium ferries (May 2000) Application of innovative welding methods to prefabricate aluminium panels (October 2004) Constraint loss in welds due to geometry, loading mode and strength mismatch Corrosion fatigue of welded stainless steels for deepwater riser applications (June 2005) Development of Nd:Yag Laser-MAG hybrid welding of T joints for shipbuilding Development of the laser/MAG hybrid welding process for land pipeline construction Hybrid Nd:YAG Laser-AC MIG welding of thin section automotive aluminium alloy (June 2006) Hydrogen induced stress cracking of duplex stainless steel subsea components (June 2010) Joining technology for high volume manufacturing of lightweight vehicle structures Recommended hot-spot stress design S-N curves for fatigue assessment of FPSOs (June 2001) A review of the effect of cold-work on resistance to sulphide stress cracking (March 2007) A thermal method for surface crack detection in metals with high lift-off (September 2004) Friction Stir Welding - Process Variants and Recent Industrial Developments (October 2007) Long range inspection of engineering assets using guided ultrasonic waves (September 2008) Subsea dissimilar joints: Failure mechanisms and opportunities for mitigation (March 2009) A novel polymeric coating for enhanced ultrasound visibility of medical devices An Introduction to Surfi-Sculpt Technology - New Opportunities, New Challenges (April 2007) Assessment of Dissimilar Metal Interfaces for Sub-Sea Application under Cathodic Protection

Comparison of the ASME, BS and CEN fatigue design rules for pressure vessels (October 2003) Detection of fouling in food pipelines using Long Range Ultrasonic Testing (September 2009) Experimental study and prediction of fatigue crack growth in girth welded pipes (June 2002) Hybrid Nd:YAG laser-MAG welding of thick section steel with adaptive control (October 2004) Integrity of FPSO [floating production storage and offloading] hull structures (March 2000) Integrity of reduced pressure electron beam girth welds for deep water pipelines (May 2004) Making the link - Effective joining technology for aluminium in the 21st Century (May 2006) Novel method of recording cooling curves during laser & laser/arc hybrid welding (May 2003) Recent developments in friction stir welding of thick section aluminium alloys (March 2007) The evolution of Yb fibre laser/MAG hybrid processing for welding of pipelines (June 2005) Use of supermartensitic stainless steel pipe for offshore flowline applications (June 2006) Development of thermal sprayed plain bearings for automotive engine applications (July 2006) Ferric chloride testing for weld procedure qualification of duplex stainless steel weldments Hydrogen embrittlement stress corrosion cracking of superduplex stainless steel (March 2001) Investigation of the A-TIG Mechanism and the Productivity Benefits in TIG Welding (May 2009) Preferential weld corrosion: Effects of weldment microstructure and composition (April 2005) The prediction of maximum HAZ hardness in various regions of multiple pass welds (June 2008) Long term monitoring of offshore installations using ultrasonic guided waves (September 2008) Reliability analysis of defect-containing structures using partial safety factors (June 2009) Structural integrity with Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) ultrasonic inspection (July 2005) The potential for solid state welding of titanium pipe in offshore industries (November 1997) Corrosion mitigation in biomass combustion plant using thermal spray coatings (September 2009) Development of a permanent installation tool for structural health monitoring (September 2008) Immersion Transmit-Receive Longitudinal phased array probe for stainless steel (December 2008) Priority areas for welding, joining and associated engineering research in Europe (April 2002) Progress in friction stir welding of aluminium and steel for marine applications (October 2003) Recent Developments in Welding Inspection Certification (including developments in EWF and IIW) Trends in welding processes in engineering construction for infrastructure projects Comparison of long-term and short-term tests for electrofusion joints in PE pipes (October 2006) Condition monitoring of large oil and chemical storage tanks using guided waves (September 2004) Environment assisted cracking assessment methods: The behaviour of shallow cracks (October 2007) Interim fatigue design recommendations for fillet welded joints under complex loading (May 2001) Towards a simplified assessment procedure for corroded nozzles in pressure vessels (August 1999) Development of laser, and laser/arc hybrid welding for land pipeline applications (February 2003) Friction Stir Welding - Process variants and developments in the automotive industry (April 2006) Laser and hybrid laser-MIG welding of 6.35 and 12.7mm thick aluminium aerospace alloy Modelling guided waves in complex structures - Part 2: Wire bundles - with and without insulation The corrosion behaviour of high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF) sprayed Ni-Cr-Si-B coatings (March 2002) Three-dimensional robotic high-power Nd:YAG laser welding: Opportunities and obstacles (May 2001) Development and evaluation of CO2 laser-MAG hybrid welding for DH36 shipbuilding steel Friction stir technology - recent developments in process variants and applications (October 2006) New developments in ultrasound phased array for the evaluation of friction stir welds (March 2003) Sulphide stress cracking of welded joints in weldable martensitic stainless steels (February 2001) A new method of laser beam induced surface modification using the Surfi-Sculpt process (April 2008) Compilation of stress intensity factor and load limit solutions for the Fitnet procedure (May 2008) Emerging friction joining technology for stainless steel and aluminium applications (February 1996) Extending the internal examination intervals for pressure vessels using an RBI approach (July 2009) HVOF sprayed WC-Co-Cr as a generic coating type for replacement of hard chrome plating (March 2002) Microstructure & properties of autogenous high-power Nd:YAG laser welds in C-Mn steels (April 2002) Microstructure characteristics and corrosion behaviour of HVOF sprayed metallic coatings (May 2001) Sour service limits of dual-certified 316/316L austenitic stainless steel and weldments (March 2010) Stress corrosion cracking of ferritic steel weld metal - the effect of nickel. Part 1 (January 1982) Techniques for improving the weldability of trip steel using resistance spot welding (December 2005) Battle of the sources - using a high-power Yb-fibre laser for welding steel and aluminium (July 2005) Battle of the Sources - Using a high-power Yb-fibre laser for welding steel and aluminium (June 2005) Effects of different gas environments on CO2 and Nd:YAG laser welding process efficiencies (May 2002) Healthy Aims - Development of Implantable Microsystems Medical Devices Stress corrosion cracking of ferritic steel weld metal - the effect of nickel. Part 2 (February 1982) The Potential of High Power Lasers for Tube Cutting and Concrete Scabbling in Nuclear Decommissioning Case studies on ECA-based flaw acceptance criteria for pipe girth welds using BS 7910:2005 (June 2007) Probabilistic remnant life assessment of corroding pipelines within a risk-based framework (July 2002) Requirements for the European education of railway track welders in aluminothermic welding (June 2006)

Ultrasonic phased array inspection technology for the evaluation of friction stir welds (January 2004) Welding of structural steel components with high power, fibre delivered Nd:YAG lasers (September 2003) Autonomous Manufacture of Large Steel Fabrications EC Contract: G1RD-CT-2000-00461 'NOMAD' (March 2004) Comparison of methods for predicting the influence of residual stresses on brittle fracture (July 2007) Pipeline Corrosion Control: a historical perspective and a long range approach to the future (May 2007) The effects of steel composition on the laser cut edge quality of carbon and C-Mn steels Ageing of adhesively bonded joints - fracture and failure analysis using video imaging techniques (2001) Improved corrosion performance of AZ91D magnesium alloy coated with the Keronite process (February 2002) Investigation of fatigue damage to welded joints under variable amplitude loading spectra (January 2008) Laser surface modification of polymers to enhance adhesion part II - PEEK, APC-2, LCP and PA (May 2000) Process developments enabling more effective joining of medical devices The evaluation of root defects in FSW by 'through-hole' impact testing - preliminary studies (July 2005) Welds, their quality and inspection capability for high integrity structures and components (April 1999) A brief review of recent developments in laser welding processes for ferritic pipe steels An exploratory investigation of Nd:YAG laser welding in high pressure gaseous environments (October 2003) Effect of intermetallic content on pitting resistance of ferritic-austenitic stainless steels Is your decision to extend a pressure vessel internal examination interval properly justified? (May 2009) Development and implementation of innovative joining processes in the automotive industry (September 2005) NZ Fabricators begin to use Friction Stir Welding to produce aluminium components and panels (August 2006) Resistance of dissimilar joints between steel and nickel alloys to hydrogen-assisted cracking (March 2008) Susceptibility to SOHIC for Linepipe and Pressure Vessel Steels - Review of Current Knowledge (March 2007) The effect of strain on the susceptibility of pipeline girth welds to sulfide stress cracking (April 2005) Thermal stresses measurement of solder joints in BGA packages: theoretical and experimental (November 2008) Using wide plate test results to improve predictions from probabilistic fracture mechanics (September 2000) The use of advanced thermal spray processes for corrosion protection in marine environments (September 2003) A new statistical local criterion for cleavage fracture in steel. Part I - Model presentation (February 2005) A practical approach to risk based assessment and maintenance optimisation of offshore wind farms Development of girth weld flaw assessment procedures for pipelines subjected to plastic straining (July 2007) Disbonding of austenitic stainless steel cladding following high temperature hydrogen service (February 2007) Improved corrosion resistant coatings prepared using a modified diamond jet HVOF spraying system Comparison of API 1104 Appendix A and BS 7910 Procedures for the Assessment of Girth Weld Flaws (October 2009) Hybrid laser-MAG welding procedures and weld properties in 4mm, 6mm and 8mm thickness C-Mn steels In-process weld quality monitoring of laser and hybrid laser-arc fillet welds in 6-12mm C-Mn steel (June 2007) Inspection engineers require new FFS competencies: Illustrations from a pressure vessel failure (January 2005) Optimisation of plasma control parameters for Nd:YAG laser welding of stainless steel enclosures Corrosion fatigue of welded C-Mn steel risers for deepwater applications: a state of the art review (June 2005) Intensive validation of computer prediction of welding residual stresses in a multi-pass butt weld (June 2010) High quality and productivity joining processes and procedures for titanium risers and flowlines (February 1999) Hydrogen embrittlement of 8630M/625 subsea dissimilar joints: Factors that influence the performance (June 2009) Phased array scanning of artificial and impact damage in carbon fibre reinforced plastic (CFRP) The potential of high power lasers for tube cutting and concrete scabbling in nuclear decommissioning Assessment of a new, completely controlled, IR welding system using statistically designed experiments (May 2000) Development of a comprehensive in-line quality control system for printed circuit board assemblies (October 2007) Friction stir welding - a competitive new joining option for aluminium rolling stock manufacturers Employing the focussing of ultrasonic guided waves for the in-situ non-destructive testing of pipes (October 2005) A risk based approach to maintenance optimisation of business critical railway structures/equipment Condition Monitoring of Large Oil and Chemical Storage Tanks Using Long Range Ultrasonic Testing (LRUT) (June 2005) Optimisation of plasma/plume control for high power Nd:YAG laser welding of 15mm thickness C-Mn steels Stress based design guidelines for hydrogen induced stress cracking (HISC) avoidance in duplex materials (May 2009) The Influence of Ti, Al and Nb on the toughness and creep rupture strength of grade 92 steel weld metal (April 2007) Quantification of residual stress effects in the SINTAP defect assessment procedure for welded components (July 1999) The corrosion behaviour of HVOF sprayed stainless steel and nickel alloy coatings in artificial seawater A review of the development and application of laser and laser-arc hybrid welding in european shipbuilding Mechanical testing and characterisation of a steel adherend bonded using an automotive grade epoxy adhesive (May 2001) Acoustic Emission Monitoring of Crack Growth in Dissimilar Joints for Corrosion Resistant Applications (September 2008) An investigation into the effect of weld strength mismatch on the assessment of HAZ fracture toughness (September 2002) Effect of hydrogen and strain rate on superduplex stainless steel weld metal fracture toughness and fracture morphology Review and assessment of fatigue data for offshore structural components containing through-thickness cracks (June 2008) Deformation pattern based digital image correlation method and its application to residual stress measurement (July 2009) Development of an automated optical imaging system for non destructive testing of printed circuit boards (September 2006) Editorial by Steve J Maddox on friction stir welded joints from a special issue of International Journal of Fatigue, 2003 External hardness limits for welds in cathodically protected C-Mn steel pipelines carrying sour products (September 2000)

Corrosion behavior of an HVOF-sprayed Fe3Al coating in a high-temperature oxidizing/sulfidizing environment (October 2004) Effect of intermetallic phases on environmental cracking resistance of superduplex weld metal in sour media (October 2000) Polymer coated material (PCM) joining technology for manufacture and repair of dissimilar material structures (March 1999) Qualification of Nd:YAG laser direct metal deposition techniques for repair of nickel superalloy components (October 2006) Understanding and avoiding intergranular stress corrosion cracking of welded supermartensitic stainless steel (March 2007) Microstructural quantification, modeling and array ultrasonics to improve the inspection of austenitic welds Application and verification of the SINTAP fracture toughness estimation procedure for welds and parent materials (July 1999) Avoiding hydrogen embrittlement stress cracking of ferritic austenitic stainless steels under cathodic protection (June 2004) Development of an in-line X-ray system for automated inspection of defects in PCB assemblies containing BGAs (September 2006) Postweld heat treatment to avoid intergranular stress corrosion cracking of supermartensitic stainless steels (November 2005) Prediction of creep crack growth properties of P91 parent and welded steel using remaining failure strain criteria (June 2009) A Temperature controlled mechanical test facility to ensure safe materials performance in hydrogen at 1000 bar (September 2007) An assessment of the welding performance of high-brightness lasers and a comparison with in-vacuum electron beams (October 2008) FEA investigations into the effects of geometry and tensile properties on J and CTOD in standard fracture specimens (October 200 Effect of intermetallic phases on corrosion resistance of superduplex and superaustenitic stainless steel weldments Local approach predictions of fracture toughness behaviour in real multi pass welds using thermal simulation specimens A comparison of the gap bridging capability of CO2 laser and hybrid CO2 laser MAG welding on 8mm thickness C-MN steel plate (Jul A new statistical local criterion for cleavage fracture in steel. Part II - Application to an offshore structural steel Calculation of stress intensity factors corresponding to standard residual stress profiles for common weld joint geometries (Jul Fracture assessment of through-wall and surface cracked pipes by BS 7910 and API 579 assessment procedures-a comparative study The effect of spot size and laser beam quality on welding performance when using high-power continuous wave solid-state lasers ( Analysis of cross-correlation and wavelet de-noising for the reduction of the effects of dispersion in long-range ultrasonic tes Resistance welding toolkit - A computer knowledge base, covering design and manufacturing considerations for resistance spot wel Engineering critical analyses to BS 7910 - the UK guide on methods for assessing the acceptability of flaws in metallic structur The effect of composition on microstructural development and toughness of weld metals for advanced high temperature 9-13%Cr stee The feasibility of using piezoelectric transducers to generate and detect microscopic structural vibrations for monitoring stora An experiment to show the feasibility of condition monitoring above ground storage tank walls by modal testing with piezoelectri Evaluation of the phased array Transmit-Receive Longitudinal and Time of Flight Diffraction techniques Some preliminary evaluations of black coating on aluminium AA2219 alloy produced by plasma electrolytic oxidation (PEO) process The effect of average powder particle size on deposition efficiency, deposit height and surface roughness in the direct metal la Characteristics and electrochemical corrosion behaviour of thermal sprayed aluminium (TSA) coatings prepared by various wire the In-line reciprocating friction stir welding of plastics / Ruhrreibschweissen von Plastik mit einer vibrierenden Vorwarts- und Ru An experiment to investigate the feasibility of using piezoelectric transducers to monitor corrosion damage in storage tanks wit Background to requirements for the prevention of brittle fracture in the European standards for unfired pressure vessels (prEN 1 German Italian Developments in micro applications of friction stir welding Modelling and validation of a ceramic/metal joining technique for power electronic applications Effects of Strain Rate and Microstructure on Fracture Toughness of Duplex Stainless Steels under Hydrogen Charging Conditions Fatigue performance of sour deepwater riser welds: crack growth vs. endurance Assessment of Flaws in Pipe Girth Welds Progress Towards The Revision Of BS 7910 Differences In The Assessment Of Plastic Collapse In BS 7910: 2005 And R6/Fitnet FFS Procedures Fracture Mechanics Techniques for Assessing the Effects of Hydrogen on Steel Properties Novel Control of Weld Metal Hydrogen Cracking in the Welding of Thick Steels Development and Qualification of Welding Procedures and Inspection Methodology for In-service Welding Manufacturing of welded joints with realistic defects The History of BS 7910 Flaw Interaction Criteria Revised Guidance on Residual Stresses in BS7910 Infrared thermography as a non-destructive tool for materials characterisation and assessment The effects of loadings on welding residual stresses and assessment of fracture parameters in a welding residual stress field Welding Of Hydrogen Charged Steel For Modification Or Repair Investigation Of Weld Repair Without Post-Weld Heat Treatment For P91 The Effect Of Metal Transfer Modes On Welding Fume Emission In MIG/MAG Welding Crack front straightness qualification in SENT specimens Selection of materials for high pressure CO2 transport Development of ultrasonic phased array inspection of polyethylene pipe joints Validation of Methods to Determine CTOD from SENT specimens Development of an automated scanner and phased array ultrasonic testing technique for the inspection of nozzle welds Comparison between ASME and RCC-M requirements for welding and NDT Corrosion testing of HVOF coatings in high temperature environments for biomass applications

Improved Coatings for Extended Design Life of 22%Cr Duplex Stainless Steel in Marine Environments Increasing the tolerance to fit-up gap using hybrid laser-arc welding and adaptive control of welding parameters Fatigue testing of full-scale girth welded pipes under variable amplitude loading Effective design of electron beam processing systems by trending CRA Weld Overlay - Influence of welding process and parameters on dilution and corrosion resistance .
7L0HYBxJliUmL2 /w EPZmSlJTJrm2

ADIMEW Test: Assessment of a cracked dissimilar metal weld assembly

John B Wintle, Bridget Hayes and Martin R Goldthorpe Paper presented at PVP 2004 ASME Pressure Vessels and Piping Conference 25-29 July 2004, San Diego, CA., USA

Abstract
ADIMEW (Assessment of Aged Piping Dissimilar Metal Weld Integrity) was a three-year collaborative research programme carried out under the EC 5th Framework Programme. The objective of the study was to advance the understanding of the behaviour and safety assessment of defects in dissimilar metal welds between pipes representative of those found in nuclear power plant. ADIMEW studied and compared different methods for predicting the behaviour of defects located near the fusion boundaries of dissimilar metal welds typically used to join sections of austenitic and ferritic piping operating at high temperature. Assessment of such defects is complicated by issues that include: severe mis-match of yield strength of the constituent parent and weld metals, strong gradients of material properties, the presence of welding residual stresses and mixed mode loading of the defect. The study includes the measurement of material properties and residual stresses, predictive engineering analysis and validation by means of a large-scale test. The particular component studied was a 453mm diameter pipe that joins a section of type A508 Class 3 ferritic pipe to a section of type 316L austenitic pipe by means of a type 308 austenitic weld with type 308/309L buttering laid on the ferritic pipe. A circumferential, surface-breaking defect was cut using electro discharge machining into the 308L/309L weld buttering layer parallel to the fusion line. The test pipe was subjected to four-point bending to promoteductile tearing of the defect. This paper presents the results of TWI contributions to ADIMEW including: fracture toughness testing, residual stress measurements and assessments of the ADIMEW test using elastic-plastic, cracked body, finite element analysis.

Introduction
Dissimilar metal welds (DMWs) are used in pressurised water reactors to connect low alloy, ferritic steel components to the austenitic stainless steel primary pipework. Particular concerns about the fracture behaviour of DMWs arise from the presence of external surface cracks in the ferritic to austenitic interface. Assessment of such defects is complicated by issues such as: severe mis-match of yield strength of the constituent parent and weld metals, strong gradients of material properties due to the transition in metallurgical structure, the presence of welding residual stresses and mixed mode loading of the defect. ADIMEW (Assessment of Aged Piping Dissimilar Metal Weld Integrity) was a three-year collaborative research programme carried out under the EC 5th Framework Programme (Ref. 1). The objective of the study was to advance the understanding of the behaviour and safety assessment of defects in

DMWs representative of those found in nuclear power plant. Several European organisations participated in the ADIMEW project including: EDF (Project Co-ordinator), CEA, Framatome, JRC-IAM Petten, Serco Assurance, TWI, VTT and the Bay Zoltn Institute. The ADIMEW project studied and compared different methods for predicting the behaviour of defects located near the fusion boundaries of DMWs typically used to join sections of austenitic and ferritic piping operating at high temperature. The study included the measurement of material properties and residual stresses, predictive engineering analysis and validation by means of a large-scale test. The ADIMEW participants used a range of techniques to predict the outcome of the tests. These included conventional analysis methods such as the J-integral approach, the SINTAP assessment procedure [2] and more advanced techniques using micro-mechanical models of material failure. This paper presents the results of TWI contributions to ADIMEW including: fracture toughness testing of the buttering, weld and Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) constituents of the DMW; residual stress measurements; and assessments of the ADIMEW test using three-dimensional, elastic-plastic, cracked body, finite element analysis.

Adimew test assembly, defect configuration and loading

Test assembly
The overall geometry of the ADIMEW test specimen is illustrated in Figure 1. The central test section consisted of two approximately 0.5 m long cylinders, each welded to a 4 m extension arm of high strength steel. These arms were used to apply a bending moment to the test section.

Fig. 1. Schematic of overall geometry of ADIMEW test specimen In the central test section of the assembly, a 453 mm external diameter and 51 mm thick section of type A508 Class 3 ferritic pipe was joined to a similar section of type 316L austenitic pipe. This attachment used a type 308Laustenitic steel girth weld with a 'V' preparation inclined at 25 to the normal to the pipe axis ( Figure 2). The weld 'mock-up' was post-weld heat-treated for four hours at 610C.

Fig. 2. Section through the test specimen (not to scale) showing the various materials and main dimensions Two dissimilar metal weld mock-ups were manufactured within the programme. The first, AD01, was cut-up to measure welding residual stresses and provide small-scale specimens for measurement of tensile and fracture toughness properties of the constituent parent steels, weld metals and associated heat affected zones. The second mock-up, AD02, was used for the actual test.

Defect configuration
As illustrated in Figure 3, in weld mock-up AD02 a circumferential, surface-breaking, planar defect was inserted into the type 309L/308L buttering layer between the main weld and the ferritic base material by means of electro-discharge machining (EDM). The plane of the defect was parallel to the local fusion line and so inclined at 25 to the normal to the pipe axis. The front of the defect was straight and lay within the layer of weld buttering at an axial distance of about 1.5 mm from the fusion line between the buttering and the A508 pipe. The maximum depth of the defect ( a max ) was 17 mm, measured normal to the pipe axis, or 18.76 mm measured from the middle of the defect mouth to the middle of the straight defect front. The various dimensions and angles associated with the defect are given in Figure 3.

Fig. 3. Geometry of defect in ADIMEW test specimen showing associated dimensions

Loading

As shown in Figure 4, the test assembly was subjected to four-point bending in order to promote ductile tearing of the defect, with the ferritic and austenitic sections of interest in the mock-up held at a temperature close to 300C. The test assembly was positioned in the loading rig to give equal ram displacements and loads on either side of the mock-up.

Fig. 4. Four-point bending loading configuration of ADIMEW test assembly

R-Curve fracture toughness testing

Scope of testing and test matrix
After some changes to the programme, TWI carried out a series of tests at 300C to determine the ductile fracture toughness of the constituent materials around the dissimilar metal weld and the location of the test defect. Table 1 shows the test matrix and gives the identity numbers of the specimens. Table 1: Fracture toughness testing matrix

Specimen type

Dimensions B, W, L Mm

Notch location

Temp Number of C tests

Type of test

Specimen identity A2-1 (M0201) A2-2 (M0202) A3-3 (M023) A2-3 A3-1

SENB BxB sub size

10, 10, 55

BUFL

300

JR unloading compliance

SENB sub size SENB sub size

10, 10, 55

FLBU

300

JR unloading compliance JR unloading compliance

10, 10, 55

CGHAZ

300

A3-2

SENB sub size

10, 10, 55

WM

300

JR unloading compliance

W01-01 W01-02 W01-03 W01-04 W01-05 W01-06

SENB Bx2B B=20 mm

20, 40, 100

BUFL

300

JR unloading compliance

where: BUFL indicates the notch is located in the weld buttering 1-2 mm from the fusion line, FLBU indicates the notch is located on the fusion line tending towards the buttering side, CGHAZ indicates the notch is located in the coarse grained heat affected zone, WM indicates that the notch is located in the bulk weld metal. The notch direction is parallel to the fusion line in all cases. The test specimens were taken from the AD01 weld mock-up. Two blocks of material containing a length of the dissimilar metal weld were supplied for the tests as follows: the window initially cut out of assembly AD01 (used for the first six tests in Table 1), an arc after AD01 had been later sectioned and cut up (used for the final six tests in Table 1).

Specimen preparation and testing procedure

All specimens were designed and prepared according to the requirements of BS 7448 (Ref. [3] ). Specimens were cut from blocks supplied. Notches were cut into the specimens by EDM, and then the specimens were fatigue pre-cracked. In specimens A2-1 and A2-2 the fatigue crack growth deviated from the line of the notch at an angle of 25 to 30, veering away from the fusion line and further into the buttering. This amount is beyond that specified inBS 7448 for a valid specimen. The ADIMEW consortium discussed the best course of

action and decided to side-groove the specimens from the tips of the deviated fatigue cracks in order to increase crack tip constraint. The unloading compliance fracture tests would be performed and analysed according to standard; even though the cracks were inclined to the principal axial bending stress. However, the validity of the results would be questionable. It was also agreed that, in order to grow a straight fatigue pre-crack, a procedure devised by Framatome should be followed in which shallow side-grooves are machined before fatigue pre-cracking and then deepened when pre-cracking is complete. A procedure given by GKSS and EdF was also adopted for the preparation of the other specimens in order to limit the maximum force for pre-cracking. Fatigue pre-cracking proceeded in two steps at different R ratios (0.1 and 0.7) in order to obtain a uniform crack front.

Test analysis
The measurements made during the tests were analysed using the method given in the standard BS 7448:Part 4 to determine crack growth resistance curves in terms of J. This method is intended to apply to specimens with homogeneous properties; whereas the ADIMEW specimens involve a combination of materials with distinctly different stress-strain properties and Young's moduli. 'Eta' factors: The value of the ('eta') factor that should be used in the computation of J for the ADIMEW dissimilar metal weld specimens is a matter for on-going discussion. A factor of 2.0 was used in the computation of the plastic component of J, which is the value given in the standard as appropriate to homogeneous single edge-notch bend (SENB) specimens. factors for mismatched welds (between common parent material) have been discussed in a number of papers during the past few years. In Ref. [4] , the factor was shown to be dependent on the weld strength mismatc h value, as well as the width of the weld and size of the uncracked ligament. In Ref. [5] , Kirk and Dodds give a formula for for mismatched SENB specimens; stated to hold when the mismatch ratio of yield strengths lies between 0.5 and 1.3. For a crack depth to width ratio of 0.5 the factor predicted by Ref. [5] is 2.7 compared with a value of 2.0 for a homogenous specimen. Blunting line: To determine J at initiation of ductile tearing, a blunting line was used in accordance with BS 7448 Part 4. The line has a slope of 3.75 Rm where Rm is the tensile strength of the material around the crack tip at the test temperature, and intersects the crack growth axis at a = 0.2 mm. A value of Rm of 441 MPa was used in the analysis of the BUFL , FLBU and weld metal tests and 640 MPa for the CGHAZ test. Resistance curves: The J versus a data for each test were processed to obtain best-fit curves through the range of valid points according to BS 7448:Part 4. These were taken to be those points lying between the lines parallel to the blunting lines drawn through 0.1 mm and amax (10% of the ligament). A few data points that clearly did not form part of the general population were excluded. A power law curve of the form J= m+L( a) x was fitted to the valid data points of each test. 4
4

In the fracture mechanics assessments described later some fits were made including data invalid according to BS 7448.

Results for the buttering layer

The J-R curve data for the specimens sampling the buttering layer are plotted together in Figure 5. Filled symbols denote valid data, and open symbols are beyond the a validity limit. The curves fitted to the data within the a limits are shown in the figure. Each curve has been extrapolated to indicate the trend. Table 2 lists the parameters m, L and x of the curve fit. In most cases the intercept m was negative and therefore not strictly valid according to BS 7448:Part 4. This table also shows for each test the initiation of stable crack growth, as defined by J 0.2 , and gives the J obtained from the fitted curves for different amounts of growth. As the curves were fitted only to valid data, they may not always fit the non-valid data. Extrapolation to larger amounts of growth is therefore only indicative of the values that might be achieved.

Fig. 5. J-R curves obtained for the buttering layer

Fig. 6. Axial residual surface stresses on outside of pipe measured across dissimilar metal weld Table 2: J versus ductile tearing a curve fits for buttering layer: J=m+L( a) kJ/m 2 , a in mm
x

, with J in

Specimen identity Notch location A2-2 (M02-02) BU FL

m -6.6

L +186.0

J 0.2 J 0.5 J 1.0 J

2.0

0.73 58 106 179 302

A3-3 (M02-03) W01-04 W01-05

BU FL BU FL BU FL

-0.2 +16.3

+232.1 +188.1

1.00 53 116 232 464 0.58 63 110 172 265

-902.9 +1055.2 0.06 59 109 152 197

Discussion of fracture toughness results

The use of 20 mm x 40 mm specimens therefore allows valid J- R curves to be generated for crack growth up to 1.75 mm as opposed to less than 0.5 mm for the 10 mm x 10 mm specimens. The data from the two sizes of specimen is consistent up to a of about 1 mm, with the larger specimens (W0104 and W01-05) showing a flattening R-curve at larger amounts of growth.

Fig. 7. Axial residual surface stresses on inside of pipe measured across dissimilar metal weld

Fig. 8. Tensile behaviour for the various constituents of the mock-up at 300C test temperature The main feature of these results suggests that the buttering material on and near the fusion line of the ADIMEW dissimilar metal weld has a low J 0.2 initiation toughness and a low resistance to tearing. These are significantly lower than those of the bulk weld metal or the coarse grain heat affected zone (CGHAZ). The appearance of such good properties for the CGHAZ is a little surprising, since a martensitic structure would normally be expected and have the lowest properties. Low heat input weld deposition of the buttering or a variation of microstructure away from the fusion face might explain the results, but for a definitive answer further examination of the material is required. The buttering material on and near the fusion line is therefore the weld material with the lowest resistance to fracture. The J 0.2 obtained (53/58 kJ/m 2 from 10 mm x 10 mm specimens and 59/63 kJ/m 2 from 20 mm x 40 mm specimens) are significantly lower than that of 130 kJ/m 2 obtained for equivalent buttering material at 20C in the previous BIMET project (Ref. [6] ). These results are also lower than the values ADIMEW partners Framatome and the Bay Zoltn Institute obtained from compact tension (CT) specimen tests of the ADIMEW weld, although these tests also indicated a flat R-curve and comparable values at larger amounts of growth (look ahead to Figure 9, the curve labelled 'ADIMEW, power law fit 4').

Fig. 9. Five fracture toughness resistance curve fits for weld buttering used in assessments The reasons for the difference between ADIMEW and BIMET results are not entirely clear. The ADIMEW and BIMET welds were produced by different fabricators, although they were of comparable specification. Any differences in the detail of the welding procedure, consumables, thickness and heat treatment could be relevant. Examination of the relevant microstructures of the BIMET and ADIMEW welds could determine if there were any significant differences between the weld materials. Reasons for the differences with the Framatome and Bay Zoltn compact tension data are probably a result of differences in the notch and crack growth path. In the two single-specimen Framatome CT tests, the ductile crack growth deviated out of the side-groove and exhibited considerable tunnelling with the centre of the crack running well in advance of the edges. Both of these effects would tend to result in an overestimate of J compared with the present tests. In addition, Framatome used a blunting line with a slope of 4 times the flow stress, giving a slightly lower slope than the 3.75 R m value that TWI used, and hence a larger value of J 0.2 . The Bay Zoltn CT tests were undertaken on specimens with electro-discharged machined notches without fatigue pre-cracking; similar to the notch cut into the ADIMEW full-size test weld. A higher value of J 0.2 relative to that obtained from fatigue pre-cracked specimens was therefore expected and observed. The Bay Zoltn tests also showed some sensitivity of the R-curve to the distance of the notch from the fusion line; with the toughness decreasing as the fusion line was approached on the buttering side. Differences in the positioning of the starter notch and fatigue pre-crack between the different laboratories could therefore also be a factor in explaining the differences between the J-R curves obtained. As seen later in the later description of the fracture mechanics assessment, these and other fits to 'allvalid' and 'both valid and invalid' fracture toughness test results are used to predict the outcome of the ADIMEW test. Of course, it is highly dubious to use extrapolated fracture toughness for very extensive amounts of tearing well beyond the range and validity of the test measurements. Nevertheless, such extrapolation has to be done in order to carry out a full fracture mechanics assessment of the large-scale test.

Residual stress measurements by hole drilling

Method
TWI undertook measurements of residual stresses across the dissimilar metal weld in the AD01 pipe assembly. This used the surface hole drilling method (Ref. [7] ). The hole drilling method is a standard method for measuring residual stresses close to a free surface. It uses three strain gauges positioned around the location to be measured. They are conventionally aligned parallel and perpendicular to the principal axes of the component and at an angle of 135. A small hole of approximately 2.1 mm diameter is made in the surface at the location to be measured using a fine abrasive powder jet. As the hole deepens, a change in surface strain is recorded on the gauges. When the hole depth has reached about 2 mm, the jet is stopped and the final readings of the strain gauges are recorded. The strain and hole size measurements recorded at each location allow the calculations of in-plane principal stresses and orientation angle. These are resolved to determine the stresses in the directions parallel and circumferential to the pipe axis. The accuracy of residual stress measurement by the centre hole method is claimed to be 8% for stresses up to 65% of yield.

Residual stress results and discussion

The results for axial surface residual stresses on the outside and inside of the pipe are shown in Figure 6 and Figure 7, respectively. These measurements suggest that the axial surface residual stresses are compressive. These residual stresses would tend to have a closing effect rather than causing additional opening of the defect in the ADIMEW test pipe. This appearance of compressive stresses is somewhat unexpected; since tensile welding residual stresses usually occur on the outside of similar, as-welded girth welds in (homogeneous) stainless steel pipes, Ref. [8] . However, there is much variability in the experimental results given in Ref. [8] , depending on factors such as pipe geometry, weld preparation and welding heat input. It should also be remembered that the ADIMEW pipe assembly concerned a dissimilar metal weld. In addition, the ADIMEW weld was post-weld heat treated at 600C for six hours and subsequently machined on the outside surface. These operations would have altered the residual stress from the stresses in the aswelded condition. The TWI results show considerable discrepancy in comparison with the volumetric residual stress measurements that the Joint Research Centre (JRC) Petten made using neutron radiography, and the finite element calculations made by Framatome for the ADIMEW test weld AD01. However, there is reasonable agreement with measurements made by the MarTec Laboratory in Switzerland using the block splitting technique, Ref. [9] . These measurements show that the compressive stress on the surfaces is a purely local effect. Beneath the surfaces the stresses revert to those consistent with measurements made by JRC and calculated by Framatome. The volumetric sensitivity of neutron radiography measurements and finite element calculations would not have been capable of identifying a local stress within a few millimetres of the surface. The compressive stress on the surfaces is probably a result of the machining that was carried out after post-weld heat treatment. There is some experimental evidence to support this view, for example Ref. [10] , but a lack of data for materials and conditions that are truly representative of the ADIMEW test pipe. As the effect of compressive surface residual stress would be to inhibit the initiation of surface cracking from corrosion, further study of residual stresses close to machined surfaces could be beneficial.

Fracture mechanics assessment using finite element analysis

Material properties
Tensile properties: VTT measured tensile properties of the various constituents of the weld mock-up using specimens cut out of the mock-up AD01. Figure 8 shows the true stress versus true strain behaviour of the different materials comprising the mock-up at the 300C test temperature. Table 3 summarises the main tensile properties as used in the finite element analyses. Type 308L weld properties were used for the buttering. Table 3: Material tensile properties used in the finite element analysis

Material

Elastic Modulus, E, MPa 231500

Poisson's Ratio,

Limit of proportionality, Y MPa 367

0.2% proof stress, 0.2 , MPa 463

A508 parent and HAZ (300C) 308L weld and buttering (300C) 316L parent (300C) carbon steel arms (20C)

0.3

167500

0.3

161

335

106500

0.3

151

213

208000

0.3

N/A

N/A

Fracture toughness resistance curves: Fracture toughness versus ductile tearing resistance curves were measured for the weld buttering layer by ADIMEW participants as well as TWI. Figure 9 shows five different J-R curve fits. They are in descending order: 'ADIMEW, power law fit 1' is an early fit to valid data only for TWI specimen A2-2(M02-02) at 300C discussed above; 'BIMET, power law fit' is the consensus fit for the buttering layer used in the BIMET project at 20C (Ref. [6] ); 'ADIMEW, power law fit 2' is an approximate fit to both valid and invalid data for TWI specimen A2-2(M0202) at 300C; 'ADIMEW, power law fit 4' is a fit to the results from the blunt notch CT specimen no. 1 tested by the Bay Zoltn Institute at 300C; 'ADIMEW, power law fit 3' is a fit to valid data for the TWI 20x40 mm SENB specimen W01-05 at 300C discussed above. With the exception of ADIMEW fit 1, all the fits show relatively shallow J-resistance curves, with varying levels of initiation toughness, J 0.2 ; the highest associated with the fit to data from the blunt notch CT specimen, ADIMEW fit 4.

Finite element analyses

The computations were carried out using Version 5.8 of the ABAQUS finite element program (Ref. ).

[11]

Meshes: Eight different meshes were set up having the following values of maximum crack depth, a max : 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24 and 26 mm. Figure 10 shows an overall view of the ADIMEW test pipe mesh, with the loading and reaction positions indicated. Only one half of the test assembly was modelled on one side of the vertical plane of symmetry. The defect is at the 12 o'clock position at the top of the pipe. There are 28,048 elements in the entire mesh with ABAQUS elements type C3D8H used throughout. This is an 8-noded, first order, three-dimensional, hybrid element that is suitable for modelling large-scale plastic deformation. The bevelled, dissimilar metal weld in the neighbourhood of the defect is clearly seen in Figure 11.

Fig. 10. Overall finite element mesh used, showing loading and restraint positions

Fig. 11. Close-up of mesh near initial 17 mm deep defect in dissimilar metal weld buttering Figure 12 shows two pictures relating to the defect itself. The left-hand picture shows the focused mesh surrounding the crack front, where the latter intersects the plane of symmetry. The dashed white line denotes where the coincident crack flanks meet the vertical symmetry plane of the pipe. There are 12 rings of elements in the square section box surrounding the crack front, with 32 elements around each ring. The innermost rings of elements immediately adjacent to the crack front are standard type C3D8H but each has one face collapsed onto the local segment of the crack front. The right-hand picture in Figure 12 shows only weld metal elements on the austenitic side of the defect plane. Dashed lines indicate the boundary of the defect. A total of 12 equal length segments,

and so 12 elements lengths, are used along the half-length crack front modelled in the mesh. There are 13 nodal positions along the crack front; the drawing points out the nodes labelled 'J 11 ' at the middle of the crack front (at the vertical plane of symmetry) and 'J 23 ' where the crack front meets the outer pipe surface.

Fig. 12. Left picture shows focused mesh around crack front. Right picture is section through plane of defect, showing weld metal only: with 13 nodes on (half) crack front from 'J11' at middle to 'J23' on outer pipe surface Boundary and loading conditions: The nodes on the vertical plane of symmetry were constrained appropriately. The vertical component of displacement was restrained at each of the two nodes positioned at the restraint points 7 m apart ( Figure 4, Figure 10). At the two nodes positioned at the loading points 3 m apart, an equal vertical displacement was imposed in order to simulate the loading rams. To ensure equal loading of the two rams, the centre-line of the loading arrangement ( Figure 4, Figure 10) was offset an axial distance d=275 mm from the crack mouth into the austenitic pipe. During initial pre-test calculations, it was discovered that the balance of load on the rams was very sensitive to the precise value of the offset d. The entire mock-up was assumed to be at a uniform temperature of 300C. Any welding residual stress remaining after stress-relief was ignored. Small strain, elastic-plastic, analyses were carried out, with the first loading step of each consisting of a relatively low value of ram displacement of 0.1 mm thus giving predominantly elastic response. In all eight analyses, the remainder of the 250 mm maximum ram displacement was imposed in 25 equal increments.

Finite element fracture mechanics analysis results

This section describes the main fracture mechanics results from the 8 cases of amax studied by finite element analysis, combined with the various J-R curve fits considered for the weld buttering. Elastic solutions: Using the initial elastic solution for each defect depth, the local mode I stress intensity factor, KI was evaluated at each of the 13 nodal positions on the (half length of the) crack front as follows:

where J el is the local elastic component of the J-integral calculated assuming co-planar virtual advance of the crack, and E and v are the Young's modulus and Poisson's ratio of the 308L weld metal. The stress intensity factor K I is normalized by K o , given by

where the bending stress

is given.

where M is the applied bending moment at the cracked section of the pipe and a defined in Figure 3.

max

, r i and r

are

Figure 13 presents such results for K I / K o versus distance from the middle of crack front normalized by the half length of the front, c. These normalised stress intensity factors have peak magnitudes as expected (peak values between 1.1 and 1.2), increase with maximum crack depth and decrease from the middle of the front towards the free surface.

Fig. 13. Variation of elastic stress intensity factor along crack front for different a max Elastic-plastic solutions, initiation predictions: Figure 14 gives predictions of elastic-plastic J versus applied bending moment at the cracked section for the initial ADIMEW crack configuration, with a max =17 mm. Curves of results are shown for every 2 nd node along the half length of crack front modelled. As noted earlier, node 'J 11 ' is at the middle of the crack front and 'J 23 ' is where the crack front intersects the outside of the pipe. This figure also shows a series of horizontal lines showing the level of J 0.2 initiation toughness for the five different fits considered for the weld buttering. The range of moment required to cause initiation is rather wide.

Fig. 14. Variation of J with M at every 2nd crack front node for a max =17 mm, showing initiation J 0.2 levels for the various J-R curve fits Table 4 summarises results for bending moment required to cause initiation of ductile crack growth at the middle of the crack front. This also includes the crack mouth opening displacement (CMOD) measured at the centre of the crack mouth. The estimated value of bending moment at initiation in the ADIMEW test, based on electric potential drop measurements, was about 1.91 MN m. This result is consistent with predictions made using 'fit 4' based on the BayZoltn blunt notch CT specimens of ADIMEW buttering material tested at 300C. This is not surprising since the defect in the ADIMEW test was also cut by EDM and so blunt. Predictions of initiation moment, based on J-R curve fits to tests on fatigue pre-cracked specimens, are not surprisingly lower. Table 4: Summary of predictions of ADIMEW crack initiation moment and CMOD (giving 0.2 mm ductile tearing at middle of crack front); estimate of moment at initiation during test itself is 1.85 MN m

J-R curve ADIMEW, power law fit 1 to valid data only, 300C BIMET, power law fit, 20C ADIMEW, power law fit 2 to all test data, 300C ADIMEW, power law fit 4, 300C

J 0.2 (kJ/m 2 ) 43.7 130.4 48.4 235.0

Moment, M, (MN m) 1.470 1.804 1.502 1.980

CMOD (mm) 0.304 0.695 0.329 1.080

ADIMEW, power law fit 3 to valid data only, 300C

55.2

1.549

0.365

Tearing predictions: Figure 15 compares two of the considered fracture toughness resistance curves, for an initial 17 mm maximum crack depth, with applied or driving force curves of J versus maximum crack depth for four different values of constant bending moment. These are given in the legend. The 'BIMET' and 'ADIMEW fit 2' resistance curves achieve tangency with the curves of applied J, and so reach a maximum bending moment, after about 22 mm and 25 mm of tearing, respectively. Of course, it is assumed here that the front of the defect tears in a uniform manner. This is obviously an approximation considering the variation of driving force along the front seen Figure 13 and Figure 14. It is apparent from Figure 15 that maximum bending moment is slightly greater than 2 MN m for these two J-R curves.

Fig. 15. Comparison of two buttering J-R curve fits with applied J versus a max for four constant values of moment, showing two tangency conditions Again assuming uniform tearing along the front, Figure 16 uses the finite element results for applied J, plus the material J-R curve fits, to predict bending moment at the cracked section versus crack depth for all five J-R curves considered. The 'ADIMEW fit 1' resistance curve predicts a maximum moment in excess of 2.45 MN m at a max somewhat greater than 26 mm (more than 9 mm tearing). The corresponding figures for the BIMET material fit are 2.09 MN m at a max =21.40 mm (4.4 mm tearing). ADIMEW fit 2 gives a maximum moment of 2.04 MN m at a max =23.8 mm, that is, after 6.8 mm of tearing. ADIMEW fit 4 predicts a maximum moment of nearly 2 MN m, but the moment versus crack depth curve is not well rounded due to lack of smoothing of the J- a relationship near initiation. The predicted moment versus crack depth curve from ADIMEW fit 3 is the lowest of all.

Fig. 16. Bending moment versus crack depth predictions for the five buttering J-R curve fits considered It is very noticeable that most of these predictions give broad plateaux and the plastic yield moment is relatively insensitive to crack depth for the range of amax considered. Tearing and stability of the defect are therefore controlled primarily by the flat tearing resistance of the buttering material, and the rapid change in applied J with bending moment above about 1.8 MN m, with little interaction with the applied load. It should be noted that gross yielding of the pipe assembly occurs mainly in the 316L parent pipe; away from the location of the defect. Figure 17 shows predictions of bending moment versus CMOD for the five resistance curves. According to the ADIMEW fit 2 the bending moment peaks at 2.04 MN m when the CMOD is about 2.35 mm, though again the plateau is broad. For comparison, Figure 18 shows a corresponding set of results from the test. The agreement between ADIMEW fit 2 predictions (using fit to valid and invalid SENB specimen tests) and the large-scale test result itself is remarkably good. (That'fit 4' best predicts initiation while 'fit 2' best predicts the growth behaviour is not surprising. 'Fit 4' was based on a blunt notch (as in the test), whereas 'fit 2' has more data at larger amounts of tearing.)

Fig. 17. Bending moment versus crack mouth opening displacement predictions for five buttering J-R curve fits

Fig. 18. Bending moment versus EdF crack mouth opening displacement measurements from ADIMEW test Estimates were made of the crack growth profile using the finite element results in conjunction with the 'ADIMEW fit 2' fracture toughness versus crack growth relationship. These are shown in Figure 19. The estimated amount of crack growth at each of the 13 nodes on the half-length of the crack front modelled is shown against normalised distance from the middle of the crack front. Curves are shown for different applied bending moments. Crack growth is estimated at each node by matching the applied crack driving force for a given crack depth, J app ( M, a= a o + a), with the increasing material fracture toughness J mat ( a). Here a o is the initial crack depth at each node based on the initial a max =17 mm. Of course, these profiles are approximate estimates because the crack driving force values are based on the finite element analyses modelling a straight crack front; rather than the proper developing curved front. The decreasing steps in moment, moving up the legend of Figure 19, demonstrate an increasing sensitivity of crack growth to bending moment as growth proceeds. Of

course, results are limited to maximum crack growth less than 9 mm, since the largest a max considered in the analyses is 26 mm. These predictions suggest that no crack growth takes place at the free surface.

Fig. 19. Estimated crack growth profiles using the finite element values for applied J and 'ADIMEW fit 2' weld buttering J-R curve; profiles are shown as a function of increasing bending moment

Discussion

The actual ADIMEW pipe test showed a substantial amount of ductile crack growth of the initial defect, a maximum of 28.1 mm through the wall of the pipe, but with no change to its circumferential length around the pipe, as illustrated in Figure 20. This suggests potential for leak-before-break rather than a guillotine failure. The test is therefore a demonstration that supports safety.

Fig. 20. Post-test fracture face of the actual ADIMEW test pipe Such large extent of tearing observed in the test should not be treated with undue alarm; it is a consequence of the maximum ram displacement applied. The bending moments required for significant growth of the defect are close to those required for plastic yielding or collapse of the uncracked pipe. The defect makes negligible difference to structural behaviour of the pipe as a whole. Moments of this magnitude would not be expected to occur during normal operation of such pipework in real plant.

Pre-test discussions and studies envisaged that tearing would be limited to about 9 mm: this led to the maximum 26 mm crack depth (i.e. 17 mm initial plus 9 mm tearing) considered in this study. Crack behaviour up to about 9 mm of tearing was successfully predicted by finite element J-based methods. Bending moments for initiation and maximum load were approximately correct and support the use of such analysis. The toughness of the mock-up buttering layer as measured by small specimens appears to be consistent with a fairly shallow resistance curve. The flat moment versus crack depth or CMOD curves determined in the test reflect the shallow resistance curve of the buttering material. There is therefore potential for large amount of stable tearing if the loads applied are sufficient. The microstructural and mechanistic reasons for the flat R curve behaviour are not entirely clear at present. The cracked section of the pipe is subjected to a predominantly tensile stress field. This may impose less plastic constraint ahead of the crack front than the side-grooved three-point bend and compact tension specimens used to provide the various J-R curves. This difference in crack tip plastic constraint can lead to higher values of apparent fracture toughness in the ADIMEW test pipe geometry: see for example Ref. [12] . These higher values of toughness would give less extensive ductile tearing than predicted here at a particular measured value of a test parameter such as bending moment or CMOD. However, the test results obviously do not bear this out. The apparent toughness of the buttering appears to be consistent with a shallow resistance curve extrapolated from both valid and invalid test results on deeply-cracked(albeit small) bend specimens. It is therefore important to find out, in any future studies of the ADIMEW test, why there appears to be no benefit or margin conferred by structural constraint. One reason could be the confinement of the crack tip plastic zone by the high yield strength ferritic parent pipe; despite gross yielding taking place in the uncracked 316L pipe. More work on this subject linking the microstructure of the buttering layer to the crack tipplastic zone would be worthwhile.

Conclusions
Buttering material on and near the fusion line of the ADIMEW dissimilar metal weld has a low J 0.2 initiation toughness, and a low resistance to tearing, as measured using fatigue pre-cracked specimens. These are significantly lower than those of the bulk weld metal or the coarse grain heat affected zone. Axial residual stress across the dissimilar metal weld is predominantly compressive on both the inside and outside surfaces of the pipe. This is probably a result of the machining that was carried out after post-weld heat treatment. The block splitting technique shows that beneath the pipe surfaces the stresses revert to those consistent with measurements made by JRC and calculated by Framatome. J-based finite element analysis successfully modelled the macroscopic deformation and fracture behaviour of the ADIMEW test pipe. The analysis could predict the load at initiation of ductile tearing accurately, but the prediction was critically dependent on the degree of representation of the resistance curve derived from the small-scale fracture test to that the full size test pipe in terms of crack sharpness, material microstructure and possibly constraint. The analysis successfully predicted the narrow range of load over which significant growth of the defect occurred; a consequence of the low tearing resistance of the buttering material and the rapid change in applied J with bending moment above about 1.8 MN m.

The observed growth of the defect through the wall, but without change in circumferential extent, was successfully predicted from the analysis results, suggesting potential for leak-beforebreak rather than a guillotine failure.

Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the useful collaboration with other ADIMEW partners. They are also grateful for financial support from DG XII of the CEC, under the 5th Framework Programme, and from UK Health and Safety Executive and IMC.

References
Faidy et al, The ADIMEW Project, Proceedings FISA Conference 2003. 'Structural Assessments Procedure for European Industry (SINTAP)', November 1999. BS 7448-4:1997, 'Fracture mechanics toughness tests. Method for determination of fracture resistance curves and initiation values for stable crack extension in metallic materials'. Wardle G: 'Evaluation of Fracture Toughness and Fatigue Crack Growth for Transition Welds at Non-Creep Temperatures', AEA Technology report AEAT-4263 for European Commission contract B7-5340/96/000792/MAR/C2, July 2000, Vaidya W V et al: Tasks 1c and 1f: 'Methods used to determine fracture toughness values and recommendations for specific procedures to be used for transition welds', GKSS Document No.: P3203F02#3, September 1998. Kirk M T and Dodds R H: 'J and CTOD estimation for shallow cracks in single edge notched bend specimens', Journal of Testing and Evaluation, Vol 21, No 4, 1993. Chas G, Faidy C and Hurst R C: 'Structural integrity of bi-metallic components program (BIMET): fracture testing of bi-metallic welds', Paper 8585, Proceedings of ICONE 8, April 2-6, 2000, Baltimore USA. Beaney E M: 'Accurate measurement of residual stress on any steel using the centre hole method'. Strain 9999-106, April 1976. Bouchard P J and Bradford R A W: 'Validated axial residual stress profiles for fracture assessment of austenitic stainless steel pipe girth welds', PVP Vol. 422: Fracture and Fitness, Proceedings of ASME PVP Conference, Atlanta, Georgia, USA, July 22-26, 2001. Schindler H J: 'Residual stress effects on crack growth mechanisms and structural integrity', 9th Conf. on Mechanical Behaviour of Materials, Geneva, Switzerland, 25-29, May 2003. Leggatt R H, Scaramangas A A and Porter Goff R F D: 'On the correction of residual stress measurements obtained using the centre hole method'. Strain, pp.88-96, August 1982. ABAQUS/Standard User's Manuals, Version 5.8. Hibbitt, Karlsson and Sorenson Inc., 1080 Main Street, Pawtucket, Rhode Island, USA, 1998. Anderson T L and Dodds R H: 'A framework for predicting constraint effects in shallow notched specimens'. Proceedings of the International Conference on Shallow Crack Fracture Mechanics Tests and Applications, held at TWI, Cambridge, 23-24 September 1992.

Summary
Aswelded hot and colddrawn mild steel solid round bar specimens are used to determine the effect of flash on the fatigue strength of frictionwelded joints in rotating bending fatigue tests. The results obtained may be summarised as follows. The fatigue strength of the hot and colddrawn frictionwelded joints with flash decreases with an increasing upset pressure. The fracture location of frictionwelded joints with flash is the flash toe. The upset pressure has a pronounced effect on the fatigue strength, whereas the friction pressure and burnoff have little effect. The toe radius of the flash decreases with an increasing upset pressure, whereas the toe angle conversely increases. Stress concentration in the flash toe is therefore considered to be the main cause of the greater loss of fatigue strength in frictionwelded joints with flash than in the base metal. The fatigue strength of the hotdrawn joints recovers to the base metal level under any welding conditions so long as the flash is removed. The colddrawn joints, however, show no such recovery even when the flash is removed. The fatigue strength of the colddrawn joints sharply decreases when stress concentration and softening zones are superposed at the fracture location. During the preparation of frictionwelded joints using colddrawn steel, serious consideration must therefore be given to proper selection of the friction welding conditions.
The mechanical and metallurgical properties of friction welded joints between type 5052 aluminium alloy and type A36 steel have been studied in the present work. Joint strength increased with increasing upset pressure and friction time until it reached a crictical value. The strength of the joint settled at a lower value, compared with that of the base metal, in the case of increasing friction time, caused by the formation of an intermediate phase (intermetallic compound, oxides). The microstructure of 5052 alloy was greatly deformed near the weld interface, and underwent dynamic recrystallisation owing to frictional heat and deformation resulting from the friction welding process. Therefore, a very fine and equiaxed grain structure was observed near the interface. Elongated grains were observed outside the dynamic recrystallisation region at the peripheral part, while the A36 steel side was not deformed. The hardness of the near interface was slightly softer than that of the 5052 alloy base metal, and maximum softened width was ~8 mm from the interface. In the present work, the conditions of friction time t 1 = 0.5 s and upset pressure P 2 = 137.5 MPa gave maximum joint strength of 202 MPa when the friction pressure, upset time and rotation speed were fixed at 70 MPa, 5 s and 2000 rev min-1, respectively, and these were the optimum friction welding conditions for the aluminium alloy 5052-A36 steel joint.