Sensory Receptors

Sensations -- Action potentials that reach the brain via sensory neurons Perceptions - the brains interpretation of sensations Sensory reception - the detection of the energy of a stimulus by receptors in sensory cells Sensory receptors specialized neurons or epithelial cells that respond to specific or generalized stimuli What is stimulus?

Sensory Receptors
Exteroreceptors detect stimuli outside the body
e.g. heat, light, pressure, chemicals

Interoreceptors - detect stimuli within the body,

e.g. blood pressure (baroreceptors), body position (proprioreceptors: muscle spindles + tendon organs) All stimuli represent Energy Convert stimuli into membrane potentials and transmit signals to nervous system.

Figure 49.3

Sensory receptors in human skin

General Receptors or Special Receptors

General receptors - throughout skin Or body: muscle spindles and tendon organs Special Sense Receptors Given location(s) where stimuli are detected Taste buds, nasal cavity Eyes and ears
Pressure Light touch or deep pressure Pain nocioreceptors Thermoreceptors Hot or cold

Sensory Receptors Functions of Sensory Receptors 1. Transduction 2. Amplification 3. Transmission 4. Integration

Sensory Receptors
1. Sensory Transduction Conversion of stimulus energy into membrane potential of receptor cell Begins by a change in membrane permeability results in graded change in membrane potential RECEPTOR POTENTIAL

Is graded: proportional to strength of stimulus can be due to change in ion permeability : 1. as gated ion channels respond to receptor molecule (a ligand binds to) 2. or due to actual stretching of membrane in response to pressure.

Sensory Receptors
2. Amplification - strengthening of a stimulus too weak to be carried into nervous system Direct - Complex organ, ear: sound waves magnified 20X Part of transduction in eye: 100,000X of action potential in signal to brain from eye, vs. few photons of light energy trigger process

Sensory Receptors
3. Transmission - conducting impulses to CNS Some cases, pain receptor, is a sensory neuron that conducts signal other receptors transmit chemical signals (neurotransmitters) across a synapse to a sensory neuron Stimulus does not turn on/off production of action potential but controls the frequency with which they are generated can detect a change in stimulus intensity, not just presence or abscence of stimuli

Sensory Receptors
4. Integration - processing of information > begins immediately integration via summation of graded potentials Sensory adaptation specific type integration Decreased responsiveness to continued stimulation Receptors are selective determine what signals sent to CNS otherwise would feel every heartbeat Integration occurs at every level of nervous system cellular integration is only 1st step

Types of Receptors - type of energy transduced

1. Mechanoreceptors - mechanical energy: pressure, touch, stretch, motion, sound 2. Nocioreceptors - pain (mechanical or heat energy) 3. Thermoreceptors - temperature: heat or cold 4. Chemoreceptors - general or specific chemical molecule binds to site on membrane receptor protein 5. Electromagnetic receptors - electromagnetic energy (elec. Mag. spectrum) light, electricity, magnetism 6. Photoreceptors -- special kind of E.M.R. organized into eyes

Figure 49.17

Structure and function of the human ear

Hearing and Equilibrium

Human ear: outer ear, middle ear, and inner ear Outer ear pinna captures sound waves and Auditory canal -- collects sound waves transfers to middle ear through tympanic membrane (eardrum) Ossicles small bones in middle ear: malleus, incus & stapes Vibrations of the ossicles help amplify and transmit energy to inner ear: to cochlea, snail through oval window.
Middle ear also has Eustachian tubes -- connect to nasal pharynx, allow equalizing pressure with external environment
Organ of Corti has hair cells

Figure 49.4 Mechanoreception by a hair cell

Hearing and Equilibrium

Inner ear: 2 parts: cochlea and semicircular canals 1. cochlea 2 canals Vestibular and Tympanic, filled with fluid Basilar membrane has Organ of Corti contains hair cells are actual receptor cells of ear Sound waves are pressure waves transmitted through this series of structures.
Depolarization increases neurotransmitter release and frequency of action potential in adjacent sensory neuron.

Figure 49.18

How the cochlea distinguishes pitch

Hearing and Equilibrium

Volume is determined by amplitude (wave height) how loud of sound wave

Pitch is determined by frequency of sound wave: (wave length) low or high sounds (base or treble) Basilar membrane is not uniform all along its length but is stiff at proximal end and flexible at distal end. Each region is sensitive to a particular frequency of vibration. > Perception of pitch depends on neural mapping in specific auditory areas of brain. Human Hearing range: 20 Hz to 20,000 Hz.

Figure 49.19

Organs of balance in the inner ear

Hearing and Equilibrium

Inner ear: Semicircular canals 3 channels in inner ear responsible for detecting body position & balance; equilibrium

hair cells respond to changes in movement with respect to gravity & position of the head.

Semicircular Canals

Figure 49.20

The lateral line system in a fish

Chemoreception
Perceptions of smell and taste are interrelated

Receptor function is very similar: (no distinction in animals that inhabit an aqueous environment.) Olfactory receptors -- Sensations of smell.
Detect air borne chemicals, relay an electrical impulse via axons of chemoreceptor cells to olfactory bulb

Gustatory receptors -- Sensations of taste.

Detection of chemicals in a solution, relay an electrical impulse via sensory neurons to thalamus for sorting, sends on to appropriate higher brain center

Figure 49.x1

Chemoreceptors: Snake tongue

Figure 49.2

Sensory transduction by a taste receptor Gustatory Receptors

Figure 49.24

Olfaction in humans

Figure 49.5 Chemoreceptors in an insect: Female releasing pheromones; SEM of male Bombyx mori antenna

silk moth Bombyx mori

Olfactory receptors smell

Figure 49.9

Structure of the vertebrate eye

VISION in the Vertebrate eye

Human eye can detect wide range colors, images of objects miles away, and respond to only one photon of light. Sclera white outer layer of connective tissue, covered by conjunctiva except at Cornea specialized part through which light can penetrate clear Choroid thin pigmented middle layer Iris specialized anterior choroid, muscle, changes size and limits amount light that enters into eye Pupillary reflex Pupil opening where light enters in and hit lens and then retina Retina innermost layer contains photoreceptor cells Rod and cones Lens a transparent disc (protein = crystaline) that focuses light onto the retina

Figure 49.10

Focusing in the mammalian eye

Human eye
Ciliary body produces clear watery fluid (aqueous humor) fills anterior cavity of eye Vitreous humor jelly-like fluid fills posterior cavity function with aqueous humor as liquid lens helps focus light onto retina Lens has ability to change shape to focus light. Accommodation when focusing on near object lens becomes thicker and rounder ciliary muscles contract Retina contains: receptors photoreceptor cells 70% of all sensory

125 million rod cells & 6 million cone cells. Vision is hugely important in human perception of environment.

Figure 49.11 Photoreceptors in the vertebrate retina

Photopigments in Rod and Cone cells

Rhodopsin is the visual pigment in Rod Cells. Responsible for black and white vision in low light (Compensation for color.) signal transduction pathway G protein in membrane

Photopsins other opsins bound to retinal are responsive to light energy in cone cells for color vision red, blue, green absorb at different wavelengths

Color blindness: different types Deficiency in or absence of one or more types of photopsin. More common in males since is x-linked recessive trait.

Rod cells dim light (b/w vision) Cones cells color vision

Figure 49.12

Effect of light on retinal

Bleaching and Regeneration

Retinal - vitamin A derivative + ospin = Rhodopsin Bleaching -- Rhodopsin changes shape as absorbs light Light energy isomerizes retinal unbinds from opsin clear = bleached activated
Transducin cascade causes closing of Na+ channel reduces depolarization, leads to hyperpolarization

Rhodopsin regenerates more slowly than photopsins in cone cells.

Bleaching and regeneration

Figure 49.13

From light reception to receptor potential: A rod cells signal-transduction pathway

Figure 49.15

The vertebrate retina

Optic pathway
Rod Cells & Cone cells
ganglion cells, synapse with bipolar cells , synapse with help integrate visual stimuli

Vertical path

receptor cell > bipolar cell > ganglion > brain.

Lateral path horizontal cells & amacrine cells provide integration leads to lateral inhibition

Horizontal cells inhibit more distant receptors and bipolar cells not receiving stimulus.. Leads to CONTRAST makes light spot appear lighter & dark spot appear darker. Is repeated by amacrine cells interacting with ganglion cells Occurs all level visual processing.

Figure 49.14

Effect of light on synapses between rod cells and bipolar cells

Light Stimulus
In Darkness -- partial depolarization causes continual release of glutamate causes Inhibitory Potentials in bipolar cells Dim light -- small & brief receptor potentials LIGHT Turns off release of glutamate: turns off inhibition Brighter lights -- larger, longer receptor potentials, less glutamate, inhibition totally removed

Figure 49.15x Photoreceptor cells

Optic Pathway
OPTIC NERVE is formed by axons of ganglion cells transmits sensations from eyes to brain optic chiasm Crossing where two optic nerves meet

lateral geniculate nuclei of thalamus to primary visual cortex in occipital lobe of cerebrum

Figure 49.16

Neural pathways for vision

Figure 49.0 Bat locating a moth

Left field of vision in Rt. eye crosses to left side of Visual cortex Right field of vision in Lft. Eye crosses to Right side of visual cortex Optic Chiasm Is the crossing point of the optic nerve fibers

Lateral geniculate nucleus is in THALAMUS

Vision and Hearing problems

Vision problems
Myopia = nearsightedness Hyperopia = farsightedness

Changes occur in eyes and ears that affect ability to see and hear. Can occur during life or due to mutations

Presbyopia gradually decreasing ability to focus on nearby

objects

Vision problems
Myopia = nearsightedness when light rays entering eye focus in front of the retina, not directly on it. able to see close objects well, but objects in the distancesuch as highway signs or writing on a chalkboardappear blurred.
People may squint to see distant objects experience eyestrain or, sometimes, headaches. Eyeglasses or contact lenses can correct myopia. Surgery is another alternative.

Vision problems
Hyperopia = farsightedness,
when light rays entering the eye focus behind the retina, not directly on it. People with hyperopia are usually able to see distant objects well, but close objects appear blurry. Hyperopia may cause eyestrain or headaches, especially with reading.

Eyeglasses or contact lenses can correct hyperopia. Laser vision correction is sometimes possible.

Presbyopia
Eyes gradually decreasing ability to focus on nearby objects. Presbyopia is a normal part of aging and affects virtually everyone, usually becoming noticeable after age 40. People typically hold reading materials at arm's length in order to bring the words into focus. may experience headaches or eyestrain while reading, viewing a computer screen; Presbyopia can be corrected with reading glasses, bifocal or variable focus lenses, or contact lenses. Using bright, direct light when reading is also helpful.

Vision problems
Macular degeneration

Cataracts

Glaucoma

Aniridia

Macular degeneration

Macular degeneration
Peripheral vision is generally not affected. painless and gradual

causes dysfunction of the macula, an area in the middle of the retina that makes possible the sharp central vision needed reading, driving, and recognizing faces and colors. age-related macular degeneration ARMD is the leading cause of visual impairment among older people. causes blurred, distorted, or dim vision or a blind spot in the center of the visual field.

the affected person at first notices little change. No cure for macular degeneration, but drug therapy, laser surgery, or other medical treatment may in some cases be able to slow the disease's progression or prevent further vision loss. People can benefit from the use of various devices for low vision, such as magnifiers, high-intensity lamps, and pocketsized telescopes.

Cataracts
Condition in which the lens of the eye, (normally clear) becomes cloudy or opaque. Cataracts generally form slowly and without pain. They can affect one or both eyes.

Glaucoma
Pressure of the fluid inside the eye is too high,
resulting in a loss of peripheral vision. If the condition is not diagnosed and treated, the increased pressure can damage the optic nerve; eventually lead to total blindness. Vision lost as a result of such damage cannot be restored. A person who has glaucoma may not realize it at first, because the disease often progresses with no symptoms or warning signs. Early detection through regular eye examination and prompt treatment is essential to prevent vision loss.

Over time, a cataract may interfere with vision, causing images to appear blurred or fuzzy and colors to seem faded.

Most cataracts are related to aging; more than 50 percent of all adults by age 80 and are the primary cause of vision loss in people 55 and older. If cataract interferes with daily activities, surgery is the only effective treatment. Cataract surgery, which is common, involves removal of the cloudy lens and replacement with an artificial lens.

Aniridia
Partial or complete absence of the iris of eye. Rare condition, usually present at birth, results in impaired vision and sensitivity to light.

Causes of hearing loss

Conductive hearing loss

Sensorineural hearing loss

At high risk for certain other eye conditions: glaucoma, nystagmus, and cataracts
May benefit from wearing tinted contact lenses or sunglasses, using magnifiers, and avoiding intense or glaring light.

Genetic and/or congenital (present at birth)

Up to 48 % cases, cause remains unknown

Conductive hearing loss

interferes with transmission of sound from the outer to the inner ear. 1. middle ear infections (otitis media) 2. collection of fluid in middle ear ("glue ear" in children) 3. blockage of the outer ear (by wax) 4. damage to the eardrum by infection or an injury 5. otosclerosis, the ossicles of the middle ear become immobile because of growth of the surrounding bone

Sensorineural hearing loss p.1

due to damage to the pathway for sound impulses from the hair cells of the inner ear to the auditory nerve and brain. 1. age-related hearing loss - decline in hearing that many people experience as they get older 2. acoustic trauma to hair cells (injury caused by loud noise) 3. viral infections of the inner ear (e.g. by viruses such as mumps or measles) 3. Mnire's disease (abnormal pressure in the inner ear) 4. certain drugs, such as aspirin, quinine & some antibiotics, which can affect the hair cells

Sensorineural hearing loss p.2

due to damage to the pathway for sound impulses from the hair cells of the inner ear to auditory nerve & brain 5. a benign (non-cancerous) tumor affecting auditory nerve 6. viral infections of the auditory nerve mumps or rubella) 7. infections or inflammation of the brain or brain covering eg. meningitis 8. multiple sclerosis 9. a brain tumor 10. a stroke (eg.

Deafness in children
Around one in 1000 children are deaf at the age of three. problems with the birth (including premature birth), number of inherited conditions.

If a pregnant woman gets rubella, the baby is at risk of being born with profound deafness importance of vaccination against rubella, via MMR vaccine.

Resources
Glossary of eye conditions American Foundation for the Blind

http://www.afb.org/Section.asp?DocumentID=2139#macular %20degeneration

http://hcd2.bupa.co.uk/fact_sheets/Mosby_factsheets/Hearing_ Loss.html A British health care corporation

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