MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY DEPARTMENT OF TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION

E 4101 ENGINEERING ENGLISH

SEMESTER VII
(ALL COURSES)

B. Tech. (Second Year)

CONTENTS
UNIT 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Portable Generator Environmental/Sanitary Engineering Washing Machine Corrosion Lawn-Mower The Forge The Building of the Future The Problem of Measurements Electrical Instruments Reduce, Reuse, Recycle Japans Underground Frontier TITLE PAGE 3 12 19 28 33 41 46 54 62 70

UNIT 1

PORTABLE GENERATOR
Tuning-in Task I List the different ways in which electricity can be generated. Reading Task II Study the diagram below of a portable generator. using the diagram and your own knowledge of engineering. 1 What are its main parts? 2 What does the engine run on? 3 What are the four stokes called? 4 What is the function of the crankshaft? 5 What do both stator and rotor have? 6 What is the difference between stator and rotor? Answer these questions Reading diagrams

Task III

Read this text to check as many of the answers as you can. You will not find complete answers to all of the questions. Portable generator Although most electricity comes from power stations, power can also be generated by far smaller means. Nowadays, electricity generators can be small enough to hold in the hand. Portable generators are made up of two main parts: an engine, which powers 5 the equipment, and an alternator, which converts motion into electricity. The engine shown (Fig.1) runs on petrol. It is started by pulling a cord. This creates a spark inside which ignites the fuel mixture. In a typical four-stoke engine, when the piston descends, the air inlet value opens and a mixture of air and petrol is sucked in through a carburettor. 10 The valve closes, the piston rises on the compression stroke and a spark within the upper chamber ignites the mixture. This mini-explosion pushes the piston back down, and as it rises again the fumes formed by the ignition are forced out through the exhaust valve. This cycle is repeated many times per second. The moving piston makes the 15 crankshaft rotate at great speed. The crankshaft extends directly to an alternator, which consists of two main sets of windings - coils of insulated copper wire wound closely around an iron core. One set, called stator windings, is in a fixed position and shaped like a broad ring. The other set, the armature windings, is wound on the 20 rotor which is fixed to the rotating crankshaft. The rotor makes about 3,000 revolutions per minute. The rotor is magnetized and as it spins round, electricity is generated in the stator windings through the process of electromagnetic induction. electric current is fed to the output terminals or sockets. 25 This type of generator can produce a 700 watt output, enough to operate lights, television, and some domestic appliances. Larger versions provide emergency power to hospitals and factories. The

Task IV Study this text on the four-stroke cycle. Fig. 2 below. In the four-stroke cycle, the piston descends on the intake stoke, during which the inlet valve is open. The piston ascends on the compression stroke with both valves closed and ignition takes place at the top of the stoke. The power or expansion stoke follows. The gas generated by the burning fuel expands rapidly, driving the piston down, both valves remaining closed. The cycle is completed by the exhaust stoke, as the piston ascends once more, forcing the products of combustion out through the exhaust value. The cycle then repeats itself. Then label each stroke correctly

Language study

Cause and Effect

Study these pairs of actions. What is the link between each pair? 1 The gas expands. 2 This drives the piston down. 3 The piston ascends. 4 This forces the products of combustion out. There are two links between the actions. They happen at the same time. We can show this using As. 1+2 3+4 As the gas expands, it drives the piston down. As the piston ascends, it forces the products of combustion out.

One is a cause and the other an effect. 1 Cause: The gas expands. 2 Effect: This drives the piston down. 3 Cause: The piston ascends. 4 Effect: This forces the products of combustion out. We can show both the time link and the cause and effect link like this: 1+2 3+4 Task V Link these actions in the same way. Cause 1 The piston moves sown the cylinder. 2 The piston creates a vacuum. 3 The piston moves up the cylinder. 4 The gas expands quickly. 5 The piston moves up the down. 6 The crankshaft spins round. 7 The armature of the alternator rotates. Effect This creates a partial vacuum. This draws in fuel from the carburettor. This compresses the mixture. This pushes the piston down. This rotates the crankshaft. This turns the rotor at 3,000 rpm. This induces a current in the stator windings. The gas expands, driving the piston down. The piston ascends, forcing the products of combustion out.

8 The alternator runs at a steady 3,000rpm.

This generates around 700 watts.

Word study Study this statement:

Verbs with ize/ -ise

The rotor is magnetized. We can rewrite this statement as: The rotor is made magnetic. Verbs ending in ize/-ise have a range of meanings with the general sense of make + adjective. Task VI Rewrite these sentences replacing the phrases in italics with appropriate -ize/-ise verbs. 1 Some cars are fitted with a security device which makes the engine immobile. 2 In areas where the power supply fluctuates for sensitive equipment a device to make the voltage stable is required. 3 Manufacturers seek to keep costs to a minimum and profits to a maximum. 4 Most companies have installed computers to control their production line. 5 Companies may make their operation more rational by reducing the variety of products they make.

Writing

Describing a process: sequence and location

Task VII Fig. 3 below shows the distribution of power from power station to consumer. The statements which follow describe the distribution. Put the statements in the correct order with the help of the diagram. The first one has been done for you.

a It is fed to substations. b It is stepped up by a transformer to high voltages for long-distance distribution. c It is distributed via the grid to supply points. d It is distributed to the domestic consumer. e Electricity is generated at the power station at 25 kV. f It passes via the switching compound to the grid. g It is distributed via overhead or underground cables to intermediate substations. ____1_____

Task VIII

Mark the sequence of stages using appropriate sequence words where you think this is helpful. Add the following information to your statements and make them into a text. 1. At the main grid supply points, power is stepped down to 33 kV for distribution to heavy industry. 2. At intermediate substations, power is reduced to 11 kV for light industry. 3. At the distribution substations, power is stepped down to 415 V, 3-phase and 240 V, 1-phase.

Technical reading Task IX

Wave power

The two texts which follow describe two plants for generating electricity from wave power. Note the similarities and differences between the plants.

This prototype wave-power plant on the Scottish island of Islay was constructed by building a concrete water column across a natural gully on the shoreline. Waves flowing in and out of the gully cause water in the column to move up and down. As the water moves up it

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compresses the air above and forces it through a wide tube at the back of the water column. As the water moves down, air is drawn into the water column. The moving air passes through a turbine coupled to a generator. Both the turbine and generator are unusual. The turbine is a Wells (named after its inventor) which keeps turning in one direction even though the air flow is

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constantly changing direction. It has two rotors, each with four blades. The generator is a wound rotor induction motor, which acts as a generator when it is turning at speeds greater than 1,500 rpm. Below that speed it operates as a motor and takes power from the grid. This motor/ generator is used because the turbine takes some time to build up to a speed where it can

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generate electricity. When the turbine slows down due to a lull in wave activity, the generator becomes an electric motor and keeps the turbine running at a minimum speed so that it is ready to accept the power from the next batch of waves. The plant is controlled by a computer. It includes a PLC (programmable logic

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controller), which monitors the operation of the motor/ generator and the amount of electricity going to or being taken from the grid. There is also testing equipment to monitor how much electricity the plant is producing and the efficiency of the water column, turbine, and generator. This experimental plant generates 150 KW. Plans have been approved for the construction of a 1

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MW scheme. Source: Adapted from Inside out: Wave power. Education Guardian

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The world's first power station in the open sea is to be stationed off Dounreay in Scotland. The machine, called Osprey (Ocean Swell-powered Renewable Energy) will stand in 18 metres of water a kilometre out and not only harvest the larger waves, which produce higher outputs, but also gain power with 5 waves from any direction. The device is known as an oscillating water column. As a wave rises, air is pushed through an air turbine and sucked back again as the wave falls. The turbine has been designed by Professor Alan Wells, of Queen's University, Belfast. It will generate 2 megawatts. 10 There is potential for 300 Ospreys in Scottish waters which could provide 10 percent of the country's peak electricity demand.

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UNIT 2 ENVIRONMENTAL / SANITARY ENGINEERING

Environmental / Sanitary engineering is concerned with providing clean, safe water supply systems for towns, cities, and rural areas. It is also concerned with disposing of excess water and waste materials by means of sewer systems. Many aspects of environmental / sanitary engineering 5 are directly related to hydraulic engineering. After the connection between water supply and certain diseases such as typhoid was established in the nineteenth century, cities and towns all over the world built safe water supply systems. In addition to transporting water over long distances, modern water supply 10 systems also use several techniques for purification. One of them is filtration. The water is passed through a filter that consists of a bed of sand or gravel, which removes a large proportion of the solids that might otherwise contaminate the supply. Another process is aeration. Sprays of water are shot into the air, where sunlight and oxygen help kill bacteria and also 15 remove gases with an unpleasant odor or taste; or air is bubbled in or through the water. A third method involves treatment with chemicals, usually chlorine, to kill harmful bacteria. chlorination. Part of providing a safe water supply is disposing of liquid and solid 20 wastes. This problem has become acute in recent years not only because of world-wide population growth, but also because of the vast amount of waste created by industrial processes and by the great mountains of trash that are the by-product of increased consumption. A large number of modern drainage systems use the same sewers to 25 dispose of domestic wastes and runoff water from storms. Many of these systems were designed to empty into streams or other bodies of water where nature itself purified the water over a period of time. Now, The process is known as

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however, the amount of waste has become so great that many streams and lakes and even the seas have become polluted. More and more treatment 30 plants are being built to purify water before it is released back into the environment. Therefore, the modern trend is to build separate drainage systems for storm runoff and for domestic wastes so that the treatment plants do not have to process the runoff water, which is relatively unpolluted. 35 There are a number of different methods by which solid wastes can be removed or rendered harmless. Several of them are ordinarily used in combination in treatment plants. One of the processes is filtration. Another is sedimentation, in which wastes are allowed to settle until they become solid or semisolid and can be removed. There are also techniques in which 40 water ca be treated by biological means, by using some kinds of bacteria to kill other kinds, or by chemical means, as in chlorination. One of the most successful methods is called the activated-sludge process. It involves using compressed air to increase and control the rate of biological reactions that purify the wastes. Present-day concern over environmental pollution 45 has increased the demand that waste water should be treated to the fullest degree possible before it is returned to the environment. Vast amounts of trash have also posed problems in disposal. Much of it has been used as landfill by dumping in swampy areas or in shallow water so that the area can be made useful. A great deal of it has also been burned 50 in incinerators, huge furnaces that reduce the wastes to ash. Incinerators, however, are out of fashion today because they release harmful fumes into the air. Many of them are being redesigned to control these emissions more effectively. The concern for a cleaner environment together with the need to conserve 55 and reuse our resources has created a challenge for which sanitary engineers, working with environmentalists, will be called upon to find new solutions over the next few years.

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Exercise I What do the underlined words in the passage refer to? 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. It One which where This problem where which which they It it it them in line 2 in line 10 in line 12 in line 14 in line 20 in line 27 in line 33 in line 38 in line 38 in line 42 in line 46 in line 49 in line 52

Exercise II Fill in each of the blanks in the following sentences with the appropriate word or expression. 1. ..engineering systems provide clean water supply, drainage, and waste disposal services. 2. Some . are used only for excess water runoff, but others also carry domestic wastes. 3. Harmful substances can be removed from waste materials in a plant. 4. The process of passing water through sand or gravel to remove solid is known as.. 5. In aeration, sprays of water are shot into the air where. kills many of the bacteria. 6. Water can be purified by . means, by using chlorine that kills bacteria and by .. means in which some kinds of bacteria are used to kill other kinds.

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7. In ., wastes are allowed to settle until they become solid or semisolid and can be moved. 8. The .process involves the use of compressed air to increase and control the rate of biological reactions that purify wastes. 9. A great deal of trash is completely burned up in

Exercise III Answer the following questions. 1. What does environmental/ sanitary engineering deal with? 2. To what other branch of engineering are many aspects of environmental engineering directly related? 3. Why did cities and towns all over the world begin building safe water supply systems in the nineteenth century? 4. What are some of the water purification techniques that are currently used? 5. What is part of providing a safe water supply? Why has this problem become acute? 6. What two purposes do a large number of modern drainage systems serve? 7. Why were sewer systems designed to empty into streams or other bodies of water? 8. What has happened as a result of the large amount of waste? 9. What steps are being takes to overcome the problem of water pollution from the release of wastes? 10. What are some of the different methods by which solid wastes can be removed or rendered harmless? 11. What demand has present-day concern over environmental pollution increased? 12. What poses another problem in disposal? 13. What two methods have been employed to dispose of trash? 14. Why are incinerators out of fashion today? What is being done about this? 15. What challenge has concern fro the environment created?

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Structure Result Example:

So / Such That / as to

1. The amount of waste has become so great that many streams and lakes have become polluted. 2. The amount of waste is increasing so greatly that many streams and lakes have become polluted. 3. The country has so many natural resources that it can support itself easily. 4. The country has so much fuel that it can export large quantities. 5. The country has so little as to make it necessary to import large quantities. 6. The increase in production is so rapid 7. The population is increase so rapidly 8. There is such a rapid increase in population 9. There are such rapid increases in population Exercise IV Complete these statements with the appropriate words: 1. The fuel is . volatile it cannot be weighted in an open crucible without loss. 2. The temperature of the gas may rise to.. extent the hydrocarbons decompose. 3. The friction losses are ..much reduced .become negligible. 4. Steam is now required in ..large quantities .very large capacity boilers have to be built. 5. ..interest has been shown in the new model large scale productions to start at once. 6. The steel is in brittle condition it can only be scrapped. 7. The engine proved . More reliable than the earlier ones .it has gradually replaced them. (as to cause a food shortage.)

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8. There are few moving parts .maintenance is reduced to a minimum. 9. Tungsten carbide is ..hard material it can cut metal at very high speed. 10. The mixture would have .large air / fuel ratio . make it difficult to ignite.

Structure E.g.

Result (so that / Therefore) so that that it expands in the cylinder. will soon become obsolete. it expands in the cylinder it will soon become obsolete.

The temperature of the gas rises The aircraft is limited in speed, The temperature of the gas rises. The air craft speed is limited

with the result it Therefore, As a result, Consequently, Hence,

Exercise V Use the patterns given above to link these statements: 1. The friction losses are greatly reduced. They may be neglected. 2. A corrosive acid is liable to be produced. Special precautions have to be taken. 3. The weather was very bad for some weeks. Progress with the building of the bridge was not so good as was expected. 4. Labour-management relations are very good. serious disputes. 5. The material is heated in air. It oxidizes. 6. The bearings are lubricated. The friction is reduced. 7. Water was sprayed into the steam causing condensation. A partial vacuum was produced. There are seldom any

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8.

The crystal boundaries of the metals are broken down. disintegrate.

The metals

9. The valve closes some of the low pressure nozzles. The speed drops. 10. Super heating dries the steam. Blade erosion is considerably reduced.

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UNIT 3 WASHING MACHINE

Tuning-in Task I Many items in the home contain control systems. The washing machine is one of the most complex. List some of the factors the control system of a washing machine must handle. This diagram may help you.

Reading

Reading diagrams

In engineering, diagrams carry a great deal of information. They can also help you to understand the accompanying text. For this reason, it is helpful to try to understand any diagram before reading the text.

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Task II Study the diagram again. Try to explain the function of each of these items. 1. Pump 2. Motor 3. Shock absorber 4. Solenoid valves 5. Heater 6. Pressure sensor 7. Door lock and sensor 8. Temperature sensor 9. Fan Task III Read this text to check your answers to Task I. Control systems in the home Most devices in the home have some sort of control. For example, you can control the volume of a TV by using a remote control. The building blocks of a control system are:

Input
Press button on remote control

Control
Singnal is sent to TV

Output
Volum e is adjusted

The input can be any movement or any change in the environment. For example, a drop in temperature may cause a heating system to come on. The control may change the size of the output (for example, adjusting the sound of a TV). Often this involves changing one kind of input into a different kind of output. For example, opening a window may set off a burglar alarm. Outputs can be of many kinds. An alarm system may ring a bell, flash lights, and send a telephone message to the police.

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Most control systems are closed loops. checking that the output is correct. control unit. Fig. 2
Temperature sensor Control unit Feedback

That means they incorporate a way of The

In other words, they have feedback.

thermostat in a central heating system (Fig.2) provides constant feedback to the

Boiler switch

Boiler/Pump Radiators

The control system of a modern washing machine has to take into account several different factors. These are door position, water level, water temperature, wash and spin times, and drum speeds. Most of them are decided when you select which washing program to use. Fig. 3 shows a block diagram of a washing machine control system. You can see that this is quite complex closed loop system using feedback to keep a check on water level, water temperature, and drum speeds.
Program selector Clock Pump

Water level sensor Door position sensor Water temp sensor Drum speed sensor

Control unit

Water valves

Heater

Motor

Fig.3

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The control unit is the heart of the system. It receives and sends out signals which control all the activities of the machine. It is also capable of diagnosing faults which may occur, stopping the program, and informing the service engineer what is wrong. It is a small, dedicated computer which, like other computers, uses the language of logic. Task IV Read the following text to find the answers to these questions: 1. What device is used to lock the door? 2. What provides feedback to the control unit about the door position? Text 1 Door position The machine will not start any program unless the door is fully closed and locked. When the door is closed, it completes an electrical circuit which heats up a heat- sensitive pellet. This expands as it gets hot, pushing a mechanical lock into place and closing a switch. The switch signals the control unit that the door is closed and locked. Only when it has received this signal will the control unit start the wash program. Now work in pairs, A and B Student A: Read Texts 2 and 3. Student B: Read Texts 4 and 5. Complete your section of the table below. Then exchange information with your partner to complete the whole table. Control factor 1. Door position 2. Water level 3. Water temperature 4. Wash and spin times 5. Drum speeds Operating device Heat-sensitive pellet Feedback by switch

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Text 2 Water level When a wash program first starts it has to open the valves which allow the water in. There are usually two of these valves, one for hot water and one for cold. Each must be controlled separately depending on the water temperature needed for that program. The valves are solenoid operated, i.e. they are opened and closed electrically. The rising water level is checked by the water level sensor. This is a pressure sensor. The pressure of the air in the plastic tube rises as it is compressed by the rising water. The pressure sensor keeps the control unit informed as to the pressure reached and the control unit uses the information to decide when to close the water inlet valves.

Text 3 Water temperature The temperature sensor, a type of the thermometer which fits inside the washer drum, measures the water temperature and signals it to the control unit. The control unit compares it with the temperature needed for the program being used. If the water temperature is too low, the control unit will switch on the heater. The temperature sensor continues to check the temperature and keep the control unit informed. Once the correct temperature is reached, the control unit switches off the heater and moves on to the next stage of the program.

Text 4 Clock The control unit includes a memory which tells it how long each stage of a program should last. The times may be different for each program. The electronic clock built into the control unit keeps the memory of the control unit informed so that each stage of each program is timed correctly.

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Text 5 Drum speed During the washing and spinning cycles of the program, the drum has to spin at various speeds. Most machines use three different speeds: 53 rpm for washing, 83 rpm for distributing the load before spinning, 100 rpm for spinning. The control unit signals the motor to produce these speeds. The motor starts up slowly, when gradually increases speed. The speed sensor, a tachogenerator, keeps the control unit informed as to the speed that has been reached. The control unit uses the information to control the power to the motor and so controls the speed of the drum at all times.

Language study Task V

If / Unless sentences

Fill in the blanks in this table using the information in Fig.3 and the texts in Task IV. Sensor Water Water temperature high enough Drum speed decrease motor speed Condition level low level high enough switch on heater Control unit action open inlet valves

The conditions which the sensors report determine the action of the control unit. We can link each condition and action like this: If the water level is low the inlet valves are opened.

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Task VI Write similar sentences for the other five conditions given. Now study this example: Sensor Door Condition Door open Door closed Control unit action Machine cannot start Machine can start

We can link these conditions and actions as follows: 1. If the door is open, the machine cannot start. 2. If the door is closed, the machine can start. 3. Unless the door is closed, the machine cannot start. We use unless when an action cannot or will not happen if a prior condition is not true. In example 3, Unless means If not. We can rewrite 3 as: If the door is not closed, the machine cannot start.

Task VII Complete these sentences using Unless and your knowledge of engineering. 1. Unless the ignition is switched on, a car cannot 2. Unless the pilot light is on, gas central heating will not . 4. Unless there is current flowing in the primary coil of a transformer, there will be no current in the 5. Unless there is 6. Unless the doors are 7. Unless mild steel is painted, it will 8. Unless electrical equipment is earthed, it may be coil. in the cylinders, a petrol engine will not start. , a lift will not operate. . . . .

3. Unless the diverter valve is switched on to central heating, the radiators will not

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Writing Task VIII

Explaining a diagram

Study this diagram of a pressure sensor. Explain how it works by linking each pair of actions with appropriate time words.

1. A wash programme first starts. It opens the valves to allow the water in. 2. The water level in the drum rises. The air in the plastic tube is compressed. 3. The pressure rises. The diaphragm moves upwards. 4. This continues. The switch contacts are separated. 5. This happens. The fill valves are closed. Task IX Join the following groups of statements to make longer sentences. Use the words printed in italics above each group. You may omit words and make whatever changes you think are necessary in the word order and punctuation of the sentences. Join the sentences to make a paragraph. 1. which The temperature sensor measures the water temperature. The temperature sensor is a type of thermometer.

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2. and The temperature sensor fits inside the washer drum. The temperature sensor signals the water temperature to the control unit. 3. which The control unit compares the water temperature with the temperature. The temperature is needed for the programme being used. 4. If The water temperature is too low. The control unit will switch on the heater. 5. and The temperature sensor continues to check the temperature. The temperature sensor keeps the control unit informed. 6. when . and The correct temperature is reached. The control unit switches off the heater. The control unit moves on to the next stage of the programme.

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UNIT 4 CORROSION

A major consideration in engineering design is maintenance. One of the commonest causes of failure in the long term is corrosion. This is any deterioration in the component's appearance or physical properties. Corrosion covers a number of processes whereby a metal changes 5 state as a result of some form of interaction with its environment. It often occurs where water, either as a liquid of vapour in air of high humidity, is present. In general, corrosion becomes worse when impurities are present in damp conditions. It never starts inside a material, and there will always be 10 surface evidence that indicates corrosion exists, although close examination may be needed. A common example of corrosion is the rusting of steel where a conversion of metallic iron to a mixture of oxides and other compounds occurs. This not only changes the appearance of the metal but also results in a 15 decrease in its cross-section. It is imperative that a design takes into account whether a material will be affected in a particular environment and, if corrosion is likely, at what rate. Many factors can intervene in a way to restrain its progress. example is aluminium and its alloys which perform satisfactorily in many 20 engineering and domestic applications when exposed to air and water. This is due to the rapid production of a tough adherent film of oxide which protects the metal from further attack so that corrosion halts. An

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Exercise I Skim the given passage to identify the paragraphs which contain: a b c d e Conditions in which corrosion occurs Need to consider corrosion in design A definition of corrosion Factors which limit corrosion Effects of rust

Exercise II Answer these questions in complete sentences. 1. In corrosion, why do metals change state? 2. Name two factors which encourage corrosion. 3. Where can signs of corrosion always be found? 4. What is rust? 5. Why may rust be dangerous to a structure? 6. What must designers consider regarding corrosion? 7. Why does aluminium perform well when exposed to air and water? Exercise III Nature and appearance of corrosion products (Aircraft Engineering) Alloys Type of attack to which alloy is susceptible Aluminium alloys Titanium alloys Surface pitting, intergranular and exfoliation Highly corrosion resistant. Extended or repeated contact with chlorinated solvents may result in degradation of the metals' structural properties Magnesium Highly susceptible to pitting White powdery snowNo visible corrosion products Appearance of Corrosion products White or grey powder

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alloys

like mounds, and white spots on surface

Low alloy steels (4000-8000 series) Corrosion resistant steel (CRES)(300400 series)

Surface oxidation and pitting, surface and intergranular Intergranular corrosion (due to improper heat treatment).Some tendency to pitting in marine environment (300 series more corrosion resistant than 400 series).Stress corrosion cracking

Reddish-brown oxide (rust) Corrosion evidenced by rough surface; sometimes by red , brown, or black stain

Nickel-base alloys (Inconel)

Generally has good corrosionresistant qualities. Sometimes susceptible to pitting

Green powdery deposit

Copper-base alloy, brass, bronze Chromium(used as a wear-resistant plating for steels)

Surface and intergranular corrosion Subject to pitting in chloride environments

Blue or blue-green powder deposit Chromium,being cathodic to steel, does not corrode itself, but promotes rusting of steel where pits occur in the coating

Scan the table to find the answers to these questions. 1. What colour is the corrosion product on nickel-base alloys? 2. Which alloys are most susceptible to pitting? 3. What does CRES refer to? 4. When is chromium susceptible to pitting?

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5. What is Inconel? 6. Which alloys have the highest resistance to corrosion? 7. What is the difference in appearance between corrosion on aluminium alloys and corrosion on copper-base alloy? 8. Which CRES is more corrosion resistant? 9. What visible signs are there of corrosion in titanium alloys? 10. Name two alloys subject to intergranular corrosion.

Language study

Cause and effect

What connection can you see between the following? corrosion loss of strength dampness reduction in cross-section Put them in the correct order to show this connection. Cause and effect links like these are common in engineering explanations. You can link a cause and effect when both are nouns or noun phrases, like this: 1 If you want to put the cause first. Cause Dampness causes results in gives rise to brings about leads to Effect corrosion

If you want to put the effect first.

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Effect Corrosion is caused by results from is the result of is the effect of is brought about by is due to Exercise I

Cause dampness

Study these lists, A and B. Items in list A are causes of those in list B but the items are mixed up. Link the related items. For example: Reduction in cross-section A 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 reduction in cross-section insulation break down overtightening overloading a circuit carelessness impurities lack of lubrication friction repeated bending overrunning an electric motor Now write sentences to show the link. For example: Loss of strength results from reduction in cross-section. a b c d e f g h I j loss of strength B corrosion bearing failure excessive heat shearing in metal loss of strength shearing in bolts blown fuses short circuits accidents wear and tear in machinery

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UNIT 5 LAWN-MOWER
Tuning-in Task I Study this diagram of a lawn-mower. Then answer the questions about the diagram.

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Task II

How is the grass cut? How is the height of the cut adjusted? What is the purpose of the fan? How do the cuttings enter the grass box? How is power provided? How is the motor protected from grass intake? What is the function of the hood?

Analyse the functions of a lawn-mower by completing this 'Why and How' diagram using the labels provided below.

3 1
Rotate impeller

provide horizontal velocity to blade

Impact grass with sharp edge

Cut grass

5 7
provide duck to grass provide grass box

Collect cuttings

Trim lawn

Why Fig. 2 Function Analysis System Technique (FAST) diagram a b rotate blade transport cuttings

How

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c d e f g h Reading 1 Task III

store cuttings use spacers bring grass upright achieve air-flow provide motor position blade height Predicting

You are going to read a text about engineering design. The title is: FAST, a versatile design tool Before you read the text, think about the answers to these questions: 1 2 3 Why do products have a finite life? How can too little quality ruin a producer? What does a customer require of any product? Now read the text to check your answers and to find out the answers to these questions. 4 5 6 7 What is a 'window of opportunity'? What is FAST? What does it allow the designer to do? How can a design team use FAST to put value into a design? FAST, a versatile design tool The task of the engineer is to produce the correct product at the correct cost at the correct time. If a product misses its window of opportunity, the manufacturer can lose up to 33% of the life cycle profits. Lost sales are never made up as changes in the market place and in competitors' equipment mean 5 that any product has a finite life. The correct product is one which will satisfy the customer's requirements; functionality, quality, affordability, and availability. It must also satisfy the producer's requirements: low manufacturing costs, simple quality control, and an identified marketing opportunity. Quality is important to both customer and

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manufacturer. Too much will ruin the producer, too little will alienate the customer and may also ruin the producer if faulty goods have to be recalled. The designer's goal is to get it right first time. To do this a design process must be used which is effective at producing a good design. An important tool in the design process is the Functional Analysis System Technique (FAST)

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diagram. This enables the designer to understand the functional relationships of the system being designed. The example illustrated (Fig.2) shows the technique applied to the design of a lawn-mower. The customer's requirement 'Trim lawn' appears in the box to the right of the diagram. Reading from the left, one can ask the question 'Why' of any of the

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statements contained in the other boxes, and the answers will all lead to the customer's requirement. Starting from the right and asking the question 'How" establishes the reason for the function described. FAST has many uses - for example, to analyse a competitor's equipment. This tool also enables a design team to put value into a design. The process usually

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involves combining a number of functions into single parts, thus reducing the number of parts and saving cost in both materials and labour.

Reading 2

Grammar links

Study this paragraph from the text, some phrases have been printed in bold. Answer the question in italics which follow them. The designer's goal is to get it right first time. To do this [To do what?] a design process must be used which is effective at producing a good design. An important tool in the design process is the functional Analysis System Technique (FAST) diagram. This [What?] enables the designer to understand the functional relationship of the system being designed. The example shows the technique [Which technique?] applied to the design of a lawn mower. Task IV

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This text has more examples of the links studied here. Answer the questions in the text. On most mowers, a motor with power of around 1 KW is used to drive the cutter and fan at over 6,000 revolutions per minute (about the same [ Same what?] as a fast-revving car). The motor is usually electric but some types [ Of what?] use petrol engines. The fan sucks air in through two intakes, one in front of the mower and one behind in the grass box. These currents [ Of what?] flow past the motor, helping to keep it [What?] cool, before being forced under the machine. This [What?] supports its [What's?] weight.

Language Study

Describing functions

To analyse the functions of a machine, we need to be able to answer 'How' and 'Why' question. We have studied most of these methods in previous units. We will revise them here and introduce some new methods. 1. How questions Answer this question about the lawn-mower shown in Task 1. How are the clippings stored? We can answer 'How' questions like this: 1. 2. With by + -ing. For example: The clippings are stored by providing a grass box. With used + to verb or used + for -ing when the instrument is given for example: A grass box is used to store the clippings. A grass box is used for storing the clippings . 2 Why questions Answer this question about the lawn-mower. Why is the impeller rotated? We can answer 'Why' questions like this: 1 With to + verb

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The impeller is rotated to achieve air-flow. 2 With so that + clause The impeller is rotated so that air-flow can be achieved.

Task V Explain these functions of the lawn-mower. 1 How are the cuttings transported? 2 How is air-flow achieved? 3 How is the blade height positioned? 4 How is horizontal velocity provided to the blade? 5 How is the grass impacted with a sharp edge? 6 Why is a grass box provided? 7 Why is the grass brought upright? 8 Why are spacers used? 9 Why is air-flow achieved? 10 Why is a motor provided?

Word Study

Noun + noun: function

Some noun + noun compounds in engineering contain a noun formed from a verb. Often these compounds explain the function of the object. For example: A heat exchanger is used to exchange heat. A heat exchanger is used for exchanging heat. Task VI Explain these functions of these objects: 1 shock absorber 2 signal generator 3 speed governor 4 battery charger 5 pressure regulator 6 circuit breaker 7 hardness tester 8 fuse holder

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9 10

engine immobilizer temperature sensor

Task VII What are the names of these objects? Check the spelling in your dictionary, a device used to: 1 reduce the speed (or a motor) 2 indicate the level of oil (in a gear box) 3 grind the surface (or a metal plate) 4 inject fuel (into petrol or diesel engines) 5 filter oil (for an engine) 6 cut wires 7 sense moisture (in an environment) 8 count binary (numbers) 9 compress air 10 convert digital (signals) to analogue (signals)

Writing works. Task VIII

Description and explanation

You are going to write a description of a hovermower and an explanation of how it

Separate these sentences into those which describe and those which explain. 1 A hovermower is for cutting grass. 2 When the motor is turned on, air is sucked in by the impeller fan. 3 These are four main components: an electric motor, a fan, a cutting blade, and a 4 5 6 7 8 9 grass box. Pressure under the hood rises, which causes the mower to lift on a cushion of air. Some air escapes around the hood, which stabilizes the air pressure. The fan is attached to the motor. The cutting blade is fixed below the fan. After the blades cut the grass, the cuttings are sucked into the grass box by the flow of air to the impeller fan. The whole assembly is covered by a hood.

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10

The grass box is situated behind the motor.

Task IX Form the descriptive sentences into one paragraph and the explanatory sentences into a second paragraph. Give your text a title.

UNIT 6 THE FORGE

Forging is a process which takes place in a smithy. It consists of heating metal and pressing or hammering it into shape. Both ferrous and nonferrous metals may be forged but it is usually the former that are forged by hand processes. The most suitable metal for this purpose is wrought iron. 5 Modern forges, or forging hearths, are made of plates of cast iron or steel. Those which are made of cast iron are bolted together whereas those which are made of steel are riveted or welded together. The fire-place which is in the middle of the hearth, is lined with firebricks. Above the fireplace is a flue, which is in the shape of a hood and fitted with a chimney. 10 Its purpose is to carry away the fumes from the fire. Behind the hearth is a blower which is driven by electric power. The blower is connected to the tuyere through which a draught of a air is blown into the fire. The tuyere through which a draught of air is blown into the fire. The tuyere has to be cooled to prevent it form getting hot. It passes through a tank of water

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15

which is known as the bosh. This water tank is fitted to be back of the forge. The temperature of the fire can be adjusted by varying the amount of air which enters the tuyere. The anvil is the blacksmiths basic piece of equipment. It is made of mild steel, and has a cost iron stand. The anvil supports the work which is to be

20

shaped on surface which is made of hardened steel. This surface is known as the working face, or table. The anvil has a long and pointed beak which is used for bending metal bars. Rough work, such as cutting through metal with a chisel, is done on a step, or ledge, which is located between the beak and the table. The hammering of red hot metals is done on the

25

hardened table. There are two holes in the working face. The square hole, which is called the hardie hole, is used for putting the square shanks of bottom tools, such as the hardie and fuller, in position. The small round hole called the punch hole, or pritchel is used for two purposes. It can support round bars during

30

forging operations such as upsetting, and it provides clearance for punches when making holes in hot metal.

Exercise I What do the underlined words in the passage refer to? Exercise II Labelling of diagrams forging hearth fire place fire- bricks hood chimney power-driven blower tuyere

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bosh

anvil* cast iron stand * working face beak step or ledge hardie hole punch hole or pritchel

Exercise III State whether the following statements are true or false. 1. Forging is a process in which metal is heated and pressed or hammered into shape. 2. All ferrous and non-ferrous metals may be forged. 3. Only ferrous metals are forged by hand processes. 4. Wrought iron is the best ferrous metal for hand-forging. 5. A modern forging hearth is made of either cast iron or steel plates. 6. There is a flue above the fire-place to carry away the fumes. 7. A power-driven blower blows a draught of air through the tuyere into the fire. 8. The working face is made of hardened steel. 9. Chiselling work is done either on a step or on a ledge. 10. Red hot metal is hammered into shape on the working face. 11. The pritchel is where round bars can be supported while they are being upset. Exercise IV Answer the following questions in complete sentences. 1. What processes are involved in forging? 2. What kind of metals are forged by hand process?

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3. What are done to forges made of steel and those of cast iron? 4. What is the function of the flue? 5. What does the blower do? 6. How does the tuyere prevented from getting hot? 7. What needs to be done in order to adjust the temperature of the fire? 8. What is used for hammering the heated metal into shape? 9. How does the anvil act as in forging process? 10. What do blacksmiths do on the working face, or table? 11. What do blacksmiths use for bending metal bars? 12. Give and example of rough work. Where is rough work done? 13. What do blacksmiths do with the hardened table? 14. What does the square hole in the working face enable them to do? 15. What does the small round hole act as?

Complex Noun Phrases A non phrase (hand forging, hand tools, etc.) can be made even more complex by the addition of more nouns, adjectives and participles. e.g. a. A hacksaw blade which is flexible. A flexible hacksaw blade. b. Steel plates which are riveted together. Riveted steel plates. c. Asbestos sheets which are proof against fire. fire - proof asbestos sheets. Notice that each modifier we add sub-classifies the object that we are naming. Thus in technical English we can be very precise and concise about an object (e.g. a part of a machine) by labeling it according to 1. its specific properties or qualities ( a above ) 2. how it is made or constructed( b above ) 3. its function or use, which may depend on its properties ( c above )

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Exercise V Rewrite the following sentences by moving information from the relative to make the noun phrase underlined more complex. e.g. A hacksaw which is driven by power is used for the rough cutting of metal bars and strips. A power-driven hacksaw is used for the rough cutting of metal bars and strips. (Note that compound nouns like power-driven are often printed with a hyphen: power-driven) 1. Power tools which are held in the hand must be properly earthed. 2. Cutting tools which are made of high speed steel have great strength. 3. The electrode which is coated with a flux, itself provides the filler metal. 4. Cylinder blocks which are used for motor vehicles are made of aluminium. 5. Welding which is done by an electric are is extremely efficient as the temperature of the spark between the two terminals of the electric circuit is approximately 3,300C. 6. A bending machine which is of the roller type may be used for forming flat sheets into cylindrical shapes. 7. The working face of an anvil, which is made of cast steel and has been hardened, is where red hot metals is hammered into shape by the blacksmith. 8. Guillotines which are operated by power can cut sheet steel to the correct length and width.

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UNIT 7 THE BUILDING OF THE FUTURE

The architect's instructions from the Bank were simple. The Bank wanted a building that would stand as the best in the world, and serve their changing needs well into the twenty-first century. It would have to be adaptable and impressive, functional and efficient. 5 Norman Foster's design fulfils all these criteria and more. Usually, skyscrapers are encased in a concrete 'case' for fire protection. The new Bank building's steel frame has been designed to be seen, and is the most unusual feature of the external frame. The steel in the new bank is specially treated for fire resistance. The 10 floors of the building will be suspended from wide, bridge-like spans at five points up the building. This has been done before, but never on such a large and complex scale. The high-speed lifts and escalators reaching throughout the building are unique. Even the design for the floors has drawn heavily on high technology. 15 Developed with reference to the aerospace industry, the floors can be compared to those of a Boeing 747. But perhaps the most

interesting feature about this project is that most of 20 the building is pre-contructed off-site and will be transported at a later date to the actual building site for assembly. One example of 25 this is the service modules.

Unlike a more conventional building, where the services would be

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located in a central core, the main services in the new building are 'outboard', i.e. on two sides of the building. The pre-assembled modules arrive on site fully fitted out, ready to be slotted in place 30 and hooked onto pre-constructed risers. The modules, which are fireproofed steel framed

boxes with lightweight steel concrete deck floors, form an 35 integral part of the building. Although similar modules have been used in other construction projects, they have 40
A riser frame, complete with

never

before

been

installed on a large scale in such a tall building.

prefabricated services, from Japan is about to be hoisted and fixed into position.

The 139 modules, which are made in Japan, come in two lengths of 30 feet and 40 feet. The 30 foot modules are fitted on the east side of the building and generally contain toilets at the front end and 45 auxiliary plan such as heat exchangers, extract fans and hot and cold water storage at the back. The toilets arrive on site completely fitted out down to the light fittings, ash trays and toilet-roll holders. The longer modules are installed on the west wide of the building. They also contain toilets at the front, but at the back they contain 50 plant rooms with combinations of air-conditioning plant. One of the main advantages of the modules is the speed with which they can

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be erected 36 can be fitted in just four weeks. The overall efficiency of the design allows great flexibility. At any time in the future, the internal planning can be rearranged without 55 expensive construction. Built into the design is the capability to increase the existing floor space by up to 30 per cent. This could be done by filling in the vacant areas without altering the structure of the building. Because interior utilities (electrical, plumbing, airconditioning, etc) will be readily accessible under a raised floor, as 60 is often found in computer installations, altering the fittings will be relatively simple, as each individual item slots into a series of service ducts. New outlets can be added at any place, or old ones removed or re-positioned. Operations and maintenance will 65 likewise be more efficient, and so less expensive than in a conventional building. A computer system will monitor the building constantly to ensure 70 that each individual component is functioning efficiently, that energy is not being wasted, and that nothing is about to fail. Low intensity energy lighting and exterior 75 cladding low, will keep the heat reducing operating costs of the building.
The raised floor showing the panels and support pedestals and sub-floor services which will be easily accessible by raising the 45lb, 1200 mm square panel.

Exercise II What do these words refer to?

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11.

their in line 3 It in line 3 these criteria in line 5 This in line 11 those in line 16 this in line 25 where in line 26 they in line 49 which in line 51 this in line 56 ones in line 62

Exercise III A There are so many compound nouns in the text. Find 5 instances of compound nouns. e.g. fire protection

Exercise III B Find instances of present participle and past participle which are used as adjectives in the text. e.g pre-constructed risers, Exercise III C Choose the appropriate word in these sentences. 1. His explanation made me very (confuse). 2. I am very much (amuse) by her performance. 3. The lesson was (interest) enough, wasn't it? 4. They were (surprise) to find that he had already left. 5. It is not (surprise) that they lost the games. Exercise IV Answer the following questions. air-conditioning plant

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What kind of building does the bank require to have? / What were the Bank's requirements? How are skyscrapers usually protected from fire? What are floors of the building similar to? Where are the services located? Have similar services module been used in other buildings? Where are the two kinds of modules installed? What advantage do such modules have? In what ways is the building flexible? How do maintenance costs compare with those of a conventional building? What is the function of the computer system?

Exercise V

Word Forms

Fill in the blanks with appropriate word forms. Verb Noun flexibility adaptable impressive functional capability maintain accessible utility install Adjective efficient Adverb

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Exercise VI Complete the following with a suitable form of the word given in brackets. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Despite the public outcry, the (install) of a nuclear power station was completed. When travelling in other countries, it is wise to carry a universal (adapt) in your luggage. The hotel room as (function) rather than luxurious. The company developed a new microchip that is (capability) of a much wider range of application. Concrete was first (utility) as building material by the Romans. We need a password to get (access) to the computer system. This machine has greater (efficient) then the other one. Computers offer a much grater degree of (flexible) in the way the work is organized. We interviewed a number of candidates but none of them (impress) us. Who is responsible for the (maintain) of the buildings?

Structure

Defining Relative Clauses

Clauses beginning with relative pronouns (who, which, where, that) are often used to modify nouns/pronouns to identify people or things. e.g.1.Students should register no later than. 30th December. They haven't yet registered. Students (who haven't yet registered) should do so no later than 30th December. 2. Here is an article. It might interest you. Here is an article (which might interest you).

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3. Do you find a shop? We can find sandals there. Do you find a shop (where we can find sandals)? 4. I saw a girl. Her hair came down to her waist. I saw a girl (whose hair came down to here waist). Leaving out object pronouns (Omitting the Relative Pronouns) eg. 1. Is this the book (that) you are looking for? 2. Paris is a city (where) I've always wanted to visit. 3. Any one touching (who touches) that wine will get a shock. 4. Half of the people invited (who were invited) to the party didn't turn up. Exercise VII Study the following sentences in the passage. Find the defining relative clauses. 1. 2. 3. 4. The bank wanted a building that would stand as the best in the world. The high-speed lifts and escalators reaching throughout the building are unique. The floors which are developed with reference to the aerospace industry can be compared to those of a Boeing 747. One of the main advantages of the modules is the speed with which they can be erected.

Structure

Non-defining Relative Clause

These clauses are used to give more information about a person/thing that is already identified. e.g. 1. I gave him an envelope, which he put in his pocket at once. (Non-defining) c.f. I gave him an envelope which I bought from the post office. (Defining) 2. This is Mr. Moore, who is joining the firm next week. (Non-defining) c.f. He is the man who is joining the firm next week. (Defining) 3. Dorothy, who does my hair has moved to another town. (Non-Defining)

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c.f. The woman who does my hair has moved to another town. (Defining)

Exercise VIII Study the following sentences in the passage. Identify the non-finite clauses. 1. 2. 3. 4. Unlike a more conventional building, where the services would be located in a central core, the main services in the new building are "outboard". The modules, which are fire-proofed steel framed boxes with lightweight steel concrete deck floors, form an integral part of the building. The 138 modules, which are made in Japan, come in 2 lengths of 30 feet and 40 feet. Developed with reference to the aerospace industry, the floors can be compared to those of a Boeing 747.

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UNIT 8 THE PROBLEM OF MEASUREMENTS ELECTRICAL INSTRUMENTS

Most branches of science and technology rely on electrical measurements for the control of processes and machines as well as for information, and the role played by electrical measuring instruments is vital to all modern research laboratories and factories. The problem of electrical measurement is therefore vast and has many different aspects. To simplify this vast field we may begin by considering the degrees of precision required. Various factors govern the precision of an electrical measurement. The principal ones are the correctness of the principle and method used, the accuracy of the standards, and the number and magnitude of possible errors. Considering the degree of precision, it is possible to divide electrical measurements into three groups. 1. Precision measurements These are used to establish and maintain standards, and the greatest care must be taken in the design and construction of the necessary instruments as well as in their use, in order to reach the highest degree of accuracy, with cost only a secondary consideration. This type of measurement is carried out solely in national laboratories which have the legal responsibility of establishing and maintaining standards. 2. Commercial laboratory measurements Here the object is to obtain an accuracy and a reliability to the degree justified by commercial and engineering practice. Usually an accuracy of one or two parts per thousand is adequate. 3. Commercial measurements These measurements are employed in the production and distribution of electricity and electrically-powered products. Precisions ranging from one part in a

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thousand to ten parts in a thousand are adequate although there is a tendency towards greater precision with the increasing complexity of commercial requirements.

Electrical instruments We shall begin our examination of electrical measuring instruments by considering the principles governing their operation, before passage to an account of some of the most representative types. In most instruments, measuring current, voltage or power, some property of electricity is used which gives rise to a mechanical force proportional to the electrical quantity. The following are examples of the effects frequently used to produce a mechanical force:

the reaction between a magnetic field and a conductor carrying a current; the attraction or repulsion of charged bodies; the photoelectric effect using photoelectric and photovoltaic cells as sensing elements; the heating effect of a current in a conductor which serves to raise the temperature of a thermocouple, thereby generating an e.m.f. and producing a current in an auxiliary circuit.

In instruments which indicate the current or voltage in a circuit, the value is given by the unknown quantity producing a mechanical force tending to rotate a pivoted or suspended member with an attached indicator. A spring of the indicator depends on the magnitude of the quantity being measured whose value can be read from the appropriate fixed scale. When the indicator member turns in bearings, additional frictional forces opposing motion are present. Unless this bearing friction is minimized, it affects the value of the small deflecting torque. The usual method employed to overcome this problem is to construct the moving element with hardened steel pivots turning in jewel cups with the smallest possible bearing contact. Most current and voltage measuring instruments have many features in common. In fact it is easy to adapt one form of instrument to the other function. This follows from Ohms law, which tells us that the voltage appearing across a resistor

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carrying a current is the product of the resistance and the current. Thus, if a resister of known value is connected in series with a current sensitive device, the response of the instrument is proportional to the voltage across the combination; and if a resistor of known value carrying a current is connected in parallel with a voltage sensitive device, the instrument response is proportional to the current in the resistor.

Exercise I State whether the following statements are True or False. 1. For commercial measurements an accuracy of one part in a thousand is perfectly adequate. 2. The attraction or repulsion of charged bodies is one of the effects used to produce a mechanical force proportional to an electrical quantity and therefore is a principle employed in measuring instrument. 3. Current and voltage measuring instruments have no common features. 4. If a resistor of known value is connected in parallel with a current-sensitive device the response of the instrument is proportional to the voltage across the combination. 5. Ohms law shows us that current and voltage measuring instruments will have many common features and that by the use of a resistor of known value connected in series or in parallel with the instrument, it will be possible to convert one type of instrument to the other use.

Exercise II Answer the following questions. 1. What do most branches of science and technology rely on? 2. How are electrical measurements divided into three groups? 3. What are the three groups of electrical measurements? 4. State some factors which govern the precision of an electrical measurement. 5. What are precision measurements used for? 6. Why must care be taken in the design and construction of the instruments?

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7. What is the purpose of commercial laboratory practice measurements? 8. What is the usual method employed to overcome bearing friction? 9. What is the Ohms law? 10. What happen if a resistor of known value is connected in series with a current sensitive device and in parallel with a voltage sensitive device?

Word Study

Noun formation

Technical nouns are often formed by adding suffixes to verbs and adjectives. The commonest nouns suffixes with verbs are: (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) -ance/-ence forming nouns of quality or action. -er/-or forming nouns performing the action of the verb. -action/-tion/-sion forming nouns giving the result of the action of the verb. -ment forming nouns giving result or means of action.

Exercise I Form nouns by adding suffixes to the following. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10 . 11 . 12 . accept -------admit -------capacitate -------maintain -------confer -------interfere -------oscillate -------react -------indicate -------produce -------combine -------add --------

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13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 . 20 . 21 . 22 . 23 . 24 . 25 . 26 . 27 . 28 . 29 . 30 . 31 .

construct -------attract -------amplify -------rectify -------transform specify -------vary -------generate -------insulate -------resist -------require -------develop -------measure -------arrange -------replace -------repulse -------rotate -------suspend -------attach --------

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32 . 33 . 34 . 35 . 36 . 37 . 38 . 39 . 40 .

precise -------examine -------distribute -------inform -------operate -------oppose -------deflect -------depend -------generate --------

Exercise II Complete these sentences with appropriate nouns formed from the verbs given in brackets. e.g. Some steps must be taken to eliminate the (vibrate) of the turbine. Answer: vibration 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. There is all the (equip) necessary in the laboratory to measure the efficiency of the (amplify). One of the reasons fuel cells are often employed in difficult environments is that they require little (maintain). My colleagues and I hop to be present at the (confer) that will be held in London in May. My complaint about the quality of the components should be made directly to the (manufacture). This guarantee is not valid if there has been any (interfere) with the (insulate).

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10 .

A (transform) is used to step up or down the voltage of an alternating current, whereas a (rectify) is used to convert an alternating current into a direct current. We should be glad to receive the (specify) for the new (oscillate) as soon as possible. Our technical director cannot accept the (vary) you propose in the (arrange) for Our July meeting. Among the most common components in electronic circuits are (transform), (capacitate) and (resist). A (replace) for any part of the (generate) can be supplied within 48 hours.

Exercise III Using noun-forming suffixes, fill in the blanks with the correct form of the words given in brackets. 1 The best ------- of what takes place is the ------- of good examples. (explain/ . . provide) 2 A good ----- of Archimedes principle of the ------ of water by solid bodies is the ---- in water of a cube of lead and a cube of wood of equal size. (illustrate/ displace/ immerse) 3 A lake which is used for water ---- is sometimes high enough for the ----- of ---. by gravity of transport and water along the pipes to the houses below. (store/ exert/ press) 4 The -------- of water through several filter-beds and the ---------- of traces of . . . chlorine make the water safe to use for drinking purposes. (pass/ add) 5 In science, the centigrade thermometer is used for the ----- of temperature. (measure) 6 The 100 equal -------- are made after the ------- by ------ of the boiling point of water and the melting point of ice. (divide/ determine/ observe) 7 The -------- of rain depends on the ------- and the ------- tiny droplets of water

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. .

vapour in the cloud. (form/ condense/ combine) 8 When the droplets are heavy enough to fall, -------- can take place. (precipitate) 9 The ---- and ------ of water can be observed in everyday life. (evaporate/

. 10 . 11 . 12 . 13 . 14 . 15 . 16 . 17 . 18 . 19 . 20 .

condense) The -------- of ice to water and water to water vapour by heating is a good ------of the change of state of matter. (convert/ illustrate) Shortly after the -------- of the root, the -------- of the shoot and the gradual ----of the seed-leaves can be observed. (emerge/appear/ disappear) The ------ of a green plant from the light to the dark will eventually lead to the death of the plant. (remove) When sunlight reaches the leaves, starch is formed with the ----- of chlorophyll. (assist) Many seeds fall in places where the necessities for their normal -------- are not available. (develop) The seeds must obtain from their environment all the ------which they need for--. (require/survive) A plant must obtain from its environment the -------- of life. (require) Suitable soil, temperature and sufficient light and ware are required by a plant for its -------- and --------. (develop/survive) There are two main reasons why -------- over a wide area is important for the --of seeds. (disperse/survive) Agricultural -------- must often depend on the -------- of industry. (improve, grow) His -------- of games increases with his --------. (fond, proficient)

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UNIT 9 REDUCE, REUSE, RECYCLE

Reading Strategy

Looking For Organization

Before you read this article, look at the title and notice the organization of the topics. Notice particularly words that mark the organization: first, second, and in the end. By understanding the organization of a reading, you can read faster and better. Reduce, Reuse, Recycle 1 In the world today, particularly in the two most industrialized areas, North America and Europe, recycling is big news. People are talking about it, practicing it, and discovering new ways to be sensitive to the environment. They very word tells the story: re-means (to do something) again, and cycle means a full circle of events, a return to beginning. Thus, to recycle means to do the same process again or to recover and reuse spent (used-up) products. In other words, recycling means finding ways to use products a second time. The motto of the recycling movement 2 is Reduce, Reuse, Recycle, and the term recycling covers the whole program. The first step is to reduce garbage. In stores, a shopper has to buy products in blister packs, boxes, and expensive plastic wrappings. A hamburger from a fastfood restaurant comes in lots of packaging: usually paper, a box, and a bag. All that packaging is wasted resources. Every day, millions of plastic cups are used for coffee and tea. Each time someone buys a hamburger or uses one of those cups, energy and resources are wasted. People should try to buy things that are wrapped simply, and to reuse cups and utensils. Another way to reduce waste is to buy highquality products. When low-quality appliances break, many customers throw them away and buy new ones - a loss of more resources and more energy. Customers can vote with their wallets. For example, if a customer receives an important message. In the same way, if a customer chooses a product with less packaging, that customer sends an important message to the manufacturers. throwaway trend must stop. To reduce garbage, the

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The second step in the general recycling program is to reuse. It is a better to buy juices and soft drinks (like sodas) in returnable bottles. After customers empty the bottles, wash them, and them to the store. The manufacturers of the drinks collect the bottles, wash them, and then fill them again. The energy that is necessary to make new bottles is saved. In some parts of the world, returning bottles for money is a common practice. In those places, the garbage dumps have relatively little glass and plastic from throwaway bottles.

The third step in being environmentally sensitive is to r ecycle. Spent motor oil can be cleaned and used again. Aluminum cans are expensive to make. It takes the same amount of energy to make one aluminum can as it does to run a color television set for three hours. When people collect and recycled aluminum (for new cans), they help save one of the worlds precious resources. At present in the U.S. about 65 percent of all aluminum cans are recycle. The percentages are lower for glass ( 20 percent ) and paper ( 25 percent ), but all percentages are increasing.

The problem of garbage has other aspects. People cant throw things away because there is no more away- fewer and fewer places are available. Garbage also affects water quality. Seepage of liquids from garbage contaminates ground water. And finally, the world is running out of natural resources. Will people have to mine the garbage dumps and landfills to find necessary materials in the future? Some people are creative and intelligent recyclers. One resourceful person in

Oklahoma has generated petroleum from used synthetic-rubber automobile tires. A company called Deja Shoe use only recycled products in making new shoes. Some outdoor chairs are made from discarded snow skis; some cities are paving their streets with a mixture of recycle glass bottles, shredded automobile tires, and traditional asphalt. A soft, fine yarn for sweaters of a fine-quality carpet can be made from plastic milk bottles. Recycling makes economic sense.

Recycling is a challenge because it requires a basic change in everyday life. For recycling to be successful, ordinary people (everyone) must be aware of what they buy. They must also sort their trash and garbage into categories: organic garbage, newspapers, steel cans, glass containers (sometimes sorted by color), and plastic. The waste disposal trucks have separate compartments for each category.

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Waste materials of the same kind are compacted (crushed into blocks). manufacturer buys the sorted, compacted blocks of material

to make into

something new. Once a customer buys and uses the product, the same materials follow the same cycle-being sorted, collected, and used again. Hence the word recycle. 9 In the end, the real meaning of recycling is protecting planet Earth, keeping it safe and clean for future generations. It is one way for everyone to contribute to a better world.

Reading Follow-up Exercise I Decide which paragraph the specific information below comes from. Paragraph 5 A. B. C. Specific Information Seepage of liquids from garbage contaminates ground water. A soft fine yarn for sweaters of a fine quality carpet can be made from plastic milk bottles. In some parts of the world, returning bottles for money is a common practice. D. To reduce garbage, the throw away trend must stop. E. Exercise II Below are topic sentences from Reduce, Reuse, Recycle. Underline the controlling ideas. A. 1. The first step is to reduce garbage. 2. The second step in the general recycling program is to reuse. 3. The problem of garbage has other aspects. 4. Some people are creative and intelligent. 5. Recycling is challenge because it requires a basic change in everyday life. B. Write down the controlling idea which support the topic sentence. Spent motor oil-can can be cleaned and used again.

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1. The first step is to reduce garbage. Controlling idea Specific facts a. People should buy b. People should reuse c. to buy Concluding sentence 2. The second step in the general recycling program is to reuse. Controlling idea Specific facts a. It is better to buy b. The manufacturers Concluding sentence 3. The problem of garbage has other aspects. Controlling idea Specific facts a. b. c. Concluding sentence 4. Some people are creative and intelligent. Controlling idea Specific facts a. b. c. d. e. Concluding sentence 5. Recycling is a challenge because it requires a basic change in everyday life.

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Controlling ides Specific facts a. They must b. The waste disposal truck c. Waste materials d. A manufacturer e. Once a customer Concluding sentence

Structure 1. Means (by + noun or ing) We noted that by + an agent sometimes follows the verb in a passive statement. Large quantities of steam are required by modern industry. A second and more important use of by is to indicate the means or method of doing something of achieving some result. It can occur in both active and passive statements. It often occurs with the phrase by means of. Sometimes it is possible to use with instead by before a noun. With really means with the help of, and there is a slight difference in meaning; it is not advisable to use with unless the meaning is truly instrumental. The road was cleared by (means of) a bulldozer. The road was cleared with (the help of) a bulldozer. Heat losses can be reduced We can reduce heat losses by firebricks. the use of firebricks lining the furnace with firebricks.

done This can be effected by means of firebricks.

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achieved By accomplished lining the furnace with firebricks heat losses can be reduced.

N.B You will notice in the last example that a clause or participial phrase may come before the main part of the statement. The word thereby means by means of this. By means of cannot be used before a participle; only by is possible in such a case. Exercise IA Complete these statements in the same way, using the verb in brackets. 1. We reduce the ore to pig-iron .. it in a blast furnace. (smelt) 2. Production will be greatly increased .. the new machinery. (introduce) 3. A hot steel bar can be hardened it in water. (quench) 4. Bars of steel can be made .. them through rollers. (pass) 5. The heat-resistant properties of steel are improved . more chromium and nickel. (add) 6. . roller bearings, the friction is reduced still further. (use) 7. . the bearing in an oil-bath, adequate lubrication is ensured. (dip) 8. . a flux to the metal, we can prevent oxidation. (apply) 9. forced circulation in the boiler, better results are obtained. (employ) 10. a gas rapidly in a cylinder, we raise its temperature. (compress) 11. steam over the hot coke, producer gas is formed. (blow) 12. A casting is produced . .. molten metal into a mould. (pour) 13. Improved heat-transfer rates were achieved .. fins to the outside of the cylinder. (fit)

Exercise IB Complete these statements with by, by means of or with, whichever you think most suitable.

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1. Production can be greatly increased .. the introduction of new machinery. 2. We can prevent oxidation of the metal .. a flux. 3. Rapid heating in the boiler is achieved .. forced circulation. 4. The work is firmly held in the lathe .. the centers. 5. Better combustion is obtained a hemispherical combustion chamber. 6. The heat-resistant propertied of the steel can be improved . the addition of chromium and nickel. 7. Frequent measurements of the bar were made a micrometer. 8. Lubricant is forced into bearing . pressure of the grease gun against the nipple. 9. A soldered joint may be made .. a soldering iron made of copper. 10. The temperature of the liquid is raised the application of heat. 11. Greater speeds can now be attained by modern aircraft the new metals which are now being developed. 12. More rapid burning is made possible the use of pulverised fuels.

2. Purpose (Clauses) Here is a further structure which is used to indicate purpose.

is The steam is superheated so that In order that it may be can be should be fairly dry.

Exercise II Complete these statements in the same way. 1. Phosphorus is added to the metal .. better castings produced.

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2. the iron .. demagnetized, it is necessary to apply a negative megnetising force. 3. .. the metal properly soldered, the metal and the solder should both be made clean. 4. The steam velocity across the tubes is kept high .. any stationary air swept away. 5. The storage tank is elevated, .its contents . withdrawn by gravity. 6. The condenser water is cooled . it .. re-used in the condenser. 7. The coal gas is sometimes compressed condensation in the gas mains .. avoided. 8. A by-pass road is being constructed the traffic (not) need to go through the city center. 9. .. deposits not form on the tubes, only pure feed water should be used. 10. Water is sprayed into the cylinder . immediate condensation of the steam occur. 11. .. the amount of expansion calculated, the coefficient of expansion of the metal must be known. 12. The diameter of the bar should be measured frequently too much metal .. (not) taken off.

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UNIT 10 JAPAN'S UNDERGROUND FRONTIER

Proposed subterranean cities could help ease a space crunch Underground The word brings many unsavory adjectives to mind: dark, dank, clandestine, illegal. But in Japan the 'underground' is becoming the new frontier and the best hope for solving one of the country's most intractable problems. With a population nearly half the size of the 5 U.S.'s squeezed into an area no bigger than Montana, Japan has virtually no room left in its teeming cities. Developers have built towering skyscrapers and even artificial islands in the sea, but the space crunch keeps getting worse. Now some of Japan's largest construction companies think they have the answer: 10 huge developments beneath the earth's surface where millions of people could work, shop and, perhaps eventually, make their homes. 'An underground city is no longer a dream. We expect it to actually materialize in the early part of the next century', says Tetsuya Hanamura, the chief of Taisei Corp.'s proposed development. 15 Taisei calls its project Alice City after Lewis Carroll's heroine who went underground by way of a rabbit hole. The company, which has drawn up elaborate plans, envisions two huge concrete 'infrastructure' cylinders, each 197 ft. tall and with a diameter of 262 ft., that would be built as much as 500 ft. below ground. 20 They would house facilities for power generation, air conditioning and waste processing .Each cylinder would be connected by passages to a series of spheres, which would accommodate stores, theaters, sports facilities, offices and hotels. Taisei's initial $ 4.2 billion design could support 100,000 people.

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Text - based Exercises Exercise IA Combine the sentences below into single complete sentences. Make any necessary changes and use the help given. Then check against the text. 1. Japan has and population nearly half the size of the U.S.'s .The population is squeezed into an area no bigger than Montana. Japan has virtually no room left in its teeming cities (lines 4-6) With a population, ................................... ...................................................................................................................... ...................................................................................................................... 2. The company has drawn up elaborate plans. It envisions two huge concrete infrastructure cylinders, each 197 ft. tall and with a diameter of 262 ft. The cylinders would be built as much as 500 ft. below ground. (lines 17-20) The company, which .................................................................................. ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................

Exercise IB Replace the words in italics, then refer to the text. 1 But in Japan the 'underground' is becoming the new frontier and the best hope to solve one of the country's most intractable problems. (lines 2-4 ) 2 ............. Developers have built towering skyscrapers and even artificial islands in the sea, but the space crunch continues to get worse. ( lines.7-8 ) 3 Now some of Japan's largest construction companies think they have the answer: huge developments beneath the earth's surface in which millions of people could work. (lines.8-11) .............. ..............

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'We expect that it will actually materialize in the early part of the next century.' says Tetsuya Hanamura, the chief of Taisei Corp.'s proposed development. (lines 13-15) ............... ................

They would house facilities to generate power and to process waste. (lines 20-21)

Exercise II Answer the following questions. 1. What are some unsavory adjectives the word ' underground' bring? 2. What is the ' underground' becoming in Japan? 3. What is the result of the increasing population in Japan? 4. What have developers built? 5. What is the new idea of some of Japan's langest construction companies? 6. What does Tetsuya Hanamura say about an underground city? 7. What is the population of Japan in comparison with the U.S? 8. What is the idea of the company which has drawn up elaborate plans? 9. What kinds of facilities will be installed in that building? 10. What would the underground building accommodate?

Structure and Grammar Points

I.

prepositions

Exercise I Supply the missing prepositions, then refer to the text. (Lines1-10) Underground. The word brings many unsavory adjectives to mind: dark, dank, clandestine, illegal. But 1.......... Japan the ' underground' is becoming the new frontier and the best hope 2 ......... solving one 3 ........ the country's most intractable problems.
4

......... a population nearly half the size 5.......... the U.S.'s squeezed 6 ......... an area no
7

bigger than Montana , Japan has virtually no room left

........ its teeming cities.

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Developers have built towering skyscrapers and even artificial islands 8 .......... the sea, but the space crunch keeps getting worse. Now some earth's surface. II. 'Much ', ' many ' and ' a lot of' Which of the two (a or b) doesn't sound quite right? Why? a Underground. The word brings many unsavory adjectives to mind. b My teacher says l use many adjectives when I write stories. Explanation: b doesn't sound quite right. a is right because brings many unsavory adjectives to mind stands for an abstract idea. See below. We normally use much (+ uncountable) and many (+countable) in negative statements/ questions: I baven't much time/ many clothes. Is there much milk in the carton? Are there many eggs in the fridge? In everyday speech we usually avoid using much and many in affirmative statements and prefer a lot of. We've got a lot of time to kill before the play starts. (Not * much time *) We avoid using much and many in the affirmative with concrete nouns in everyday speech: * He has much money * * We have many letters*. Much and many occur in the affirmative in formal style: Much money must be invested in developing countries. Much teachers dislike marking piles of exercise books. We can also use not a lot of in place of the neutral not much, not many for special emphasis:
9

.......... Japan's largest

10

construction companies think they have the answer: huge developments

.......... the

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I haven't got a lot of patience with hypochondriacs! (= I haven't got much) If in doubt, always stick to the basic rule of using much and many in the negative and in questions and using a lot of in the affirmative. Affirmative uses of much and many often sound wrong in ways which are hard to define. Exercise II Supply much, many or a lot (of). Note where alternatives are possible. 1. .Many/A lot of modern plays, like Who's Afraid of Virginia Woolf? deal with relationships. 2. We all thought Frank was rich, but we later discovered he owed everyone ............... money. 3. ............. has been written about the high price of land in Japan. 4. With high interest rates, ................... companies are cutting back on investment. 5. I'm impressed by your library. You really have ................books. 6. There aren't .................opportunities for people who haven't got good qualifications. 7. We thought there wasn't ............... oil in this field before we used new drilling techniques. 8. Is there ............... demand for second - hand cars in the present market? III. The use of ' ... left ' and ' .... over' after quantifiers: ' any left ' , ' some over ' What do left and over mean in these sentences? a Japan has virtually no room left in its teeming cities . (lines 5-6) b We ordered some tiles for our roof and we have lot over. Explanation: a not used up b more than we needed (None) left means ' not consumed or remaining';

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(a lot ) over means ' more than is/ are wanted'. Depending on our viewpoint we can sometimes use left and over interchangeably, especially when talking about food. Exercise III Respond using combinations with left or over. Sometimes you can use either. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I'd love to have another one of those pies. We prepared heaps of food for the party. We're looking for land in the city centre. There are twelve of us and I've got thirteen tickets. We've sold nearly all our stock winter coats. All the books fit on to the shelf except this one. We've completely run out of cooking oil. We've got a lot of unsold lottery tickets. ....................................... ....................................... ....................................... . ..................................... ...................................... I'm afraid there aren't any left. ...................................... .....................................

IV.

Verb + ' - ing '; ' Keep trying' What is the effect of keeps in this sentence? Developers have built towering skyscrapers, but the space crunch keeps getting worse. (lines 7-8) Explanation: Keep + ing suggests continuity, we sometimes use on after keep for greater emphasis. When we want to use another verb immediately after keep,

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the second verb can only be an - ing form, not a to-infinitive. A few other verbs like this are: admit, ovoid, consider, deny, dislike, enjoy, excuse, finish, imagine, keep, postpone, report, suggest, understand. Exercise IV Respond appropriately using the verbs in brackets. 1. 2. What do you think? Should I try to pass my driving test again? ( keep) Yes, you should keep trying What shall I do? Shall I wait any longer before writing to them again? (suggest) 3. .............................................................................................................. What does John say? Did he take the ledger from my desk drawer? ( deny) 4. ................................................................................................................ What should we do? Should we travel in this bad weather? ( postpone) ................................................................................................................

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References
Alexander, L.G. 1993. Longman Advanced Grammar: Reference and Practice Longman House, Burnt Mill, Harlow. Glendinning, H. Eric and Glendinning Norman 1996. Electrical and Mechanical Engineering Oxford University Press Hall, J, Engene 1977. The Language of Civil Engineering in English Publishing Company, Inc. McAllister, J. and Madama, G. 1976. English for Electrical Engineers Longman Group Ltd. Mountford, Alan 1975. English in Workshop Practice Oxford University Press Yates, C ST J and Fitzpatrick A. 1996. Technical English For Industry Longman Group UK Ltd. Regents