FUNDAMENTALS OF MULTIPATH ULTRASONIC FLOW METERS FOR GAS

MEASUREMENT

Eric Thompson
Regional Sales Manager
15415 nternational Plaza Drive, Suite 100
Houston, Texas 77032
Summary
This paper outlines the operating principles and
application of ultrasonic gas flow metering for
custody transfer. Basic principles and underlying
equations are discussed, as are considerations for
applying ultrasonic flow meter technology to station
design, installation, and operation. These
applications are illustrated based on operating
experience with the SCK ultrasonic flow meter,
however many of these issues can be generalized to
other meter manufacturers.
Introduction
The use of ultrasonic meters for custody (fiscal)
applications has grown substantially over the past
several years. This is due in part to the release of
AGA Report No. 9, Measurement of Gas by
Multipath Ultrasonic Meters [Ref 1], Measurement
Specification [Ref 2], and the confidence users have
gained in the performance and reliability of
ultrasonic meters as primary measurement devices.
Just like any metering technology, there are design
and operational considerations that need to be
addressed in order to achieve optimum
performance. The best technology will not provide
the expected results if it is not installed correctly, or
maintained properly. This paper addresses several
issues that the engineer should consider when
designing ultrasonic meter installations.
Why Use UItrasonic Meters?
Before discussing installation issues associated with
ultrasonic meters (USMs), it might be good to review
what the benefits of using USMs are. Since the mid-
1990s the installed base of USMs has grown
steadily each year. t is estimated that more than
$65 million was spent worldwide on purchasing
USMs in 2006. There are many reasons why
ultrasonic metering is enjoying such healthy sales.
Some of the many benefits of this technology
include the following:
Accuracy: Can be calibrated to <0.1%.
Large Turndown: Typically >50:1.
NaturaIIy Bi-directionaI: Measures volumes in
both directions with comparable performance.
ToIerant of Wet Gas: mportant for production
applications.
Non-Intrusive: Minimal pressure drop.
Low Maintenance: No moving parts means
reduced maintenance.
FauIt ToIerance: Meters remain relatively
accurate even if sensor(s) should fail.
IntegraI Diagnostics: Data for determining a
t is clear that there are many important benefits to
using USMs. The most significant, however, is the
question users want to know is whether the meter is
still accurate after having been in service for some
period of time in the field.
Other primary measurement devices such as orifice
and turbine meters offer little insight into whether
they are still operating accurately after some period
of time. ssues such as contamination from pipeline
oil and mill scale can impact the accuracy of any
meter. Visual inspection is often required to validate
proper operation for traditional primary measurement
devices. Ultrasonic meters, on the other hand, offer
electronic diagnostics that can help validate proper
operation, and thus reduce the internal inspection
requirements often required of other devices. These
internal diagnostics can also be used to help identify
whether the other components at the measurement
station, such as temperature measurement and gas
composition, are also operating correctly. For these
reasons many designers are now specifying the use
of ultrasonic meters more today than ever before.
UItrasonic Meter Basics
Ultrasonic gas flow meters operate on the transit-
time measurement principle. The basic operation is
relatively simple. Even though there are numerous
designs on the market today, the principle of
operation remains the same (Figure 1).


Figure 1

Ultrasonic meters are velocity meters by nature.
This means, they measure the velocity of the gas
within the meter body. Knowing the velocity and the
cross-sectional area, uncorrected volume can be
computed. n ultrasonic flow measurement, sound
waves or acoustic pulses are transmitted and
received by a pair of piezoelectric transducers
(Figure 2).

Figure 2
This figure shows the simple geometry of two
transducers, A and B, at an angle with respect to
the axis of the straight cylindrical pipe.

Figure 3

n Figure 3, L denotes the path length, D denotes
the diameter, and V is the velocity vector. The
transit time (T
ab
) of an ultrasonic signal traveling with
the flow is measured from Transducer A to
Transducer B. When this measurement is
completed, the transit time (T
ba
) of an ultrasonic
signal traveling against the flow is measured from
Transducer B to Transducer A. When there is no
flow the transit time is equal in both directions and
the measured time of flight difference them (T
ab

T
ba
) is zero. Thus with flow the transit time of the
signal traveling with the flow will be less than that of
the signal traveling against the flow due to the
velocity of gas within the meter body (Figure 4).
cos
cos
1 1
cos 2
TraveI Time Difference
Path veIocity
Transducer A
Transducer B
Operating Principle
1 1
2
Sound VeIocity

Figure 4
Reviewing the basic equation needed to compute
volume, the transit times in the upstream and
downstream directions may be calculated as shown
in Figure 4
.







Where L is the length of the path, is its angle with
respect to the aspect of the pipe and c is the speed
of sound (SOS) in the gas (e.g. about 1,000 to 1,500
ft/sec. at typical natural gas transmission pressures).
f the speed of sound is constant during both transit
times the two equations can be combined, See
Figure 4 Path Velocity





where v denotes the flow velocity (positive in the
downstream direction). The history of this method
dates back to Rtten (1928), who filed the first
patent on the application of ultrasound in flow
measurement. From the above equations, the
speed of sound can be calculated;


cos
cos
1 1
cos 2
1 1
2

Since the speed of sound is related to density of the
medium in the transport system, it can be used to
calculate mass flow. Further, it is noted that the
cancellation of c from the average velocity equation
(gas properties, such as density, affect both T
ab
and
T
ba
equally) means that absolute velocity
measurement is not dependent on gas density.
This means, pressure, temperature, and gas
composition have no effect on the velocity
calculation from pulse transit time.
The average transit time, with no gas flowing, is a
function of meter size and the speed of sound
through the gas (pressure, temperature, and gas
composition). Consider a 12-inch meter for this
example. Typical transit times, in each direction, are
on the order of one millisecond (and equal) when
there is no flow. The difference in transit time during
periods of flow, however, is significantly less, and is
on the order of several nanoseconds (at low flow
rates). Thus, accurate measurement of the transit
times is critical if an ultrasonic meter is to meet
performance requirements established in AGA
Report Number 9.

These equations look relatively simple and they are.
The primary difference between computing gas
velocity and speed of sound is the difference in
transit times is used for computing velocity, where
the sum of the transit times is used for computing
speed of sound.

Determining the correct flow rate within the meter is
a bit more comprehensive than it appears. The Path
Velocity equation shown refers to the velocity of
each individual path. The velocity needed for
computing volume flow rate, also known as bulk
mean velocity, is the average gas velocity across the
are not always uniform and often there is some swirl
and asymmetrical flow profile within the meter. This
makes computing the average velocity a bit more
challenging.

Meter manufacturers have differing methodologies
for computing this average velocity. Some derive
the answer by using proprietary algorithms. Others
computations. Regardless of how the meter
determines the bulk average velocity, the following
equation is used to compute the uncorrected flow
rate;

Q = V * A

This output (Q) is actually a flow rate based on
volume-per-hour, and is used to provide input to the
flow computer. A is the cross-sectional area of the
meter.

Summarizing keep points to keep in mind about
ultrasonic meter operation are:
The measurement of transit time, both
upstream and downstream, is the primary
function of the electronics.
All path velocities are averaged to provide a
Q).
Because the electronics can be determined
which transit time is longer (T
ab
or T
ba
), the
meter can determine flow direction.
Speed of sound is computed from the same
measurements as gas velocity.

Transducers PuIse Generation
Specially designed transducers are used for the
generation of ultrasonic pulses that both transmit
and receive these pulses. The main component
within a transducer performing these functions is a
Piezoceramic element. n the transmitting mode,
these Piezoceramic elements are excited with a
characteristic voltage that results in the emission of
receiver, the incoming sound pulse generates a
small voltage, that is processed after amplification.
The frequency and directivity pattern of a transducer
depends, for the most part, on the dimensions and
characteristics for the piezoceramic element.

Transducer PuIse Detection

Before pulse detections and recognition takes place,
the received sound wave is pre-processed using an
Automatic Gain Control and filtering circuitry to
ensure pulse discrimination. After the pre-
processing stage (detection) takes place, the signal
reference pulse. This method provides the unique
ability to check the quality of every single pulse
against preset standards before processing for
velocity measurement purposes. The pulses are
either accepted when the signal completely meets
the preset quality standards or rejected when a
deviation from these quality standards is detected.

Only when both pulses are accepted are their travel
times used to calculate flow velocity and speed of
sound. This method results in the highest precision.
During signal detection and processing, built-in
diagnostics supply real-time information to the user
about the performance of the system, and may be
used to set alarm limits on meter performance.
These parameters will be discussed in more detail
later.

Timing Characteristics

The accuracy required in the travel time
measurement can be found from the equations. For
example, when a velocity of 3 ft/s is measured with
0.5% accuracy along a 3 ft. path length in a gas with
sound velocity of 1,300 ft/s, both travel times are of
order of 2.5 milli-seconds, and their difference is
about 6 micro-seconds, which must be measured
with an error no greater than 30 NANO-seconds!
This minute travel time difference requires high-
speed, high-accuracy digital electronics. The travel
times of only a few milli-seconds enable individual
ultrasonic flow velocity measurements at high
repetition rates. Typical rates are 20 to 50 Hz,
depending on pipe diameter. The need for high
repetition rates is evident in cases such as surge
control applications, where the flow may drop from
its set point to its minimum in less than 0.05
seconds.

BASIC DIAGNOSTIC INDICATORS

One of the principal attributes of modern ultrasonic
meters is the ability to monitor their own health, and
to diagnose any problems that may occur. Multipath
meters are unique in this regard, as they can
compare certain measurements between different
paths, as well as checking each path individually.
external diagnostics. nternal diagnostics are those
indicators derived only from internal measurements
of the meter. External diagnostics are those
methods in which measurements from the meter are
combined with parameters derived from independent
sources to detect and identify fault conditions. An
example of this would be to compute the gas SOS,
based upon composition, and compare to the

Gain

multipath USMs have automatic gain control on all
receiver channels. Transducers typically generate
the same level of ultrasonic signal time after time.
The increase in gain on any path indicates a weaker
signal at the receiving transducer. This can be
caused by a variety of problems such as transducer
deterioration, fouling of the transducer ports, or
liquids in the line. However, other factors that affect
signal strength include metering pressure and flow
velocity. Figure 5 shows gains from a 16-inch meter
at the time of calibration. These were taken when
the meter was operating at approximately 20 fps.



Figure 5 Gain at 20 fps 16 inch Meter

Note that the gains on each of the pairs are very
similar, and the gains by path are higher in the
middle two paths. This is due to the increased path
length requiring additional amplification. Figure 3
shows the same meter at 155 fps.



Figure 6 Gain at 155 fps 16 inch Meter

Figure 6 shows the gains for all pairs have
increased. This is normal when a meter is operating
at much higher velocities due to signal attenuation.
However, notice both graphs have the same look in
that the center pairs have higher gains than the
outer ones. Again, this is due to the longer path
length.

SignaI QuaIity Transducer Performance

This expression is often referred to as performance
(but should not be confused with meter accuracy).
All ultrasonic meter designs send multiple pulses
across the meter body to the opposing transducer in
the pair, before updating the output. deally all the
pulses sent would be received and used. However,
in the real world, sometimes the signal is distorted,
too weak, or the received pulse does not meet
certain criteria established by the manufacturer.
When this happens the electronics rejects the pulse
rather than use something of questionable quality
that might distort the results.

The level of acceptance (or rejection) for each path
is generally considered as a measure of
performance, and is often referred to as signal
quality. Unless there are other influencing factors,
the meter will normally operate at 100%
performance until it reaches the upper limit of the
velocity rating. Here the transducer signal becomes
more distorted and some of the waveforms will
performance will drop from 100% to something
less. Figure 7 shows the performance of a 16 meter
at a velocity of about 20 fps.



Figure 7 Transducer Performance at 20 fps

Figure 8 shows the same meter operating at 155
fps. As we can see the performance has fallen from
100 percent on all paths to the 90+% range. This is
normal for high velocities as signal distortion will
have some impact on waveforms at these high
velocities.



Figure 8 Transducer Performance at 155 fps

SignaI-to-Noise Ratio

Signal to noise (SNR) provides information that is
the user of possible impending problems. Each
transducer is capable of receiving noise information
from extraneous sources (rather than its opposite
transducer). n the interval between receiving
pulses, meters monitor this noise to provide an
be in the same ultrasonic frequency spectrum as
that transmitted from the transducer itself.
The measure of signal strength to the level of
Ratio, or SNR for short. Typically this is not
monitored nearly as often as gains and
performance. SNR is generally not an issue unless
there is a control valve or other noise generating
piping component present. When that occurs, the
SNR values will drop. The magnitude of the SNR is
expressing the value. Figure 6 shows the SNR from
a 16-inch meter flowing 20 fps at the time of
calibration. As can be seen the SNR is about 40 dB.


Figure 9 SNR at 20 fps Meter Velocity
Figure 10 shows the same meter at about 155 fps.
The SNR values have decreased by about 5-15 dB,
depending upon whether they are upstream or
downstream. This is due to ultrasonic noise being
generated inside the piping. As the downstream
transducers face the upstream direction, the
increased level of noise has more impact on the
downstream transducers. Also note that the SNR for
the middle pairs has decreased more than the outer
pairs. This is due to the path length being longer and
thus attenuating the signal more.


Figure 10 SNR at 155 fps Meter Velocity

Noise levels can become excessive if a control valve
is placed too close to the meter and the pressure
differential is too high. When this happens the meter
may have difficulty in differentiating the signal from
the noise. By monitoring the level of noise, when no
pulse is anticipated, the meter can provide
information to the user, via the SNR, warning that
meter performance (signal quality) may become
reduced. n extreme cases, noise from control valves
transducers can handle significant levels of control
valve noise. By using transducers that have a higher
frequency, combined with higher efficiency and
stronger sound pressure levels, the affects of control
valve noise have been significantly reduced as
compared to past generations of USMs. Figure 11
shows a picture of a meter and a control valve
located immediately downstream of the USM.

SNR can also be low if the electronics has a
problem or there is a poor connection between the
transducer and the electronics. Figure 11 shows the
SNR graphed when there is a problem with the
electronics.


Figure 11 Poor SNR on Path 4

Here we can see that the SNR from upstream to
downstream is not consistent. All of the SNR values
of AB are lower than BA. This is due to a problem
with the electronics. Figure 12 shows the results of
the same meter after the electronics was replaced.


Figure 12 Good SNR on all Paths

n Figure 12 we can see that all the SNR values are
now close to 40 dB. This is the normal for this meter.
Even though the SNR was poor in Figure 11, the
were normal. Thus, it is possible to have low SNR
and all other diagnostic indicators are normal.

VeIocity ProfiIe

Monitoring the velocity profile is possibly one of the
most overlooked and under-used diagnostic tools of
as to the condition of the metering system, as well
as the meter. AGA Report No. 9 requires a multipath
meter provide individual path velocities. Once the
USM is placed in service, it is important to
collect a baseline (log file) of the meter. That is,
record the path velocities over some reasonable
operating range, if possible. These baseline logs can
also be obtained at the time of calibration. However,
as the piping in the field will likely be different than
that at the calibration facility, there could be some
minor changes in profile. Good meter station
designs produce a relatively uniform velocity profile
within the meter. The baseline log file may be helpful
at a later date. Figure 13 shows the velocity ratio of
velocity during a period of time and dividing it by the
average velocity as reported by the meter over the
same period of time. Since the ratio for each path
remains essentially constant at all meter velocities,
than by looking at the actual velocity on each path.


Figure 13 Path Ratios at 23 fps

Typically the ratio for a chordal design meter is
about 91% (ratio = 0.91) for paths 1 and 4, and
about 102% (ratio = 1.02) for paths 2 and 3. The
difference in ratios is due to the fact that the outer
paths are closer to the pipe wall, and thus the
velocity of the gas there is less than the gas that is
closer to the center of the pipe. When the velocity
falls below approximately 3 feet per second,
depending upon meter size and station design, the
velocity profile may change. Figure 14 shows the
2.8 fps.


Figure 14 Path Ratios at 2.8 fps

When comparing Figure 13 and 14 it is very clear
that the velocity profiles are very different. Both of
these were taken from a 16-inch meter at the time of
calibration. Even with the difference in path ratios,
calibration.


Figure 15 16 inch Performance

even though path ratios were different as shown in
Figures 13 and 14. This is the same meter
discussed earlier that was calibrated to 155 fps, but
the x-axis has been adjusted to better show the low
end performance. Looking at four path ratios takes
understanding why the velocities are different. Since
these can change by small amounts, a simpler
method of identifying changes in profile is desired. A
single value would be much easier to understand,
and also easier to quickly analyze. This value is
called Profile Factor. The Profile Factor is computed
by adding the velocity ratios of paths 2 and 3
together and dividing by the sum of the ratio of paths
1 and 4. The equation looks like this: Profile Factor =
(2 + 3)/(1 + 4). Assuming that paths 1 and 4 are 0.91
and the path 2 & 3 values are 1.02 the Profile Factor
is about 1.12. This value does vary a little from
meter to meter due to piping installation effects and
to some degree the type of flow conditioner and its
distance from the meter. Another method used to
analyze path velocities is to compare the sum of
paths 1 & 2 to the sum of paths 3 & 4. This provides
a look at the symmetry of the profile from top to
very symmetrical resulting in a value close to 1.000.
Figures 13 and 14 show both the Profile and the
Symmetry n Figure 16, when the meter was flowing
at 20 fps, the Profile Factor was 1.115. As the
velocity dropped to 2.8 fps (Figure 17) the Profile
Factor changed to 1.137. This is about a 2% change
in profile when comparing the middle paths to the
outer paths.


Figure 16 Profile Factor and Symmetry at 20 fps

The other diagnostic worth reviewing is the
Symmetry value. Figure 14 shows a significant
change (on the order of 10%) in the Symmetry at the
lower velocities, but again there was no significant
impact on meter performance. This just indicates


Figure 17 Profile Factor and Symmetry at 3 fps
The Profile Factor can be a valuable indicator of
abnormal flow conditions. The previous discussion
showed what happens to the Profile Factor and
Symmetry due to low velocity operation. This profile
change is typical when the meter is operated at
lower velocities. Figure 18 shows an ideal profile
from a 12-inch meter. This was based on the log file
collected at the time of calibration. Users have often
asked what impact partial blockage of a flow
was used to show what happens not only to the
profile, but to quantify the change in accuracy.


Figure 18 12-nch Meter Profile Normal

The Profile Factor for this meter is 1.118. For the
second test, the flow conditioner was modified to
have about 40% of the holes blocked with duct tape.
Duct tape was used to ensure repeatability. Figure
19 shows the flow conditioner just before it was
installed in the pipeline.


Figure 19 40% Blocked Flow Conditioner

Figure 20 shows the velocity ratios during the time
the flow conditioner was blocked. This was taken at
a velocity of 66 fps. The profile at two other
velocities, 22 and 45 fps, looked the same.

Figure 20 12-inch Meter Profile Blocked

The Profile is obviously distorted with higher-
thannormal readings on path 3 and 4, and lower
than normal on paths 1 and 2. The flow conditioner
was installed with the blockage at the bottom of the
pipe. As the gas flowed through the open holes,
there was a low-pressure created just downstream
of the blocked area causing the gas to then
accelerate downward, thus causing the higher
velocity at the bottom of the meter. The Profile
Factor for this 12-inch meter, as determined from
like much, but it certainly indicates a significant
change in profile. After installation in the field a
meter typically will generate a Profile Factor that
is repeatable to 0.02. However, this does depend
upon the piping, and makes the assumption that
there are no other changes like flow conditioner
blockage. The next question is what was the impact
on accuracy with this distorted velocity profile?
Figure 21 shows the result of the three test velocities
and the impact on metering accuracy.


Figure 21 Blocked CPA Results

As can be seen the meter was affected by an
average of about 0.15% for all flow rates. n this
case the meter slightly under-registered with this
distorted profile. Later in this paper a more
advanced diagnostic feature will also show the
meter has blockage, but for now one can see the
Profile Factor has indicated a significant change.
n the past many have thought that looking at the
Profile Factor alone would be a good indication if
there was any contamination or flow conditioner
blockage. This may not always be true. Figure 22
shows a picture of a flow conditioner with 3 holes
blocked at the bottom.


Figure 22 3 Holes Blocked Flow Conditioner

n this test the three blocked holes in the flow
conditioner were located at the bottom of the meter
run. This is the same 12-inch meter and testing as
discussed with the 40% blockage. Figure 23 shows
a graph of the Path Ratios during this test.


Figure 23 Path Ratios with 3 Holes Blocked


When we compare Figure 23 with Figure 18 (the
normal Path Ratio profile) it is obvious that the two
do not look the same. However, when computing the
Profile Factor, the average value for Figure 23 is
1.114. This is almost the perfect number for this
meter. Upon further inspection we see in Figure 24
that the Symmetry is not correct.


Figure 24 Profile Factor and Symmetry at 40 fps

n Figure 24 we see the average for the Profile
Factor is 1.114 and almost normal, but that the
Symmetry value average is 0.95, or about a 5% shift
from normal. Thus it is possible for the Profile Factor
to be normal, when the velocity profile in the meter is
not. The combination of Profile Factor and Symmetry
are needed to fully analyze the velocity profile
entering the meter.

Speed of Sound

Probably the most discussed and used diagnostic
tool of an ultrasonic meter is the speed of sound
(SOS). The reader may recall that speed of sound
on an individual path is basically the sum of the
transit times divided by their product, all then
multiplied by one half of the path length. A more
detailed discussion on this can be found in a
previously presented paper [Ref 5]. There are at
least 2 ways of looking at SOS. The first would be to
calculated by the meter. Figure 25 shows a graph of
the SOS of a 10 inch meter at the time of calibration.


Figure 25 SOS by Path at Calibration

This data was taken from the meter operating at 23
fps and showing a very stable reading. Here we can
perhaps an easier way of looking at the SOS values
average value. Doing this is makes it easier to spot
problems. Figure 26 shows the percent difference of
SOS.


Figure 26 Path Percent Difference in SOS

Here the difference, in percentage, of each of the
indicates good correlation between each path and
also no temperature stratification within the meter.
When a meter is operated at lower velocities,
typically less than 3 fps, and there is a large
difference between the gas and atmospheric
temperature, heat transfer can occur. As the heat
transfer occurs, internal temperature gradients can
develop. When this happens the hotter gas inside
the pipe rises to the top of the meter. Since the
speed of sound in the gas is relatively sensitive to
temperature, this will be seen as a SOS difference
between the paths. This is often called thermal
stratification. Figure 27 shows the SOS values of the
same 10 inch meter when it is operated at 1.8 fps at
the calibration lab.


Figure 27 Thermal Stratification Effects

From Figure 27 we can see the average percent
difference in SOS compared to the meter has
increased a little. This is due to a slight thermal
gradient within the meter. That is the gas at the top
of the meter is hotter than that at the bottom. Path 1
color is blue, path 2 is red, path 3 is green and path
4 is gold in color. Figure 27 shows upper paths have
increased and the ones at the bottom decreased.
This difference in SOS may be thought to impact the
accuracy of the meter. n extreme cases this can be
the case. However, for this example the impact is
virtually on-existent. Figure 28 shows the results of
this 10-inch at the time of calibration.


Figure 28 10-inch Low-Flow Error

very little impact in the performance of the meter
even though there was some thermal stratification.
Figures 29 and 30 show profiles for this same 10-
inch meter at 20 and 1.8 fps respectively.


Figure 29 10-inch 20 fps Path Ratios


Figure 30 10-inch 1.8 fps Path Ratios

Even though this meter had some thermal
significantly. There is a difference, but once again it
is not as significant as the blocked flow conditioner
example in Figure 20.

ADVANCED DIAGNOSTIC INDICATORS

During the past several years an additional
diagnostic feature has been studied by Engineering.
thoroughly in a previous paper [Ref 6]. Essentially
Turbulence is a measure of the variability of each
was sampling, and is provided each time it updates
the velocity information. This gives the technician an
idea of the steadiness of the flow as seen by the
meter. Typically the level of turbulence on a
Westinghouse design shows paths 1 and 4 to have
around 4% turbulence, and paths 2 and 3 around
2%. This is based upon the history of many meters.
The outer paths 1 and 4, being closer to the pipe
wall, always exhibit higher turbulence because they
are more affected by the surface friction of the
upstream piping.
Turbulence can be computed from the maintenance
log file for older meters. With the advent of more
advanced electronics, it is now computed real-time
in the meter and reported on the maintenance log
files. This greatly reduces the time for analysis since
it is not only stored in the log file, it is graphed out
automatically for quick review. Recently viewing
Turbulence has solved several metering problems.
Distorted velocity profiles often cause concern about
metering accuracy. f the velocity profile, as shown in
Figure 18, now appears like that in Figure 20, the
cause needs to be determined. Some might feel this
is just due to upstream affects and may not believe
there is any object blocking the flow conditioner.
The 12-inch meter in Figure 31 shows a very
consistent level of Turbulence during the period of
the test. t was collected at the time of calibration
and the velocity was about 66 fps.


Figure 31 Normal 12-inch Meter Turbulence

Figure 32 is the same meter with a blocked flow
conditioner as shown in Figure 16.


Figure 32 High 12-inch Meter Turbulence

t is clear that the turbulence in Figure 32 is about 3
times higher. Certainly the velocity profiles for this
meter, shown in Figures 18 and 20, look different.
Anyone looking at the blocked profile would
immediately recognize there is a problem. t is
possible, however, to have a complete blockage of a
flow conditioner with something like a porous bag
and have a relatively symmetrical profile. n this
situation the turbulence would be excessive,
indicating there is a problem with blockage. This has
been observed in the field and without Turbulence it
would have gone un-detected.


Sizing of USMs
Traditional measurement devices have been limited
to flow rates that were equivalent to 50-60 feet per
second (fps) maximum. Although high-capacity
turbines operate in the 80-95 fps range, the majority
of installations are still designed for the standard
capacity meter. One of the significant advantages of
ultrasonic meters is their ability to operate accurately
in excess of 100 fps with no damage to the meter.
the capacity of an ultrasonic meter is at least 1
times that of an orifice meter.
Many users specify velocity limits in piping to
minimize the potential for erosion in fittings (bends,
elbows and tees) that can cause failure of the piping
should the wall thickness become too thin. There
have been reports of severe erosion of elbows
downstream of meters that were operated above
100 fps for significant periods of time. However,
there are several other issues that limit high velocity
operation.
Higher velocity operation increases the stress on the
thermowell(s). There have been reported cases of
thermowells cracking when operated at high
velocities. Some work has been performed to
determine how accurate the RTD element remains
when the thermowell is subjected to very high
velocities. Studies indicate that vibration of the
thermowell may cause the RTD to register higher
element rubs against the thermowell.
Higher velocities also create more differential
conditioners. The magnitude of this loss is
somewhat dependent on the type of conditioner
installed. However, typically the pressure drop at 60
fps is on the order of 2-3 psi differential (psid). f the
gas velocity through the meter is increased to 120
fps, the differential becomes 4-9 psid. The
increased velocity and subsequent differential
pressure also can create higher noise, both audible
and ultrasonic. The ultrasonic noise at these high
operation. The audible noise may necessitate
additional costs related to noise abatement or
possible facility relocation to minimize impact on
surrounding environment.
Primarily these reasons, most designers limit normal
operation to either 70 or 80 fps. t is tempting to
install a smaller meter and operate at higher
velocities. However, the initial cost savings of going
to these higher velocities can quite possibly be offset
with increased maintenance and reliability problems
that will occur later. The real benefit of the higher
velocity capability is the ability to have accurate
measurement at the higher flow rates which may
occur during upsets or other abnormal conditions. n
addition, the high velocity will not damage the meter
as may be the case with orifice or turbine meters.
Low FIow Performance Issues
Traditionally USMs have been sized to operate so
that the lowest velocity expected is between 5 and
10 fps. Using 5 fps as the lowest velocity provides a
rangeability of 14-1 if the maximum velocity
expected is 70 fps. Comparing this to traditional
devices such as orifice and turbine this rangeability
is generally better. However, larger turbine meters
can approach this rangeability (and in some cases
exceed this). Recently users have been asking how
to increase the rangeability in order to help reduce
CAPEX (capital expense) cost and operation
maintenance cost (O&M, or OPEX) of the meter
station. Since most users limit their maximum
velocity to 70-80 fps, the only area left to expand
rangeability is to operate the meter at lower
velocities.
During the past several years many users have
come to see the value in calibrating meters to
velocities as low as 1 fps (and sometimes even
lower). Calibrating a meter to below 5 fps is often
data points are used for calibrations with a 5-70 fps
operation, and 2 additional data points, often 1 and 3
fps, are added for the low flow calibration. By
lowering the minimum velocity to 1 fps the user has
essentially multiplied the rangeability by 5!
A typical installation for a gas powered electric
generation plant might include a 12-inch meter for
the main flow rates, and a 6-inch USM for the lower
flow rates. Assuming the lowest the 6-inch is
operated is 5 fps, this would equate to about 1 fps
for the 12-inch meter. This translates into a
rangeability of approximately 80-1 by using both
meters. Suppose a single 12-inch meter could be
operated at this low velocity with a reasonable
degree of accuracy. What would be the capital cost
savings?
f the designer uses a low flow meter (say a 6-inch
USM) with a 12-inch meter, in lieu of installing a
single 12-inch meter, it would probably cost on the
order of $60-90K more. By purchasing only one
meter, and not having to do run switching with all the
associated piping and control systems, the
measurement station is also much easier to
maintain. The capital cost saving is only the
beginning. The benefit of less equipment translates
into lower O&M costs for the life of the station. One
hidden benefit is with no run switching, the
possibility of the main run not activating is eliminated
since there are no automated actuators required to
open a valve. When a power plant goes online, and
generally causes a loss in revenue, and the end
user is not happy with the gas provider.
There are probably two major concerns about
operating a USM at these low velocities. One is
accuracy and the second is repeatability. The
accuracy concern is from the absolute performance
of the meter. That is, how accurate can the meter
be after flow calibration at very low velocities?
Another accuracy concern is how accurate will the
meter be if there is thermal stratification (gas hotter
at the top of the meter than at the bottom) within the
pipeline. That is, if the gas temperature at the top of
the pipe is hotter than the bottom, the measured
temperature from the RTD will read higher, and thus
under-registration is likely. Also, this can contribute
to flow profile problems (distortion of the velocity
profile) which also may impact metering accuracy,
although this is generally not considered to be
significant.
technology, these can be solved very easily. The
provide a method of correction to reduce uncertainty
at these very low flow rates, and can thermal
improve accuracy at very low flow rates.
Regarding the accuracy of a meter, a calibration
technique called piece-wise linearization (PWL),
commonly used for optimizing turbine meter
performance, can be applied within the USM. This
technique permits substantial reduction of the
uncertainty at low flow rates. That it, assuming the
meter is calibrated at the very low flow rate
(velocity), the resultant uncertainty will become very
small since any errors at these lower velocities have
be exceptional once calibration is complete, and the
PWL technique has been implemented. Following is
an example of a 12-inch meter that was calibrated
from 2 fps to 118 fps.
12-inch As Found and As Left ResuIts
-1.4
-1.2
-1.0
-0.8
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.4
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Meter VeIocity (ft/sec)
As Found As Left Verification Points

Figure 33 12-nch Meter Calibration Results
As can be seen from this calibration result in Figure
approximately 0.3% from the average of all the other
flow rates prior to adjustment. t is important to note
provide accuracy values much greater than
previously thought possible. This is due, in part, to
the improvements in manufacturing and dry
calibration that have been achieved during the past
several years, and also to technology improvements
in electronics.
After implementation of PWL meter calibration
factors, all errors are driven to zero, so the
uncertainty is essentially reduced to that of the lab.
There is an additional uncertainty when operating
between calibration points. This is because the
PWL technique assumes the error between
calibration points is a straight line. However, due to
the typical linearity of the un-calibrated meter by
using an appropriate number of data points at the
low velocities, this added uncertainty should not
exceed 0.1%.
The second accuracy concern comes from the
possibility of thermal stratification at lower velocities.
A previously published paper discussed a 10-inch
meter that had thermal stratification on the order of 2
degrees F [Ref 4]. This stratification occurred
because the gas in the upstream piping was flowing
at velocities below 3 fps, and more than 100 feet of
the upstream piping was subjected to a bright sun.
Also, there was a significant difference in gas-to-
ambient temperature. One might say this is typical,
but perhaps this is not a typical installation.
piping below grade (underground). Piping emerges
above ground and then makes a 90-degree direction
change into the meter. With a 10-inch meter, this
typically means 20-25 feet of piping is exposed to
the sun and ambient temperature. n this condition,
even when operating at 2 fps, the gas takes less
than 15 seconds from the time it exits the elbow or
tee to enter the meter run before it reaches the
meter. n 15 seconds there probably is not sufficient
time for any significant heat transfer to occur and
cause stratification within the flowing gas stream.
Thus, the possibility of thermal stratification of the
gas at these low velocities is very minimal.
f significantly more upstream piping is exposed to
ambient and solar effects than in the previous 10-
inch meter design example, there is a possibility of
thermal stratification. However, this can be easily
detected by looking at the speed of sound reported
by a meter that samples transit times horizontally.
That is, if the gas temperature is hotter at the top,
the SOS on the top path will read higher than the
gas velocity of 5-10 fps. By being able to see there
is no deviation in SOS at the lower velocities, the
user can have confidence that there is no thermal
stratification, and thus temperature measurement is
accurate. The caveat is that not all USM designs
can provide this type of information.
of calibration velocities. Figure 6 below shows the
results of a 10-inch meter calibrated from velocities
of about 1.8 fps to 118 fps.
10-inch As Found and As Left ResuIts
-1.00
-0.75
-0.50
-0.25
0.00
0.25
0.50
0.75
1.00
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Meter VeIocity (ft/sec)
As Found As Left Verification Points

Figure 34 10-nch Meter Calibration from 1.8 to 118 FPS
After meter adjustment the uncertainty of the meter
would be that of the lab (about 0.2%) and the
repeatability of the meter (probably on the order of
0.1% or less). At the lower velocities there could be
SOS values at two velocities to see how much
stratification may have occurred.
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