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MANUAL
About the CP-EE Manual Contents listing Part 1 Part 2 Part 3 CP-EE methodology Technical modules Tools and resources
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Preface
These Guidelines for the Integration of Cleaner Production and Energy Efficiency are part of a UNEP effort to link the professional disciplines of Cleaner Production and Energy Efficiency in a more systematic manner. They were developed during a project that saw National Cleaner Production Centres (NCPCs) in six countries pull energy management principles into the resource efficiency approach that lies at the heart of Cleaner Production. The National Productivity Council of India prepared the draft manual, which was then used by NCPC staff in China, the Czech Republic, Hungary, India, the Slovak Republic and Vietnam. Together these NCPCs then tested the Cleaner ProductionEnergy Efficiency methodology in almost 100 companies. Their experiences in applying the Guidelines helped improve the working draft, as did the editorial skill of Geoffrey Bird. The manual has also benefited from comments and suggestions provided by external reviewers, most notably Thomas Brki. Preparation of the manual was coordinated at UNEP by Amr Abdel Hai. Surya Chandak and Mark Radka also contributed to the effort, which was conducted as a joint activity between UNEPs Cleaner Production and Energy programmes.
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MANUAL
Contents
Preface About the CP-EE manual i ii
1
2
2 2 2 3 4
7
7 8 10 10 12 14 61
87
87 88 91 95 98 105 108 109
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Contents (continued)
111
112
Thermal systems
M1.1 Fuelsstorage, preparation and handling M1.2 Combustion M1.3 Boilers M1.4 Thermic fluid heaters M1.5 Steam distribution and utilization M1.6 Furnaces M1.7 Waste heat recovery
112
112 116 121 135 137 154 163
Electrical systems
M1.8 Electricity management systems M1.9 Electric drives and electrical end-use equipment M1.10 Cooling towers M1.11 Refrigeration and air-conditioning M1.12 Lighting systems basics
176
176 189 222 227 234
240
240 242 244 245
247
248 260 262 267 276 287 293
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ENERGY EFFICIENCY
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page 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
CP-EE
1.0 Building on established strategies
Both Cleaner Production (CP) and Energy Efficiency (EE) are established and powerful strategies that reduce costs and generate profits by reducing waste. They are, however, generally practiced separately, with little or no search for common ground. This is unfortunate, since CP and EE are often highly complementary and their integration can provide synergies that broaden the scope of their application and give more effective resultsboth environmental and economic. Integration of these two powerful strategies is the subject of this manual.
snapshot A seasoned CP practitioner, was asked to look into a large educational institutions pumping system to improve water use. Having recently acquired EE skills, he was not only able to reduce wasteful water consumption by 30 per cent but also to reduce the energy used for pumping by 37 per cent (through reduced use, optimum pipe size, simplified distribution network and reduced head requirements).
CP-EE
snapshot A small-scale textileprocessing unit used winches (heated by direct firing of solid fuel) for bleaching and dyeing of cotton fabric. A CP study revealed that the unit was wasting large amounts of water, dyes and other chemicals. CP solutions, including reducing the material-to-liquor ratio from 1:20 to 1:15 and optimizing the chemicals and dyes, reduced the consumption of water and chemicals used and resulted in annual savings of US$3 600.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
EE
viewed as being highly compartmentalized and, in the absence of an established methodology, is generally prescriptive and sporadic. Very few EE practitioners are concerned about the environmental results of implementation of EE andeven though a fair proportion of EE options lead to benefits for the environmentthese are almost never highlighted. For EE practitioners, cost reduction is the overriding concern and they will favour economically attractive options even when these may have negative environmental impacts.
snapshot A small-scale textileprocessing unit used an open winch for bleaching and dyeing of cotton fabric. The winch was heated by direct firing of solid fuel under the tank. An energy audit indicated inefficiency in the heating system resulting in heavy fuel consumption and less than optimum bath temperatures. When, on the EE professional's advice, changes were made to the design of the furnace, the bath temperature was increased from 55 C to 60 C, and fuel consumption was reduced. This brought an annual saving of US$1 200.
CP-EE
snapshot An acclaimed EE expert, was asked by the managers of a Vietnamese steel plant to help reduce energy bills. Using integrated CP-EE techniques, he not only brought down oil consumption and costs by 20 per cent (by fine tuning excess air in burners of heat treatment furnaces) but also reduced scale losses (due to oxidation) from 3 per cent to less than 0.5 per cent equivalent to an additional 10 per cent of oil savings.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
Conversely, continuous application is a key aspect of CP. When CP and EE are integrated, the notion of continuity becomes extended to EE thereby ensuring its long term sustainability. IV. Facilitating implementation of global agreements and protocols In recent years a number of global and regional agreements and protocols have been developed covering both environmental and energy issues. CP-EE can help to mainstream these more easily than CP or EE alone. Some countries have introduced laws on CP others on EE; a combination of both can help to enforce material and energy conservation measures simultaneously. A CP-EE group could play a pivotal role in helping a countrys government towards this end. V. Less duplication of tasks and synergy between CP and EE objectives CP and EE professionals spend a lot of time collecting and analysing data separately, and then generating material and energy savings options, once again separately. An integrated and simultaneous effort would save a lot of collection and analysis time and would also lead to simpler ways of addressing interdependent issues of material and energy waste. VI. Improving access to a wider range of funding sources There are global and regional sources of funds available exclusively for CP or exclusively for EE. These could be accessed jointly by CP-EE. VII. CP-EE paves the way for implementation of Environmental Management Systems (EMS) An integrated CP-EE approach, by virtue of its methodology, makes it easier to implement and sustain a more comprehensive Environmental Management System (EMS).
1.4 Areas requiring particular attention when integrating CP-EE: hidden wastes and inefficiencies in energy systems
Because CP is generally applied to visible (i.e. material) resource wastes, it leaves little to chance. Material inputs to a given operation can generally be traced through to perceivable and quantifiable outputs. This is not always the case when considering energy streams. While the same basic rule must hold true for energy inputs (i.e. amount of energy in must, ultimately, be equal to the amount of energy out) output energy streams are often less easy to perceive than material ones. Identification and evaluation of hidden waste streams and inefficiencies can therefore be a difficult proposition.
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Chapter 1: Introduction
This is particularly true for electrically driven equipment such as pumps, fans, air compressors, etc. where input energy, in the form of electricity, is easily measurable but the degree to which this is efficiently converted into useful output (e.g. pumped water, compressed air, etc.) is not directly quantifiable. The following are examples of typical situations where only looking for visible/perceivable energy streams can lead to overlooking of energy loss in output streams: Loss due to part load operation of energy-using equipment. Loss due to (low-efficiency) banking/idling operations of energy using equipment. Losses due to resistance to flow (high but avoidable resistance in electricity conductors and fluid pipelines). Loss due to equipment degradation (pump impellers, pump bearings, etc.) leading to increased losses. 1.4.1 Additional parameters and skills In order to ascertain the outputs (both perceivable and non-perceivable) from energy systems, some EE parameters have to be measured/monitored during a CP assessment in addition to the essential onessuch as temperature, flow, humidity, concentration, percentage compositions, etc.already measured as part of CP. Additional EE parameters that need to be measured/monitored could include: kW (kilowatt power input); kV (kilovoltsimpressed voltage); I (ampereselectrical current); PF (power factor of induction electric equipment); Hz (frequency of alternating current); N (rpm or speed of rotating equipment); P (pressure of liquid/gaseous streams); DP (pressure drops in input/output liquid and gaseous streams); Lux (light intensity); GCV, NCV (gross and net calorific value of fuels); etc. CP professionals will need some additional skills to be able to integrate EE during assessments effectively. They should: have a basic understanding of electrical circuits, to be able to measure input power to motor drives correctly; be able to evaluate enthalpy (heat content) in each stream by measuring temperature, pressure and flow; be able to quantify non-perceivable (invisible) streams using known streams. For example, given pump output parameters (such as pressure developed, flow and density) they should be able to evaluate work done and thus estimate energy output;
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Chapter 1: Introduction
CP-EE
be familiar with and able to convert between various energy, pressure and heat content units; be able to control waste energy streams and learn to correlate the effect of control measures with conversion efficiency of equipment. Differences between material and energy flows are considered further when the methodology for carrying out a CP-EE assessment is presented in Chapter 2. 1.4.2 Possible contradictions CP and EE are highly complementary, with synergies between the individual benefits of each delivering a more effective overall outcome. However, there are some situations where the beneficial results of one methodology (say CP) can be perceived as being in contradiction with the other methodology (EE). A few simple examples will illustrate this: Recycling is a very profitable CP technique, but recycling of oils, and lubricants, and reuse of reconditioned bearings or rewinding of burned out motors (especially when not done properly) often lead to higher energy consumption. Refrigeration by vapour absorption is an eco friendly and pro-CP option in comparison with the prevalent vapour compression machines. However, in terms of energy use, vapour absorption systems are less efficient. Slim fluorescent tube lights are far more energy efficient than incandescent lamps, but from the environmental (CP) point of view, their mercury coating makes them less eco-friendly.
snapshot EA, a medium scale edible oil processing unit in India, was experiencing high hexane losses of 4.93 litres per ton of seeds processed. CP-EE studies in the plant revealed that the losses were primarily due to inadequate steam supply at the desired pressure, inadequate heating surface area of the reactor vessel, low vacuum, and inadequate condenser size. Further detailed studies of the boiler revealed that it did not have the capacity to supply the required quantity of steam at optimum pressure. The company changed the boiler andafter necessary modification of the reactor vessel to increase the heating surface area reduced hexane losses by 12.2 per cent. Besides improving its environmental performance, the company improved the quality of the de-oiled cake. A total investment of US$255 500 resulted in annual savings of US$270 000.
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compile existing basic information identify barriers and solutions to the CPA process decide the focus of the CPA Pre-assessment compile and prepare basic information conduct a walkthrough prepare an eco-map prepare a preliminary material and energy balance
generate options conduct cause diagnosis prepare a detailed material and energy balance Assessment
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Figure 1.1 shows the generic CP methodology. However, in practice, different institutions and practitioners have expanded and/or modified the steps in this basic methodology and have developed specific tasks at each step that suit local conditions and specific requirements. A typical empirical CP methodology is presented in Figure 1.2. This is used later (in Section 2.5) to develop a CP-EE assessment methodology that adheres strictly to the steps presented here but also includes specific features that need to be covered to integrate energy efficiency aspects.
Figure 1.2 Steps of the CP methodology
STEP 2: Pre-assessment
Task 7: Task 8: Task 9: Task 10: Preparing a process flow diagram Conducting a walkthrough Preparing material input-output quantification and characterization Generating and finalizing base data
STEP 3: Assessment
Task 11: Task 12: Task 13: Task 14: Preparing a detailed material balance with losses Conducting cause diagnosis Generating options Screening options
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b) Whenever energy changes form there are some inevitable losses. For CP, these losses are not considered as important because they do not have a significant direct impact on the environment. For EE, on the other hand, identification of the areas where these losses occur is of great importance. c) To identify losses, CP-EE studies have to include measurement of parameters not measured for CP (e.g. temperature, tension in belts, lumens for lighting, etc.). There are also parameters such as friction, surface tension, etc. which cannot be perceived directly and which cannot therefore be measured directly. In these cases estimates have to be made using empirical equations. d) CP does not identify waste streams unless they are in the form of material waste. For instance, in a combustion process, a CP study will measure the airflow before and after combustion (in stack). If the quantities match, little or no further attention will be paid to this stream. For EE studies, however, excess air levels in the flue gas (in stack) are of great importance. Similarly a stream of hot wastewater is a material waste for CP, for EE it is a heat loss. e) In a CP assessment it is relatively easy to produce a material and mass balance for a process because, as already explained, material streams do not generally change form1. It is more difficult for a CP-EE assessment to produce an exact energy balance right across a process since energy is invisible and changes its form. Even perceivable losses, such as iron or copper losses, eddy current loss in motors, friction losses etc., are difficult to measure and quantify. A different approach has to be adopted to obtain energy balances. Some options for producing an energy balance are: i) System efficiency based on measurable energy input and work output For example, fan delivery air can be measured (in m3) against power consumed (in kW), giving an indication of efficiency as kW/m3. A similar indication could be given for a refrigeration system, as kW/TR. ii) Measurement of major loss only Sometimes input and output energy streams are difficult to measure. This would be the case, for example, for steam flowing in a pipeline over a long distance and where it is possible to measure neither input steam, owing to lack of flow meters, nor output heat effect, because of the very narrow temperature difference. However, parameters such as surface losses or radiation losses can be measured.
Even when some of the materials do change form (e.g. vapour loss from water during heating) the changes are usually very small.
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iii) Single parameter measurement and benchmark comparison For systems like agitators, where even measuring of losses is not practicable, comparative efficiency levels can be obtained by measuring the electricity input and comparing it with input for similar systems elsewhere. The causes of energy waste are well known, relatively uniform and standard and, at times, making an exhaustive cause analysis may seem superfluous (e.g. Waste = excess air in flue gas. Cause = air fan supplying too much air or air ingress). However, until the CP-EE team becomes fully conversant with the normal/standard causes, it may still be advisable to conduct an exhaustive cause analysis, to avoid overlooking possible causes.
Pre-assessment STEP 2
Assessment STEP 3
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Note: the ! next to the Tasks in Figure 1.4 indicate Tasks which require additional skills, expertise, data collection and work; these Tasks are similarly indicated where they occur in the text.
STEP 2: Pre-assessment
! Task 7: Task 8: ! Task 9:
Preparing a process flow diagram Conducting a walkthrough Preparing material and energy input-output quantification and characterization ! Task 10: Generating and finalizing base data
STEP 3: Assessment
! Task 11: Preparing a detailed material and energy balance with losses ! Task 12: Conducting cause diagnosis ! Task 13: Generating options Task 14: Screening options
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* The Worksheets presented in Section 2.7 are included on the CD-ROM in Microsoft Word format. These editable files can be opened by clicking on the Open File button in the top right corner of each Worksheet displayed in the Manual.
STEP 1
The planning and organization step is one of the most important for a successful CP-EE assessment. It consists of the following six tasks: Obtaining commitment and involvement of top management Involving employees Organizing a CP-EE team Compiling existing basic information Identifying barriers and solutions to the CP-EE assessment process Deciding the focus of the CP-EE assessment.
Planning can begin once the members of the CP-EE team are identified and once the interest of management in CP-EE has been obtainedoften as a result of awareness raising. However, a CP-EE assessment can only be initiated after a decision has been made by the management to take action.
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The CP-EE assessment may be conducted by an internal company team or by hiring external CP-EE professionals.
Task 1
If the company decides to involve external CP-EE professionals (consultants) a meeting is generally organized between the consultants and top management to formalize this decision. Typically, a memorandum of understanding (MoU) is drawn up between the consultants and the company to define the CP-EE objectives; establish a work plan that will indicate a time frame, sharing of responsibilities and outcomes; and to set fees. The management of the company has to set the stage for the CP-EE assessment in order to ensure cooperation and participation of the staff members. In addition to signing the MoU, top management's commitment should take the form of: management of formation of a CP-EE team; ensuring availability of required resources; provision of necessary training, awareness-raising meetings for employees; and responsiveness to the CP-EE results. It is also important to assess the following: Where does the company stand in relation to environmental and energy policies and to what extent have these been implemented? What is the status of environmental and energy management in the company? What is the status of internal communications at different levels in the company, of information flow, and of initiatives to raise awareness of energy and environmental management issues amongst employees? The Completed Worksheet 1 in the Running Example on the following page shows how a matrix can facilitate assessment of managerial aspects.
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Obtaining commitment and involvement of top management CP-EE is not just a matter of finding technical solutions, numerous other factors influence energy management and the identification and implementation of CP-EE options both directly and indirectly. Commitment and involvement of a firm's top management are therefore essentialCP-EE can only be initiated after management has made the decision to act. An Environmental Management Matrix like the one shown below2 (as the first Completed Worksheet) can be used to foster management involvement and assist in making decisions and identifying potential CP-EE solutions. Completing the matrix indicates where the company stands in relation to six energy/environmental management areas: policy and systems, organization, motivation, information systems, awareness and investment. The matrix presented below is the one used at M/s Luthra Dyeing and Printing Mills (LDPM), Surat, India, the information being based on interviews with management and presentations during an initial meeting on energy and environmental management activities. Based on interview outcomes, bullet points are inserted in the matrix, and these are connected to give a curve (as shown in the matrix below). The peaks indicate where current efforts are most advanced; the troughs indicate where the company is least advanced. It is not unusual for the 'curve' to be uneven, this is the case for most organizations. The matrix helps to identify aspects where further attention is required to ensure energy and environmental management is developed in a rounded and effective way. It will also assist in organizing an energy and environmental management system. How to use the matrix Senior management staff and the CP-EE Team Leader are given a blank version of the matrix. Ask them to indicate on it what they believe to be their companys present situation. A score of 4 for a specific category means that all initiatives mentioned in categories 0 to 4 must be present. Hold a 1-hour interview with senior management to check the real position. Based on interview outcomes, insert the bullets in the matrix and connect them up.
2
Modified from the Energy Management Matrix provided by the Sustainable Energy Authority of Victoria, Australia, www.seav.vic.gov.au
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Completed Worksheet 1
Level
4
Organization
Energy/environmental management fully integrated into management structure. Clear delegation of responsibility for energy use
Motivation
Formal and informal channels of communication regularly used by energy/environmental manager and staff at all levels
Information systems
Comprehensive system sets targets; monitors materials and energy consumption, wastes and emissions; identifies faults; quantifies costs and savings; and provides budget tracking
Awareness
Marketing the value of material and energy efficiency and the performance of energy/environmental management
Investment
Positive discrimination in favour of energy/ environmental saving schemes with detailed investment appraisal of all new building and plant improvement opportunities Same pay-back criteria as for all other investments. Cursory appraisal of new building and plant improvement opportunities. Investment using mostly short-term pay-back critera
Formal energy/ environmental policy but no formal management system, and with no active commitment from top management Unadopted/informal energy/environmental policy set by energy/environmental manager
Energy/environmental manager accountable to energy committee, chaired by a member of the management board
Energy/environment committee used as main channel together with direct contact with major users
Programme of staff Monitoring and awareness and training targeting reports for individual premises based on submetering/monitoring, but savings not reported effectively to users Monitoring and targeting reports based on supply meter/measurement data and invoices. Env./energy staff have ad hoc involvement in budget setting Cost reporting based on invoice data. Engineer compiles reports for internal use within technical department Some ad hoc staff awareness and training
Energy/environmental manager in post reporting to ad hoc committee but line management and authority unclear
Contact with major users through ad hoc committee chaired by senior departmental manager
Unwritten guidelines
Energy and environmental Informal contacts management are part- between engineer and time responsibility of a few users someone with only limited influence or authority No energy/env. manager or formal delegation of responsibility for env./energy use No contact with users
No explicit policy
No information system. No promotion of energy efficiency and No accounting for resource conservation materials and energy consumption and waste
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Task 2
Involving employees
Success of a CP-EE assessment depends heavily on staff involvement. It is important to remember that successful CP-EE assessments are not carried out by people external to the company, such as consultants, but by the staff of the company itself supported, if and where necessary, by people from outside. Staff in this context means everyone, from senior management to employees on the shop-floor. In fact, shop-floor staff often have a better understanding of processes and are able to suggest improvements. Other departments such as purchasing, marketing, finance, and administration can also play an important role. Staff members provide useful data, especially on process inputs and outputs, and assist with assessment of the economic and financial feasibility of CP-EE options. Group meetings should be organized to involve them. Well managed meetings will gain the goodwill and confidence of employees and also inform them about the benefits of a CP-EE assessment. This rapport with employees will help to motivate them and ensure their involvement in the studies. Completed Worksheet 2 shows a checklist of various activities that can be undertaken to involve employees.
Task 3
Setting up one or more CP-EE teams is an important aspect of the initiation, coordination and supervision of the CP-EE studies. Teams should consist of company staff supported and assisted where necessary by CP-EE professionals. Getting the right mix of team members is crucial, otherwise teams may face hindrance from within (e.g. from other company staff members) as well as from outside. For large organizations, teams could comprise a core group ensuring a favourable response to CP-EE options (made up of representatives of different departments, especially finance/accounts and projects departments) and subgroups addressing specific tasks. For small and medium size firms, a single team comprising the owner or proprietor and supervisors or managers overseeing day-to-day operations may well be sufficient. To be effective, the team should have enough collective knowledge to analyse and review current production practices and energy systems and to explore, develop and evaluate CP-EE measures. (See Completed Worksheet 3).
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Tasks
CP-EE introduction Workshop Middle manager Shop floor workers Utilities workers Administration staff
Yes
No
2)
Group meetings Administration staff Various sections in the process house Utilities staff Maintenance staff Purchase department staff
3) 4) 5)
Display of CP-EE posters Showing of short films on CP-EE success stories Organizing of slogan campaign on environmental and energy themes
Designation
Director Operation In-charge Maintenance Engineer Dyeing In-charge External Consultant
Department
Overall Equipment and utilities Plant maintenance Dyeing section
Role
Team leader Team member Team member Team member Team member
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CP-EE
Task 4 Compiling existing basic information
!
snapshot Information obtained during the first meetings with top management and staff, prior to the assessment, will allow the team to analyse and review the information and be better prepared for the conducting a walkthrough task. Such information could be obtained, for example, from an analysis of electricity bills. It may lead to recommendations, before assessment, on things like energy demand rescheduling and power factor penalties.
In this task, the CP-EE team generates four important outputs: General company information This involves obtaining general details about the company including details of key contact people, main products, turnover, employees, working hours and production days in a year. (See Completed Worksheet 4a). General production flow chart A general production flow chart includes major energy conversion equipment supplying utilities such as steam (boilers), compressed air (air compressors), chilled water (refrigeration compressors), etc. (See Completed Worksheet 4b). Data on consumption and cost of input raw materials, chemicals and energy resources (electricity and fuels) must be collected and compiled, together with data on consumption by utilities and details of production for both the entire plant and for each process department. These data should be compiled in three forms, namely: daily or batch average; monthly average (daily data over a period of three to four representative months); and yearly average (twelvemonth data for preceding three years) (see Completed Worksheets 4c and 4d). Graphical representation of the data will help the team to analyse work practices and trends within the facility and may also highlight unusual practices that are worthy of investigation. Details of technical specifications Details of technical specifications for equipment used in the production process and supply of process utilities must also be collected. (See Completed Worksheet 4e). A status list of readily available information A status list of readily available information about the plant should be made. This will include process flow diagrams, plant layouts, inventory and dispatch data sheets, raw material consumption and cost data, production data, production log sheets, material balance, water balance and conservation details, energy consumption details, emissions records, waste analysis records, waste generation and disposal records, maintenance log sheets and other relevant data. (See Completed Worksheet 4f).
CP-EE
snapshot A typical textile processing unit in Thailand processes cloth which can be divided into two categories: dyed cloth and printed cloth. The cloth that is printed is initially dyed or whitened. Total production from the unit was normalized in terms of the total cloth processed, the resources used during the production forming the basis for normalization. Total (normalized) production = total cloth printed + total cloth dyed.
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4) 5) 6)
coal yard
pre-treatment
wastewater
fines
wastewater
ETP
boiler house
printing
wastewater
sludge
finishing
emissions
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Months 2
122 208
3
136 222 4 697 345 363 1 216
4
148 234 4 625 1 587 0 0
5
136 222 3 611 234 608 2 037
6
172 258 3 804 294 417 1 395
7
143 229 4 629 225 421 1 410
8
133 219 4 656 234 366 1 227
9
123 209 4 582 208 361 1 209
10
136 222 4 576 1 469 0 0
11
135 221 4 623 1 641 0 0
12
125 211 3 553 1 356 0 0
Total average
135 221 3 664 746 253 848
kWh/ton cloth
1 525
1 521
1 561
1 587
2 272
1 690
1 636
1 461
1 417
1 469
1 641
1 356
1 595
61 82
65.4 80
60.5 88
65.1 93
60.1 85
74.2 110
61 100
61.4 93
61.8 87
61.3 90
64 99
63.5 85
63.2 91
Specifications
Specific design parameters 6 t/hr, 10.98 kg/cm2, at 75% eff. 250 cfm at 6 kg/cm2
2) 3)
2 2 1 8 16 36 1 1 2
Screw compressor
4)
Motors
3-phase
5)
Fans
ID FD
6)
Pumps
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Information required
Layout Factory Steam and condensate distribution network Compressed air distribution network
Available
Not available
Remarks
2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11)
Production details Process flow diagram Material balance Energy balance Design specification of utilities Raw material consumption and cost Energy, water consumption and cost Waste generation and disposal records Waste treatment records Maintenance records
Task 5
In order to develop workable solutions, the CP-EE team must identify impediments to the CP-EE processfor example difficulties in obtaining information from certain departments. The team should highlight such difficulties right away, so that corrective measures can be taken by management to resolve the issue before the start of the CP-EE assessment itself. Lack of measuring instruments and lack of provision for measurements could also be a major barrier. Adequate steps must be taken to overcome such barriers (e.g. purchasing or hiring of measuring equipment and making of provision for measurement). Lack of awareness of CP-EE on the part of staff and lack of relevant skills are further possible barriers. These barriers are typically overcome by conducting in-plant awareness-raising sessions, through training activities or through provision and explanation of relevant case studies and similar measures. (See Completed Worksheet 5).
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Barrier
Attitude barriers Lack of awareness of energy and environmental issues Emphasis on maximum production rather than productivity Complacent attitude towards existing process/production conditions Hesitant about risks involved Low participation of workers in CP-EE programme Belief that I am doing the best
Yes
No
Yes
No
Increase awareness Involve workers in decision making Acknowledge workers efforts Formulate incentive schemes for workers Encourage experimentation for CP-EE options Review CP-EE measures on regular basis using simple indicators Increase interaction among similar kinds of industries
Organizational barriers One man show; middle (supervisory) level missing Loose management structure Production on ad-hoc basis Labour intensive: workers employed on contract basis Inadequate documentation of inventory and production data Delegation of authority Induction of technically sound person
Right wage for the right person Recruitment of permanent skilled workforce
Trade barriers Production on job-order basis Poor quality of input raw material Industry mainly catering to local markets
Setting up of integrated plants Ensuring good quality of raw materials from supplier Standardization of product Promotion of marketing in the international market
Technical barriers Lack of: proper guidance on CP-EE technically sound professionals skilled workers laboratory analysis facility adequate in-plant waste usage opportunities Erratic power supply Relevant technical literature not readily available Highly water-intensive process steps Technology developed abroad not applicable in Indian conditions Training and awareness workshops on CP-EE Setting up of laboratory with basic facilities
Provision of regular power supply through captive power generation Promotion of relevant technical literature through inhouse circulation Development of indigenous CP-EE measures Encouraging waste exchange among industrial units
Economic barriers Adequate funds not available Low financial returns on certain CP-EE measures Availability of cheap un-skilled labour, making automation less attractive Changing excise and tax liabilities
Soft loans Planned investment Incentive schemes for industries going in for CP-EE Training of workforce for specific job and formulation of long-term industrial policy Imposition of water levy on industries to restrict water use and encouraging of modernization of existing plants
Other barriers Abundant supply of resources such as water, making water conservation less financially attractive Lack of available space Lack of regulation on environmental and energy management systems
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CP-EE
Task 6 Deciding the focus of the CP-EE assessment
snapshot In the textile industry, the garment section is often overlooked, as it is not a major consumer of resources or generator of wastes or emissions. In the cement industry, water is not given much emphasis for CP-EE, as the focus is on energy and materials. Focus areas need to be fixed on the basis of information on departments, utilities and/or sections, taking account of barriers and the solutions to overcome them.
Deciding the focus of the CP-EE involves making decisions in two areas: scope: deciding whether to include the entire plant or limit CP-EE to certain units/departments/processes; and emphasis: deciding which materials and energy resources to include (e.g. raw material, products, fuel, electricity, steam, compressed air and refrigeration, etc.). The focus of the CP-EE assessment can be decided by using a set of weighted criteria applied to the different sections and allocating a score to those sections of a plant or facility that could be the focus of assessment. An example is given in Completed Worksheet 6. The weight given to any particular criterion depends on many factors and will probably need to be adapted to suit the nature of the particular industry, location, etc.
Weight
Boiler house 7 2 2 3 3 8 8
Scores obtained
Dye house 4 3 1 3 1 3 4 Printing 5 3 2 3 3 5 6 Pre-treatment 5 4 1 2 2 4 5
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STEP 2
Pre-assessment
Pre-assessment, Step 2 in the CP-EE assessment methodology, gives the CP-EE practitioner an initial hands on feel for the companys operations. It consists of the following four important tasks: Preparing process flow diagrams of CP-EE focus areas, using available information and data Conducting a walkthrough Preparing material and energy input and output quantification and characterization Generating and finalizing baseline data
Task 7
Preparing a process flow diagram (PFD) is an important step in the CP-EE assessment. PFDs are prepared on the basis of discussions with plant personnel, using readily available data, and for the audit focus areas only. The best way for the CP-EE team to start is by listing the important process/unit operations and the associated utility supply equipment/systems. At each operation the team should list: (a) major input resources i.e. energy (electricity, fuels, etc.), raw materials and chemicals, and utilities (water, steam, etc.); (b) intermediate and final products; and (c) waste streams (wastewater, exhaust air, exhaust gases, heat radiation emissions, solid wastes, etc.).
Figure 1.5: Process block diagram
Input resources material resource 1 material resource 2 catalyst energy resource 1 energy resource 2 material resource 1 energy resource 1 catalyst material resource 2 energy resource 2 main raw material PROCESS 1 or UNIT OPERATION 1 Waste stream gaseous waste liquid waste solid waste energy waste reusable waste gaseous waste liquid waste solid waste energy waste
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Next, each of the process/unit operations can be presented as a block diagram showing relevant material and energy inputs, resources, intermediate products, products, by-products, and output waste material and waste energy streams. Operating process parameters (flow rates, pressures, temperatures, water/moisture content, humidity, etc.) should also be indicated in so far as possible. An example of a block diagram is given in Figure 1.5. The way in which this is expanded into the PFD is illustrated by Completed Worksheet 7 and explained in the accompanying text.
wet stream steam separation dry stream (97%) hot condensate (3%)
electricity 9 kW (actual)
air
The process flow diagram (PFD) is constructed by connecting the block diagrams of individual unit operations. Sometimes, the best way to create and refine a PFD is to conduct a number of walkthroughs. While preparing a PFD, the team should keep the following points in mind: Use blocks to denote the operations. For each block, write the name of the operation and any special
continued over page
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operating conditions that need to be highlighted (e.g. for a dyeing operation, it may be pertinent to indicate a temperature of 90 C and pressure of 12 kg/cm2). All data should be based on the same time unit (e.g. annual, quarterly etc.). Wherever required, supplement the process flow diagram with chemical equations to facilitate understanding of the process. The PFD may use symbols to add more information about the process. For instance, indicate clearly whether the operations are batch or continuous. Also, solid and dotted lines can be used to show continuous or intermittent release of emissions, respectively. Colour codes may also be useful (e.g. green lines to indicate recycled streams and red lines to indicate release of wastes). Wherever data is easily available, characterize the input and output streams.
Task 8
Conducting a walkthrough
CP-EE
snapshot The CP-EE team should not conduct a walkthrough when the operations are closed (e.g. at weekends, during low production cycles, or during night shifts).
A walkthrough is one of the most effective techniques for getting first-hand information on production and processes. A walkthrough usually follows the PFD. This task generates two important outputs for the CP-EE team: A record of obvious housekeeping lapses and observations, in the form of a table (see Completed Worksheet 8) or Eco-map (explained below). Simple line diagrams of major utilities (see Completed Worksheet 8). Recording obvious housekeeping lapses While conducting a walkthrough in the different sections of a plant, the CP-EE team will record housekeeping lapses such as leaks of steam or water, leaks from processes or of condensate, fuel oil leaks, compressed air leaks or any obvious wastage going to the drain. These housekeeping lapses must be recorded. Notes should be taken relating to process operations, recording things like specific duty conditions, problems faced by the operators and operators' views on existing process conditions and parameters. Points picked up from the shop floor often lead to potential energy and material saving measures.
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Name of section
Area
Obvious lapses
Solid
Categorization of lapse
Liquid Gas Fuel Electrical Others
Coal handling
Coal storage
2) 3)
Dusty atmosphere Coal quantity use measurement not provided Water flow measurement Radiation loss high Manual fuel firing Fuel firing door open regularly Ash cleaning done manually High unburned coal in ash Cold air + water supplied to boiler drum Major instrument absent 1) Steam temp. 2) Flue gas temp. 3) O2 in flue gas analyser Continuous blowdown without any B/D WHR system No WHR from flue gases Frequent boiler steam load fluctuation No damper control of FD and ID fan at any load Steam pipe line flanges and valves not insulated Main steam line steam traps blowing steam Traps in process equipment not working properly Condensate from process equipment traps being drained Average ETP inlet feed water temp. high (45 C)
Boiler
Boiler
Boiler Boiler
Boiler
Steam distribution
Steam distribution
Steam distribution
Steam distribution
4)
ETP
ETP
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Preparing and collecting simple line diagrams Simple line diagrams should be collected or prepared for the following: Water supply and drainage networks Electricity distribution Refrigeration circuit Steam and condensate distribution Compressed air distribution system
These are simple single line diagrams depicting the supply and distribution network of the above utilities. They may also contain helpful information on operational parameters. Eco-mapping Eco-mapping is a simple and practical tool providing visual representation of areas of concern as well as indicating instances of good practice. Eco-maps can be developed for specific themes. They are made using the layout maps of the site. Themes for which eco-maps can be made include: Water consumption and wastewater discharge Energy use Solid waste generation Odours, noise and dust Safety and environmental risks
For each eco-map, the team must be sure to include everything related to the particular problem being studied. For instance, an eco-map for water consumption and wastewater discharge must pinpoint the location of overflows, spills or excessive use of water, etc. These areas can be highlighted using colour codes or distinct symbols to distinguish between areas that should be monitored or areas where problems need to be dealt with as soon as possible. Figure 1.6 shows a typical eco-map.
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Figure 1.6: Eco-map for water in the printing section of a textile factory
energy solid waste bad practice finished products storage no drains raw material storage solutions, metal dyeing drain piping spillage printing water
processed ETP
office
Dos and donts for housekeeping lapse identification Dont find faultsthis is not a fault-finding mission. The purpose is to better understand material and energy flows and to generate ideas for efficiency gains, higher profitability and overall environmental improvement. It is also to make friends for future contacts and possible partnerships. So, dont be critical be constructive and make suggestions. Dont dominate the conversation. Give the responsible staff the opportunity to speak and explainbe a good listener. Dont ask questions to show your knowledge about the process and dont digress by sharing information that you have but that is not relevant. Ask questions only when you must but, if you dont understand explanations and feel that they are critical, do ask for further explanation. Dont be shy about admitting what you dont understand. Dont leave the groupit can appear impolite. Do ensure that you meet timelines agreed earlier. Do always keep track of the outputs you are expected to produce. Observations should be made to allow for corrective action and notes should be taken to allow for computation of preliminary material balances. It is also important to obtain information on individual operations and key /major operational sequences. Do take along a cameraphotographs can be very helpful. Dont forget that, if outsiders are involved in the team, it is essential to get permission from the management to use the camera.
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Task 9
Each input and output (including wastes)whether resources, materials or energymust be quantified, characterized and noted on the PFD prepared in Task 7. Measurements or estimates of quantities will have to be made in the field when relevant data are not readily available. Data on other parameters necessary to characterize these streams must also be compiled. Involving operating staff in data collection and verification is strongly recommended. Material and energy inputs and outputs will often not balance as many of the loss streamsespecially energy streamshave not yet been identified and quantified. This will require further field visits and measurements.
Quantity
Temperature
Characteristics
Pressure Total solids Others
Output Quantity
Temperature
Characteristics
Pressure Total solids 61.3 kg Others
106.56 m3/d
30 oC
12 kg/cm2 85.24 kg
10.56 m3
179 oC
10 kg/ cm2
302.6 t/d
30 oC
329 t/d
200 oC
O2 = 8.5% _
26.4 t/d
Ash
1.67 t/d
Unburnt
1.28 t/d
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Task 10
Baseline information comprises historical consumption and cost data for all input material and energy resources and output products (see Completed Worksheet 10). The CP-EE team will need to collect all this information using different time frames, i.e.: Annual: monthly average data for each year over the past three years. Monthly: daily average data for 30 days for three representative seasonal months of the year. Daily: average batch data or hourly average data for a day. The types of information to be gathered are: Material and energy resource inputs, consumption and cost (electricity use, energy charges, peak demand charges, electricity unit cost, penalties and other costs). Products, actual production, capacity utilization. Energy conversion equipment, specifications and actual average parameters for each piece of equipment.
Quantity
Savings potential
Targets
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Performance indicators need to be developed based on this information. For example for: Specific material consumption for each material input, or at least for important input materials (tons of input material/ton of product). Specific energy consumption for electricity and fuels (kWh per ton of product, kg or litre of fuel per ton of product). Specific energy utility consumption (TR/ton product, steam/ton product). Equipment-related energy performance indicators (ton steam/ton coal, kW/cfm of fan air). Production cost (per ton of product). Electricity, fuel, water, chemicals, transport, manpower as a percentage of production cost. These performance indicators need to be compared with targets or benchmarks to assess improvement potential. These targets could be based on: own best performance norms; local/national/regional/international industry best performance norms
STEP 3
Assessment
Assessment comprises four critical tasks constituting the CP-EE assessment process. Much of the entire CP-EE process depends on these four tasks: Preparing a detailed material and energy balance including losses Cause diagnosis Generating options Screening options
Task 11
The physical laws of conservation of energy and mass tell us that, in any process/unit operation in a steady state, the sum of all of the inputs must equal the sum of all of the outputs (including losses and wastes). When
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making a material and energy (M&E) balance an essential objective is therefore to check that what goes in, comes out. All inputs, whether material or energy, should have related outputs. Input and output streams were quantified and characterized in Task 10, when a balance was drawn up of material and energy inputs and outputs. Only one or two of the output streams will constitute useful output. It is the proportion of input that can be traced through to useful output that reflects the efficiency of the process. There are non-useful output streams in addition to the useful output. Unlike material streams, energy streams are characterized by a single useful output stream, all of the others constituting loss streams which need to be minimized.
product wastewater liquid wastes for storage and/or disposal solid wastes for storage and/or disposal
As explained earlier, in energy streams, both the useful and the loss output streams are quite often invisible or, at least, not easily detectable. Methods other than direct measurement have to be employed to evaluate and quantify energy content in these streams. The typical components of a material and energy balance are shown in Figure 1.7. Completed Worksheets 11a, 11b and 11c give empirical examples. M&E balances are normally prepared using proxy data supported by information recorded during the walkthrough. For instance, monthly or annual water and energy bills give an idea of consumption levels. On the output side, production figures or orders filled (monthly or annual) can provide an estimate of average production. Obtaining figures on wastes and emissions is generally more difficult. Sometimes, concentration data for water pollutants and air pollutants exist and
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coal (lignite)
coal yard
1.102 t/hr
coal (lignite)
electricity
4.44 t/h
PROCESS STEP REFERENCE process step steam generation boiler Standard Operating 10 kg/cm2
blow down loss: 0.44 t/hr unburnts: 0.05333 t/hr ash: 0.0695 t/hr
rating
6 t/hr
6 t/hr
4 t/hr (actual) wet stream electricity air: 12.61 t/hr (actual) 6 t/hr (standard) steam separation
hot condensate (3%) 0.12 t/hr (actual) dry steam (97%) 3.88 t/hr (actual)
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coal (lignite)
water spray
coal yard
coal (lignite)
electricity
electricity
PROCESS STEP REFERENCE process step steam generation Standard Operating 10 kg/cm2
blow down loss: 1.4% 0.24 MkJ/hr (actual) unburnt in ash: 4.85% 0.83 MkJ/hr (actual)
rating equipment
6 t/hr boiler
4 t/hr
electricity 9 kW (actual)
wet stream Hidden losses: H2 & moisture: 2.5 MkJ/hour (actual) 14.4% Radiation: 0.17 MkJ/hr (actual) 1% Moisture in air: 0.03 MkJ/hr (actual) 0.15%
steam separation
hot condensate (3%) 0.09 MkJ/hr (actual) dry steam (97%) 11.31 MkJ/hr (actual)
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1) 2)
Coal Reject
3)
Thermal
Flue gas Blow down Unburnt H2 and moisture Radiation Moisture in air
0.264 0.46
418.97 73.00
these can be used to estimate (back calculate) mass emissions. Data on mass or volumes of solid waste are also sometimes available. Often, approximate calculations will need to be used, based on typical values available locally. The following guidelines will help: For extensive and complex production systems, it is better to start by drawing up the M&E balance for the whole system. When dividing up a system, choose the simplest sub-systems. Division could be along the lines of the material and energy flow. The PFD should come in handy here. Choose the material and energy flows envelope in such a way that the number of streams entering and leaving the process is the smallest possible. Always choose recycle streams within the envelope to start with. When determining the time factor, always choose a minimum but representative time span. For batch production, consider one full batch. It is important to include start up and cleaning operations.
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Energy balances are usually more difficult to make because energy waste is relatively difficult to identify and quantify. Alternative options for drawing up energy balances are: System efficiency based on measurable output work and input energy. Measurement of major losses only. Single parameter measurement and benchmark comparison. The CP-EE team will very probably find substantial discrepancies in the M&E balance. This may require further discussion of the assumptions behind the data, making of more measurements and revision of the input and output data, as necessary. The next task for the team is therefore to prepare detailed M&E balances for certain parts of the PFD. However, developing a detailed material balance for every operation is neither practical nor relevant. Instead, critical operations are usually chosen, based on the focus of the CP-EE study and results of the M&E balance arrived at in the earlier steps, and on the types of materials and processes used and energy use intensity. This means selecting operations where hazardous materials are used or where material and energy losses are obvious. Detailed M&E balances are often made when processes have long operational sequences. To conclude the M&E balance, it can be extremely useful to assign costs to the material and energy loss streams (the waste streams) identified in the balance. Experience has shown that this is the type of information that can have the greatest weight in convincing company management of the value of CP-EE and in securing management commitment to the subsequent steps. When assigning monetary values to materials and energy waste streams, the CP-EE team should consider the following: The cost of raw materials, input energy, intermediate products, and final products lost in waste streams (e.g. the costs of unexhausted dye in waste dye liquor or unburned fuel in exhaust gases). The cost of energy in waste streams, in terms of heat content exhausted. The cost of treatment, handling and disposal of waste material streams including tipping or discharge fees, if any. Costs, if any, incurred in protecting workers and maintaining safe working conditions (e.g. exhaust system venting shop floor air). The potential liability costs of an accidental spill or discharge or penalties and fines for leakages.
Note: A material balance normally requires a tie compound*, which forms the basis for measuring the efficiency of the processes. The selection of the tie compound is a function of several possible parameters; it could be: A parameter which is easy to measure/record An expensive resource A toxic or hazardous compound A resource common to most of the processes
(* E.g. nickel or zinc in electroplating shops or chromium in leather tanning.)
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Costs should be determined for at least each major waste stream and energy source. Specific costs (i.e. cost per kWh, per unit mass/volume of a waste material or energy stream) should also be determined, in order to be able to calculate the savings that would be made by reducing or avoiding waste streams. Obviously, the high-cost waste streams are the most interesting to focus on from the economic point of view. A detailed M&E balance provides the team with information to identify causes of waste generation or low productivity. Cause diagnosis is dealt with in the next sub-section.
Task 12
Cause diagnosis
Remember! Dont get bogged down in trying to make a perfect M&E balance. Do the best you can. Youll soon see that even a preliminary M&E balance can open opportunities for material and energy savings which can be profitably exploited.
Having identified, quantified and characterized various streams, and having drawn up an M&E balance, the CP-EE team must now carry out cause diagnosis to find out why waste is being generated. The cause diagnosis exercise involves asking the question: Why did such a problem or outcome occur? Essentially, cause diagnosis is an exercise in finding the root causes of a problem. The fishbone diagram (see Figure 1.8) is an excellent tool for cause diagnosis in complex situations where a number of factors are involved. Once the diagram has been prepared, the team can use it to help generate CP-EE options. Below, we present an example from the textile dyeing process to illustrate the technique used to prepare a fishbone diagram. To construct the diagram in Figure 1.8, we took the example of a winch used in the dyeing process. The winch is an open-top machine with a drum around which a rope of fabric is wound, pulling the fabric through a dye liquor over a fixed period. It is one of the cheapest pieces of equipment used in dyeing and is therefore used extensively by SMEs. The first step is to define the principal problem to be diagnosed, and to write it next to the head of the fish (right-hand side). Our example has identified low Right First Time (RFT), a common problem encountered in textile dyeing: the shade of the dyed fabric does not match the shade specified by the client. This causes excessive product reject, lowering productivity and generating waste (improperly dyed cloth).
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The next step is to identify the primary causes of the problem. Once identified, these are placed in generic categories: Man, Method, Material and Energy/Energy Eqpt. For instance, primary causes of the low RFT problem could be: a) b) c) d) Lack of supervision (category = Man). Dyeing operation not properly carried out (category = Method). Poor quality of input materials (category = Material). Optimum temperature of dye bath liquor not maintained (category = Energy).
As can be seen from our specimen diagram, these primary causes are listed on the primary fish bones. Primary causes can then be further broken down into one or more secondary causes. For example, pursuing point b) above, the dyeing operation may not have been properly carried out due to: excessive use of salt in the dyeing operation; or incorrect procedure followed while dosing the chemicals.
Figure 1.8: Fishbone diagram to facilitate cause diagnosis in the dyeing process
METHOD
lack of supervision
Right First Time (RFT) in dyeing is low poor water quality high impurities in dyes dyeing input materials of poor quality poor contact between fabric and dye liquor
shelf life of auxiliaries exceeded improper storage of fabric poor process control resulting in inconsistent performance
MATERIAL
ENERGY/ENERGY EQUIPMENT
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Similarly, for point c), the poor quality of input materials may be the result of: impurities in the dyes used for the dyeing operation; auxiliaries for the dyeing operation having exceeded their shelf-life; improper storage of fabric used in the dyeing operation; or poor quality of water used in the dyeing operation.
These secondary causes are listed on the secondary fish bones. Certain causes appear several times in the diagnosis of primary (or perhaps even secondary) causes. Common examples of this include poor water quality used in the dyeing operation and lack of clear and concise work instructions. This makes it possible to identify common causes which, when corrected, could resolve several productivity- and environment-related problems. Options that allow correction of common causes naturally become priority options when drawing up the implementation plan. It is possible to pursue this logic (i.e. to continue to ask Why?)secondary causes may break down further into tertiary causes. The causes identified in the fishbone diagram are only probable causes and the next step is to ascertain the extent to which each of them contributes to the principal problem. In our example, the CP-EE team has to analyse the extent to which each probable cause contributes to the unsatisfactory dyeing operation. This analysis can be carried out on the basis of observations, record keeping, and by setting up well-planned, controlled experiments to isolate a specific secondary cause. These efforts will assist the team in validating the primary and secondary causes and in prioritizing cause elimination. Tools such as Pareto analysis may also be used if several primary and secondary causes are to be analysed. Pareto analysis separates the most important causes of a problem from trivial ones, and thereby indicates the most important problems on which the team should concentrate. Completed Worksheet 12 presents cause diagnosis in table form.
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Section
Coal yard
Waste stream
Loss of coal
Probable cause
Unsuitable storage area Manual handling of coal Excessive air circulation Spontaneous combustion of coal Soil is soft
2) 3)
Poor quality of incoming lignite (coal) with extraneous material Varying load on motors but power draw is nearly same Oversize motors
4)
Flue gases
Air-fuel ratio is not maintained No monitoring of relevant parameters (O2 or CO2) No device/method for heat recovery Air ingress at various points Air quantity and pressure is not sufficient Distribution of primary air through grate
5) Boiler
Unburnts in ash
Sizing of coal not correct Design of grate not appropriate Firing rate is not uniform Manual ash removal Poor fuel quality and incorrect combustion
6)
Blow down
Bad boiler feed water quality Condensate not recovered Boiler drum TDS is not maintained as required
7)
Radiation loss
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Task 13
Generating options
Generating options is a creative process. Like cause diagnosis, it is best performed by the team in collaboration with other associated members of staff. Involving colleagues in this activity will help them to develop a sense of ownership of the options generated and to gain insight into why a particular option is recommended for implementation. Options are generated by brainstorming, a commonly used tool for generating ideas. Faced with a particular problem, the team and relevant company staff have to think their way through to a solutionthey have to ask the question How?, i.e. How do we solve this problem effectively?. The cause diagnosis described above (where we asked Why?) will provide a starting framework for the brainstorming exercise. In a typical brainstorming session, one person will propose an idea which may be supported and/or expanded on by others. Further discussion then yields new, transformed, opposing and/or supporting ideas, paving the way for the generation of CP-EE options. This process is illustrated in Figure 1.9. Examples of options generated are shown in Completed Worksheet 13 of the Running Example.
idea 1
supporting idea 1
idea 2
extension to idea 1
supporting idea 3
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CP-EE
CP-EE options may fall into one of the following categories:
snapshot
Housekeeping: improvements to work practices and methods, proper maintenance of equipment, etc., come into this category. Good housekeeping can provide significant benefits in terms of resource savings. These options are typically low cost and provide low to moderate benefits. Management and personnel practices: management and personnel practices include effective supervision, employee training, enhancing operator skills, and the provision of incentives and bonuses to encourage employees to strive conscientiously to reduce material and energy wastes and emissions. These options are typically low cost; they can provide moderate to high benefits. Process optimization: process optimization involves rationalization of the process sequences, combining or modifying process operations to save on material and energy resources and time, and improving process efficiency. For instance, some washing operations may be made unnecessary by changes in raw materials or product specifications. New technology: new technologies are often more resource efficient and help in reducing energy and material wastes, as well as increasing throughput or productivity. These options are often capital intensive but can lead to potentially high benefits. Modifications in equipment design may be another option. They tend to be less capital intensive and can lead to potentially high benefits. Raw material substitution: there may be better options for primary and auxiliary raw materials in terms of cost, process efficiency or reduced health and safety related hazards, and these options can be substituted for the current materials. Substitution may be necessary if materials become difficult to source or become expensive, or if they come under new environmental or health and safety regulations. Whenever materials are substituted, it is crucial to test the appropriateness of the new material in terms of environmental and economic benefits, optimum concentration, product quality, productivity, and improved working conditions. An example of raw material substitution is the replacement of chemical dyes with natural ones. Where energy is concerned, it may be useful to evaluate the use of cleaner/renewable sources. Use of renewable or non conventional energy sources is beneficial because it has the global benefit of reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. New product design: changing product design can have impacts on both the upstream and downstream sides of the product life-cycle. For
A simple example of good housekeeping in a dyeing operation is to clean the floors and machines of dirt, grease, rust, etc. regularly. This will reduce the possibility of accidentally soiling the fabric, and thus minimize the need for extra washing.
CP-EE
snapshot In the case of a textile dyeing unit, instead of draining off the last cold washes, they can be collected in an underground tank, adjusted for pH, and then filtered prior to reuse in subsequent washing operations. These options are typically low to medium cost and can provide moderate to high benefits.
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CP-EE
example, re-designing a product may reduce the quantity or toxicity of materials in the product; reduce the use of energy, water and other materials consumed during the product's use; reduce packaging requirements; or increase the recyclability of used components. Benefits of this can include reduced consumption of natural resources, increased productivity, and reduced environmental risks. Product re-design can also help to establish new markets or expand existing ones. It is, however, a major business strategy decision, and may require feasibility studies and market surveys, especially if the supply-chain for the product is already established and is complex. Recovery of useful by-products, materials and energy: this category of CPEE option entails recovery of wastes (in the form of by-products from the process or from resources) which may have useful applications within the industry itself or outside of it. As the wastes or by-products are produced anyway, this type of option can generate additional revenue with little or no extra effort. On-site recycling and reuse: on-site recycling and reuse involves returning of waste energy or material to the original process or using these as inputs to another process. It should, however, be borne in mind that it is better not to generate waste in the first place, rather than to generate it and then recycle, recover or reuse it. The team should therefore only consider the latter type of options once all options that could prevent generation of waste have been examined. It is also important to remember that some of the chosen options may require major changes in the processes or equipment or product. While these may well dramatically reduce waste generation or increase productivity, they also often imply considerable investment. Finally, it is important to bear in mind that certain options may require laboratory, bench-scale or pilot studies to ensure that product quality is not lost as a result of their application, and that they are acceptable to the market. We round off this section by combining our example of cause diagnosis using the fishbone diagram with the identification of possible options for cleaner production. This is presented in Table 1.1.
snapshot A textile-processing unit in Thailand used sodium sulphide and acidified dichromate as auxiliary agents in the sulphur black, textile dyeing process. However, both of these agents are toxic and hazardous to handle and their use leaves harmful residues in the finished fabric and generates effluents that are difficult to treat and damaging to the environment. CP-EE studies conducted at the unit indicated that both of these agents could safely be replaced with no loss of fabric quality, thus eliminating adverse health and environmental impacts. Glucose or dextrose can be substituted for sodium sulphide and acidified dichromate can be replaced by sodium perborate or ammonium persulphate.
CP-EE
snapshot A common example of recovery from a waste stream for many industries is heat recovery through the use of heat exchangers. Such options are typically medium cost and can provide moderate to high benefits.
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Waste stream
Loss of coal
CP-EE Options
Store the coal on a concrete/brick lined level floor Optimize the stack height and width of coal heaps Use FIFO basis for coal usage Construction of shed for coal storage Optimize the use of water by installing efficient showers/sprinklers/spray/nozzles Procure better quality coal from different sources Install mechanical coal crusher Installation of variable speed drives in ID and FD fan motors Installation of damper to control air flow Install on-line O2 measuring sensor Install economizer for recovery of waste heat Install air heater for recovery of waste heat Plug all the air leakages into boiler furnace Conversion of existing boiler to FBC boiler Replace existing boiler with FBC Boiler Optimize coal sizing by proper crushing and sieving Modify existing grate by reducing gaps between rods Optimize the firing rate by use of stoker firing Install water treatment system (RO) plant Change the water used in the boiler from tanker water to municipal supply water Install conductivity meter to check boiler drum water quality and therefore optimize blow down rate Recover flash steam from boiler blow down Re-circulate condensate from steam separator wherever possible Insulate all the bare and damaged portions Insulate flanges (125 flanges) Installation of steam traps (thermodynamic traps) of rated capacity to be provided in the steam main pipe within a gap of 25 m
GHK
OP
PO
RMS
NT
NPD
ORR
EM
8 9 10 11
12 13
Unburnt in ash
14 15 16 17 18
19 20 21
GHK: Good House Keeping OP: Operational Practices PO: Process Optimization NT: New Technology NPD: New Product Design ORR: On-site Recycle & Reuse
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Table 1.1: Matching the problems diagnosed using the fishbone diagram with possible CPEE options
Categories Primary causes Man Lack of supervision Secondary causes Absence of clear work instructions Possible CP-EE options Develop work instructions as Standard Operating Practices (SOPs). Have the SOPs reviewed by external experts. Closely monitor improvements or identify problems faced, if any, in the implementation of the SOPs. Build a record keeping system to monitor SOP related compliance. Organize shop floor based training programmes for workers and supervisors. Improve worker instruction and supervision. Redesign the dyeing recipe by changing composition and materials e.g. use of low salt dyes. Improve worker instruction and supervision. Category of CP-EE option Management and personnel practices
Lack of training
Management and personnel practices Management and personnel practices, process optimization, raw material substitution Management and personnel practices Raw material substitution
Method
Incorrect procedure while dosing chemicals Material Input materials are of poor quality High impurities in dyes
Have the dye purity checked by independent institutions over a number of samples and across commonly used shades; change the supplier if necessary. Improve the inspection at the receiving unit. Check the container labelling, storage and supply systems. Ensure proper storage of scoured/bleached materials e.g. on wooden blocks, wrapping to avoid soiling Analyse the water for hardness, total dissolved solids, pH and iron/manganese content, etc. and compare the measured levels with recommended standards. Treat water to ensure that the parameters are within the recommended standards. Check the steam inlet position and steam pressure to ensure that heating is optimum. Take readings of temperature of the liquor before and after requisite modifications. Explore changing from a winch to a jet dyeing machine that is enclosed, operates under pressure and gives better contact between fabric and dye liquor.
Management and personnel practices Management and personnel practices, housekeeping Raw material substitution
Energy Poor process and energy control equipment resulting in inconsistent performance
Optimum temperature not maintained in the dye bath liquor Poor contact between fabric and dye liquor
New equipment
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Task 14
Screening options
Preliminary screening of options Once brainstorming has helped to identify CP-EE options, preliminary and rapid screening should be carried out to decide on implementation priorities. This screening exercise will place options in two categories: Options that can be implemented directly Simple and obvious options can be implemented straightaway. In general, housekeeping (e.g. plugging leaks and avoiding spills) or simple process optimization (e.g. control of excess air in combustion systems) options fall into this category. No further detailed feasibility analysis is required for these options. Moreover, their immediate implementation results in real and tangible benefits in a short period, increasing managements confidence in the CP-EE assessment process. Options requiring further analysis Some options are technically and/or economically more complex and a decision to implement them would require examination of their technoeconomic and environmental feasibility. Most management improvement, raw material substitution, and equipment or technology change options fall into this category. Decision on options that require much more information collection or are difficult to implement (e.g. for reasons of very high costs or lack of technology) can be considered at a later time. Completed Worksheet 14 on the following page shows how this works in practice.
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Directly implementable
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STEP 4
Feasibility analysis
Task 15
Detailed screening of options The team can now undertake detailed screening of those options that require further analysis, to determine which options are technically feasible and ascertain both the economic and environmental benefits of their implementation. These aspects are described below. Technical evaluation Technical evaluation should cover the following aspects (see also Completed Worksheet 15a): Consumption of materials and energy: it is important to establish M&E balances for each option before and after implementation conditions, in order to quantify the materials and energy savings that would result. Product/by-product quality: quality of the product should be assessed before and after implementation of the option. Right First Time (RFT): estimate must be made of the possible improvement in RFT that would result from implementation of the option. It is important to examine the following aspects when considering implementation: Human resources required: a decision must be made as to whether the option can be implemented by in-house staff or whether external expertise or collaboration with partner organization is required. Risks in implementing the option: some options may not be fully proven and may require laboratory-scale experiments or pilot studies to assess their outcomes before full-scale implementation. When options affect key production processes or product features, the potential impact on business if they do not work as planned can be very high. Ease of implementation: the ease with which an option can be implemented will depend on such things as the layout of the production processes and of the auxiliary services (e.g. steam lines, water lines, inert gas lines, etc.); the
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physical space available; the maintenance requirements; training requirements; etc. In addition, when options require work on key production processes, the timing of their implementation becomes critical. If major changes or interruptions to production patterns are required, any loss in production needs to be factored into the economic analysis of the option. Time required for implementation: the time which implementation of an option may require for procurement, installation or commissioning of equipment or material must be considered. This must include consideration of any shut-down time necessary for implementation. Cross-linkages with other options: a particular option may be linked to implementation of other options; the decision must be made as to whether it should be implemented on its own or with other options. Environmental evaluation Whenever practically possible, the environmental evaluation of an option should take account of its impacts throughout the entire life cycle of a product or service. In practice, however, evaluation is often restricted to on-site and offsite (neighbourhood) environmental improvements. The environmental evaluation should include estimates of the following benefits that each option may bring about (where relevant): Likely reduction in the quantity of waste or emissions generated (expressed as mass). Likely reduction in GHG emissions. Likely reduction in the release of hazardous, toxic, or non-biodegradable wastes or emissions (expressed as mass). Likely reduction in consumption of non-renewable natural resources, e.g. fossil fuels consumed (expressed as mass). Likely reduction in noise levels. Likely reduction in odour nuisance (by elimination of a substance causing odour). Likely reduction in on-site risk levels (from the point of view of process safety). Likely reduction in release of globally important pollutants, e.g. ozonedepleting substances, persistent pollutants, etc. Completed Worksheet 15b gives an example of environmental evaluation in practice.
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Technical requirement
Instrument or accessories Electrical fittings Water treatment facility Manpower Space availability Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Impact (+/0/-)
Technology Production Production Operation availability rate quality flexibility Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes 0 0 0 0 + + + + 0 + + + + + + + + + + + + + + 0 Maintenance + 0 Safety + + + + + + + +
Yes Yes
+ 0 0
+ + +
0 0 +
0 + +
+ + +
23 26
Piping work -
Yes Yes
+ +
0 +
+ 0
0 +
Impact (+/0/-)
Water Total solids others Water conserved Water conserved Water conserved Resource conserved Reduced Reduced L L L L M M M H L M M H L Solid waste Overall impact*
* H = heavy
M = medium
L = light
N = negligible
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Investment (US$)
1 063.8 425.5 7 446.8 1 063.8 17 021.2 170 212.7 1 063.8 2 127.6 Nil 6 382.9 851.0 204 042
Payback period
4 months 10 months 8 months 15 months Immediate 18 months -
NQ = not quantified
Economic evaluation The team must evaluate the economic benefits of all reductions in waste generated and in consumption of resources that would be brought about by each option (see Completed Worksheet 15c). It must estimate the immediately obvious savings in purchase of materials and fuels, the costs of treatment and disposal avoided, and material and waste stream costs (identified in M&E balance). However, the team must also estimate less obvious financial benefits such as reduced sick days for workers or generally higher worker productivity; lower personnel costs from reducing the burden of special management and reporting of hazardous materials, wastes and pollution; reduced worker and environmental liability; and potential profits from sale of waste as a by-product or from carbon credits; etc. Experience has shown that expanding financial assessments to the less obvious benefits often helps considerably by throwing additional light on the economic feasibility of an option. The team must also estimate the economic costs of each option, in terms of investments in new technology or equipment as well as in terms of training and other costs associated with implementation. Benefits and costs are then analysed and calculated using various evaluation criteria (e.g. pay back period, Net Present Value (NPV) or Internal Rate of Return (IRR), etc.). These terms are explained in the box on the following page.
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Payback period A simple payback period is evaluated from comparison of the annual savings resulting from implementation and initial investment. This simply indicates the time needed to recoup the initial investment. It is calculated as: Payback period (in years) = (Capital Investment/Annual Net Savings) NPV and IRR The simple payback period should, generally, be considered as an approximate or ballpark assessment, as it ignores depreciation of the investment made and the time value of money. Investment decisions are usually made solely on the basis of payback period when the investment required is low and/or the returns are high enough for the payback period to be less than two years. If these conditions are not met, it is advisable to consider NPV or IRR. These take account of the time value of cash inflows and outflows during the useful life of the investment made. This kind of economic evaluation requires information on: The capital costs associated with any investments required. Net revenue, calculated as the difference between total revenue (could be higher than without implementation) and operating costs (typically lower after implementation). Rates of interest and depreciation, to allow calculation of the present value. NPV can be calculated using the following equation: NPV = - (CF0 ) +
i=n i=0
CF0 = cash outflow in the first year (capital investment) r = opportunity cost of capital (for a rate of 10 per cent, r would be 0.1) n = useful life of the investment in years For an investment to be financially viable NPV must be greater than zero. Another indicator commonly used along with NPV is the Profitability Index (PI). PI is the ratio of the present value of the total cash inflows to the present value of the total cash outflows. For an investment to be financially viable, PI must be greater than 1. IRR IRR is essentially the rate of return on an investment that ensures that, during the investments lifetime, the net cash flows (i.e. inflows outflows) are equal to zero. In other words, IRR is the value of r that gives an NPV of zero. It can be calculated using: NPV = - (CF0 ) +
i=n i=0
This problem is solved by assuming a value for r, and then interpolating. The IRR obtained is then compared with the rate of interest the market would demand for any borrowing that may be needed. Typically, if IRR is lower than the market-borrowing rate, the investment is not considered financially viable. Completed Worksheet 15C shows some actual data for economic viability analysis.
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Task 16
The evaluations described above help to eliminate options that are not viable. The remaining options now need to be prioritized and a few will then be selected for implementation. Prioritizing CP-EE options In most cases, the feasibility analyses will indicate that different options have differing levels of technical feasibility, economic viability, and environmental performance. Since it may well not be possible to implement all options at the same time, the team will have to prioritize the options. A common evaluation framework will be necessary to assist with prioritization. A weighted-sum method could be considered for this purpose (see Completed Worksheet 16). Using this method, the team assigns a weight to each of the three aspects of the feasibility analysis (technical feasibility, economical viability and environmental performance). Weighting could be decided in a brainstorming session involving top management. The weights will vary from company to company depending on technical competence, financial conditions, environmental sensitivity, etc. For example, a financially healthy, small company facing considerable environmental pressures may decide to give the greatest weight to environmental performance (say 50 per cent), less to technical feasibility (say 30 per cent) and least to financial viability (the remaining 20 per cent). This indicates that the company is most keen to reduce the pollution load but does not have high levels of capability to undertake technically complex options. Once weights are assigned, simple indicators such as scores can be developed to assess the relative performance of each option. For example, economic viability could be assessed based on payback period, NPV or IRR. Environmental performance could be assessed based on a percentage reduction in pollution load. Technical feasibility could be assessed based on technical complexity, new equipment or technology required, or additional technical skills needed, etc. Each option is then evaluated subjectively and scores are assigned for each of the three aspects. Scores could range from 0 to 10, with the lower score implying poor performance. For example, if two options have IRRs of 15 per cent and 33 per cent respectively, they could be assigned scores of 8 and 5 for this aspect of economic viability.
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8 9 10 11 12 15 17 19 20
7 7 3 3 2 2 6 2 8
2 4 5 3 3 5 5 3 8
6 6 5 4 4 2 5 3 9
5 2 7 10 11 12 8 13 1
23 26
5 3
4 3
6 5
5.2 3.9
6 9
The weighted sum of the scores gives an index for each option and this can be used as a basis to rank options in terms of their level of priority. The intention is not to prioritize each option individually but to group options into categories such as top, medium and low priority. Prioritizing options in this way provides a basis for preparation of the implementation plan.
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STEP 5
Task 17
A completed CP-EE implementation plan indicates how the projects required to implement the options are to be organized, as well as the necessary funds and human resources to be mobilized, and the associated logistics. Training, monitoring and establishment of a management system such as EMS are also often important components of an implementation plan (see Completed Worksheet 17). The implementation plan should clearly define the timing, tasks and responsibilities. This involves: prioritizing implementation of options in accordance with available resources; preparing the required technical specifications; site preparation; preparing bidding documentation; short-listing submissions; etc.; allocating responsibilities and drawing up monitoring and review schedules. The CP-EE team should give top priority to implementing options that are low in cost, that are easy to implement and/or a pre-requisite for the implementation of other options. This should be followed by options that require further investment, laboratory or pilot trials, or interruption in production schedules. Options are often implemented during or immediately after the CP-EE studies. In such cases, the very fact of conducting CP-EE according to this methodology provides an example for others to follow.
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Person responsible
Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Nikun Nanavati Maintenance Engineer Bimal Kumar Operation In-Charge
8 9 10 11 12 13 15 16 17 19 20
M S S S S S M S S M S
3-4-2003 14-10-2002 14-10-2002 28-10-2002 4-11-2002 21-10-2002 16-5-2003 11-11-2002 28-10-2002 3-4-2003 18-11-2002
21 23 24 25 26
S M S S S
S = small
M = medium
L = large
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Task 18
The application of CP-EE and implementation of CP options often requires changes in the organization and management system of the company. The key aspects that may require change are: integration of new technical knowledge; understanding new operating practices; revising of procedures; installing and operating new equipment; or changing the packaging and marketing of products/by-products. Changes will include modified preventive maintenance schedules, waste segregation and recycling practices, etc. It is therefore important to integrate the concept of CP into the companys management system in order to ensure that CP-EE is implemented as an ongoing activity.
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Worksheet 11a: Material and energy balance Worksheet 11b: Cost of waste stream Worksheet 12: Worksheet 13: Worksheet 14: Cause analysis CP-EE options, generation and categorization Screening of CP-EE options
Worksheet 15a: Technical feasibility analysis Worksheet 15b: Environmental analysis Worksheet 15c: Economic viability analysis Worksheet 16: Worksheet 17: Selection of CP-EE measures for implementation Implementation plan for CP-EE measures
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Organizing
Motivation
Information systems
Awareness
Investment
Formal energy/ environmental policy and management system, action plan and regular review with commitment of senior management or part of corporate strategy
Energy/environmental management fully integrated into management structure. Clear delegation of responsibility for energy use
Formal energy/ environmental policy but no formal management system, and with no active commitment from top management
Energy/environmental manager accountable to energy committee, chaired by a member of the management board
Energy/environmental manager in post reporting to ad hoc committee but line management and authority unclear
Unwritten guidelines
Energy and environmental management are parttime responsibility of someone with only limited influence or authority
No explicit policy
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OPEN FILE
Tasks
Yes ()
No ()
Group meetings Adminstration staff Various sections in the process house Utilities staff Maintenance staff Purchase department staff Any other
3 4 5
Display of CP-EE posters Display of short films on CP-EE success stories Organizing of slogan campaign on environmental and energy themes
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OPEN FILE
Name
Designation
MD/GM/
Department
Operation/eng./utility
Role
Team leader
OPEN FILE
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OPEN FILE
Major inputs
Department / Section
raw materials
Major outputs
product
Utilities Section
water treatment refrigeration and a/c
boiler system
wastewater treatment
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OPEN FILE
Product name
Installed capacity
tons/yr
Actual production
tons/yr %
Comparision
page 66
OPEN FILE
months Unit
10
11
12
Purchased water
Resources
Grid electricity
Total water
Diesel
Coal
Gas
page 67
OPEN FILE
Specifications
Specific design parameters Specific operating parameters
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Boiler Compressed air system Thermic fluid heater Furnaces Cooling towers DG set R & A/C plants Transformers Motors Fans Pumps
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OPEN FILE
Information required
Available since
Remarks
Layout Factory Steam and condensate distribution network Compressed air distribution network Refrigeration system network Cooling water circuit
2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
Production details Process flow diagram Material balance Energy balance Design specification of utilities Raw material consumption and cost Energy, water consumption and cost Waste generation and disposal records Waste treatment records Maintenance records Any other
page 69
OPEN FILE
Barriers
Yes ()
No ()
Yes ()
No ()
Remarks
Attitude barriers Lack of awareness on energy and environment issues Emphasis on maximum production rather than productivity Complacent attitude towards existing process/production conditions Hesitant about risks involved Low participation of workers in CP-EE programme Belief that I am doing the best Increase awareness Involve workers in decision making Acknowledge workers efforts
Formulate incentive schemes for workers Encourage experimentation for CP-EE options Review CP-EE measures on regular basis using simple indicators Increase interaction among similar kind of industries
Organizational barriers One-man show; middle (supervisory) level missing Loose management structure Production on ad-hoc basis Labour intensive: workers employed on contract basis Inappropriate: profit sharing Inadequate documentation of inventory and production data Delegation of authority Induction of technically sound person Right wage for the right person Recruitment of permanent skilled workforce
Trade barriers Production on job-order basis Poor quality of input raw material Industry mainly catering to local markets Setting up of integrated plants Ensuring good quality of raw materials from supplier Standardization of product Promotion of marketing in the international market
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OPEN FILE
Section no.
4
Barriers
Yes ()
No ()
Yes ()
No ()
Remarks
Technical barriers Lack of: proper guidance on CP-EE technically sound professionals skilled workers laboratory analysis facility adequate in-plant waste usage opportunities not available Erratic power supply Training and awareness workshops on CP-EE Setting up of laboratory with basic facilities Provision of regular power supply through captive power generation Promotion of relevant technical literature through in-house circulation Development of indigenous CP-EE measures Encouraging waste exchange among industrial units
Relevant technical literature not readily available Highly water-intensive process steps Technology developed abroad not applicable in Indian conditions 5 Economic barriers Adequate funds not available Low financial returns on certain CP-EE measures Availability of cheap unskilled labour making automation less attractive Changing excise and tax liabilities 6 Other barriers Abundant supply of resources (e.g. water, making water conservation less financially attractive) Lack of available space Lack of regulation on environmental and energy management systems
Soft loans Planned investment Incentive schemes for industries going in for CP-EE Training of workforce for specific job and formulation of long-term industrial policy
Imposition of water levy on industries to restrict use, and encourage modernization of existing plants
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OPEN FILE
Criteria
Probability of payback CP-EE options from section Section/area consuming maximum resources Multiplier effects Increase in product quality/production rate Barriers Management preference External pressure (government, NGO, etc.) TOTAL
Weight
10
Scores obtained
3 4 5 6 7
5 5 5 10 10 50
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OPEN FILE
Remarks
Equipment
Equipment
Equipment
Product
page 73
OPEN FILE
Name of section
Area
Remarks
page 74
OPEN FILE
page 75
OPEN FILE
Potential of CP-EE
Medium High
Targets
page 76
OPEN FILE
Output
Name Quantity Liquid
Waste stream
Solid/gas Energy
page 77
OPEN FILE
page 78
OPEN FILE
Probable cause
page 79
Good housekeeping
New technology
New Recovery On-site product of useful recycle design by-products and reuse
OPEN FILE
page 80
OPEN FILE
page 81
Option
Maintenance Safety Product quality Operation flexibility
CP-EE
Technical requirement
Impact (+/0/-)
No.
measure Equipment
requirement
OPEN FILE
page 82
Option Air Particulates Others Organics (COD) Total solids Others Solid waste Overall impact* (H, M, L, N) Water
CP-EE
Impact (+/0/-)
No.
measure
OPEN FILE
page 83
H = High, M = Medium, L = Low, N = Negative
OPEN FILE
Remarks
page 84
OPEN FILE
Rank
page 85
OPEN FILE
Environmental Results Economic responsible (short, medium no. CP-EE Person Date Classification Option Selected
measure
or long term)
proposed
actual
expected
actual
expected
page 86
page 87
Pre-treatment The pre-treatment process prepares the textile material for subsequent processing. a) Drumming The grey fabric received is treated in the drumming machine to obtain the desired grain texture. The cloth is wetted and rotated in drums, both clockwise and anti-clockwise. The operation is done four timeswith plain water, then with swelling chemicals, followed by two washes. The drummed fabric is dewatered in a hydro extractor. b) Scouring, weight reduction and bleaching Scouring is the main operation carried out to remove foreign substances such as oils, fats and other impurities. It is an alkaline extraction process involving heat (80130 C) and pressure (23 kg/cm2). Additional swelling of fibres takes place during scouring, improving the dye-uptake rate. If necessary, the fabric is treated in the same bath to reduce its weight to give it a light feel. Whiteness of the fabric needs to be improved and bleaching is also carried out in this bath (by oxidative or reductive decomposition). The scoured fabric is subjected to hot wash, followed by neutralization of residual alkali.
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dyeing
printing
chemical treatment
hot washing
Operations in the orange shaded area are carried out in drums. Operations in the blue area are carried out in jet dyeing machines.
dyeing
scouring
drying
neutralization stentoring
stentoring
Dyeing Fabric is dyed to give it its desired colour. The fabric to be dyed is treated with dyes and auxiliary chemicals at 120130 C and under pressure. Polyester fibre is usually dyed by an exhaustion process. A dispersing agent is added and the pH is adjusted. Accelerants and other auxiliaries (wetting agents, levelling agent, etc.) are also added as required. Vat dyes are also occasionally used for dyeing. In the post-dyeing stage, the material is rinsed thoroughly or soaped. For dark finishes, the fabric is subjected to reductive alkaline cleaning after dyeing. It is then subjected to pH balance and, if no printing is required, is subjected to a heat setting operation.
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water
washing
wastewater
water soda water steam scouring chemicals water steam water HCI
caustic washing
wastewater
scouring
wastewater
hot washing
wastewater
neutralization
wastewater
water
washing
wastewater
heat by steam
heat setting
fumes
PRE-TREATED FABRIC
Printing Printing is the process by which coloured patterns are produced on the fabric. The fabric is printed on programmed, flat-bed or rotary screen-printing machines. It is then passed through an attached dryer to remove moisture. Temperature in the dryer is varied depending on the nature of fabric processed and the types of dyes used for printing. For pigment printing, the temperature is maintained in the 160170 C range. After printing, the printing screens are washed with water. Finishing Finishing comprises the final processes that make the fabric into an end-product. It improves the feel and volume of the fabric. Ageing After printing the colours are not permanently fixed in the fabric. The ageing treatment fixes the colour in the fabric permanently. This treatment is done in a Steam Ager or a Loop Ager machine, at a temperature of 180190 C. Washing The fabric is washed to remove excess chemicals and dyes after every operation, or as required. It is washed in several cold and hot washes, either in machines or in a series of baths called washing kundis (tanks). Excess wash water is removed by centrifuging.
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page 91
Resource consumption On average, the unit processes 8.0 tons of cloth per day. Like any textile processing unit, the process requires steam, water, gas, compressed air, dyes and printing chemicals, etc. The consumption of major resources for the year 2002 per ton of cloth processed is shown in Table 1.2
Purchased water (tanker or municipal supply) Bore well water Recycled water (from ETP) Total water Coal (lignite) Gas Grid electricity Diesel Equivalent electricity from diesel Total kWh electricity Dyes Gums
m3 m3
36 50
30 56
24 62
20 66
40 46
48 38
42 44
50 36
46 40
30 56
34 52
32 54
36 50
kWh kg kg
1 525 61 82
1 521 65.4 80
1 561 60.5 88
1 587 65.1 93
2 272 60.1 85
1 636 61 100
1 461 61.4 93
1 417 61.8 87
1 469 61.3 90
1 641 64 99
1 356 63.5 85
1 595 63.2 91
Quantifying and characterizing wastewater Monitoring in order to quantify and characterize wastewater in pre-treatment and dyeing operations was carried out for a single batch of 2 400 metres of polyester fabric, equivalent to 168 kg of fabric. Values were extrapolated for the day, assuming 48 batches per day, equivalent to 8.0 tons of cloth processed per day. For printing and post-printing operations, monitoring was carried out for a 24-hour cycle. The composite wastewater sample collected during the monitoring gave the results shown in Table 1.3.
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* TS values are relatively high in relation to those for typical textile processing companies because the groundwater (bore well) used for processing had a very high total dissolved solids concentration.
Table 1.4 shows quantification and characterization data for individual wastewater streams.
Wastewater from drum wash Wastewater from washing of grey fabric Wastewater from scouring Wastewater after cold wash of scouring Wastewater from bleaching (bleaching liquor) Wastewater from cold wash of bleaching Wastewater from dyeing only (exhausted dye bath). Wastewater from dyeing wash Wastewater from neutralization Wastewater from neutralization wash Wastewater from washing of stirrer blades in print paste cooking Wastewater from washing of buckets and drums used for print paste preparation and storage Wastewater from screen washing Wastewater from squeeze wash Wastewater from screen preparation Wastewater from print blanket washing Wastewater from washing of printed fabric Steam condensate from dyeing Cooling water (not to ETP)
13 14 15 16 17 18 19
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CP-EE potential, targets and selection of audit focus Based on the resource consumption and waste water generation data, it was surmised that there was wide scope for resource reduction at LDPM, including energy and water. Table 1.5 indicates the existing conditions, the potential for improvements and probable targets to be achieved in the future. Audit focus It can be seen from Table 1.5, that the company has great potential for reduction of all resources used. After discussions between the CP-EE team and management, it was decided that the CP-EE studies should cover the entire plant and utilities. The aim was to minimize resource wastage as far as possible so as to maximize reductions in GHG emissions and increase profits.
0.45/m3 0.02/m3
90 30 45 165 1 220
0.11
3.0 664
35.48/t 0.20/m3
High Moderate
2.0 500
63.2 91
9.03/kg 0.41/kg
Low Moderate
57.1 70
page 94
Low power factor in drum motors Wastewater from scouring and weight reduction operations and subsequent washings Wastewater from (bleaching) whitening operations and subsequent washings Wastewater from dyeing operations
Installation of soft starter and variable speed/frequency drives in motors Reuse of wastewater from scouring by adding make up chemicals Recovery of caustic by installing caustic recovery system Combining weight reduction, scouring and whitening operations into a single operation
5 6
Numerous steps for every small operation, with washing after every operation.
Use of high cloth to liquor ratio Unexhausted dyes in the wastewater Use of direct steam injection in jet machine to maintain temperature and increase production rate Small batches for dyeing in large jet dyeing machine (i.e. unoptimized capacity utilization)
8 9
Markings on the jet machine so as to ensure proper cloth to liquor ratio Reduction in dye consumption from 5.5% to 4.25% by change in process parameters, e.g. temperature from 130 C to 135 C and retention time from 30 minutes to 60 minutes
continued
page 95
Low power factor for dyeing machine motor Wastewater from neutralization operation and subsequent washing Wastewater from washing of stirrer blades after cooking, print paste preparation buckets and drums Wastewater from washing of screens after printing
Variable load pattern due to different batch sizes and weight of cloth Increase in peak demand Improper removal of dyeing chemicals in washing after dyeing Excess print paste sticking to the stirrer blades, buckets and drums
Excess print paste sticking to the screens and on the edges of the screen frames
Wastewater and solvent waste from blanket of flat bed printing machine
Excess print paste seeping from screen through cloth and onto the blanket Printing on portions of blanket not covered by cloth
page 96
Low efficiency of heat transfer from steam heated tubes in loop ager machine Feeding of single layer of cloth in loop ager even for lighter quality of cloth
39 REPLACEMENT OF EXISTING LOOP AGER WITH DIRECT GAS FIRED LOOP AGER SYSTEM (AN INNOVATIVE SYSTEM DEVELOPED AT THE PLANT AND NOW PATENTED) 40 Two end overlapped feeding of cloth to the loop ager for light weight fabric 41 Direct gas firing in sanforizing drum by slit type burner 42 Installation of damper and variable speed drives for ID and FD fans 43 Preheat the feed water to boiler by exit flue gases 44 Use low TDS municipal water in place of tanker water 45 Reduce the coal size (lower mesh size) to be used in boiler 46 Replace existing boiler system with a new FBC boiler of 32 kg/cm2 pressure, coupled with back pressure turbine for cogeneration of 2 MW electrical power 47 Insulate all 125 existing flanges 48 Install thermodynamic steam traps in the main header with a gap of 25 metres 49 Conduct regular air leak detection tests 50 Reduce the air pressure to optimum limit
Thermal energy loss in sanforizing drum Thermal energy loss in existing boiler
No Excess air control No waste heat recovery system from the boiler flue gases Higher blow down from boiler drum due to high TDS in feed water High level of unburnts in ash Old and obsolete technology with efficiency of around 65%
Uninsulated flanges Condensation of steam forming pools of water in the steam carrying pipes Leakages in the compressed air supply lines Compressed air used at a higher pressure than required Unoptimized motor loading
Electrical energy loss in compressed air supply system Electrical energy loss in motors Energy loss in electrical lighting system
51 Conduct load analysis on motors and reshuffle/replace optimum rating motors 52 Replace 40 W tube light fixtures with energy efficient 30 W fixtures 53 Provision of skylight windows overhead to reduce lighting required during day time
page 97
Optimization of cloth to liquor ratio from 1:6 to 1:4, by installation of water measurement device or drum calibration and proper worker training
Installation of large capacity drum washer with indirect cooling mechanism for improved productivity and quality Optimization of production planning for capacity utilization of the existing drum washers Installation of soft starter and variable speed/frequency drives in motors Reuse of wastewater from scouring by adding make-up chemicals
Recovery of caustic by installing caustic recovery system Combining weight reduction, scouring and whitening operations into a single operation Markings on the jet machine so as to ensure proper cloth to liquor ratio
Change in operating practiceworkers fill drums based on their experience, and generally overfill them
Reduction in dye consumption from 5.5% to 4.25% by change in process parameters (e.g. temperature from 130 C to 135 C and retention time from 30 minutes to 60 minutes)
continued
page 98
Use of indirect steam to direct steam for heating and recovery of condensate for reuse as boiler feed water Optimizing the capacity utilization of jet dyeing machine by production planning and procurement of new, small jet dyeing machine Replace acetic acid by tartaric acid Eliminate usage of Citric W Reduce usage of levelling agents by 10% Use inorganic mineral acids in place of organic acids
11
12 13 14 15
Will cause quality problems with the fabric and is difficult to handle and use in small quantities
16
Replace the bottom basket in jet dyeing machine by Teflon rods so as to increase the area and enhance the capacity of the machine by 70 kg Enhance capacity of the jet machines by increasing the height of the machine Use of spent dye bath from polyester dyeing by adding make-up chemicals Replacing ordinary water used for dyeing by RO/ DM water for increase dye exhaustion rate Install soft starters and variable speed drives on jet machine motors Optimizing the washing operations after dyeing Reuse of neutralization waste liquor after adding make up chemicals
17
18
19
20
21 22
Will effect the quality of the fabric as the discharged wastewater will be coloured Change in operating practice leading to recovery of print paste Number of variations and keeping dedicated buckets etc. is not feasible continued
23
24
page 99
Wiping of print paste from buckets with waste tissue paper, rags etc before washing Scraping and reuse of print paste from the screens before washing
26
27
28
Dipping of screens in a tank full of water before final washing with fresh water Reduce mesh size of the printing screens
29
30
Cover unused side strip of blanket by waste cloth strip Provision for scraping mechanism using doctor blade and squeeze end brush half dipped in water to recover and reuse print paste from the blanket Recovery of solvent used for blanket washing by installing solvent recovery plant Use of non-organic liquid in place of solvent
31
32
33
34
Operating the machine on continuous drive by installing auto cut off photovoltaic cell Installing photovoltaic cut off switch in padding mangle Use of counter-current washing technique Passing the cloth through roller squeezes between each wash Reuse condensate to boiler
35
36 37
38
page 100
REPLACEMENT OF EXISTING LOOP AGER WITH DIRECT GAS FIRED LOOP AGER SYSTEM (AN INNOVATIVE SYSTEM DEVELOPED AT THE PLANT ITSELF AND NOW PATENTED) Two end overlapped feeding of cloth to the loop ager for light weight fabric
40
41
Direct gas firing in sanforizing drum by slit type of burner Installation of damper and variable speed drives for ID and FD fans Preheat the feed water to boiler by exit flue gases Use low TDS municipal water in place of tanker water Reduce the coal size (lower mesh size) to be used in boiler Replace existing boiler system with a new FBC boiler of 32 kg/cm2 pressure coupled with back pressure turbine for cogeneration of 2 MW electrical power Insulate all 125 existing flanges
42
43 44
45
46
47
Obvious solution leading to energy savings and better quality of steam to be supplied at the user end Obvious solution leading to energy savings and better quality of steam to be supplied at the user end Good operation and management practice leading to energy savings Change in operating practice leading to energy savings
48
Install thermodynamic steam traps in the main header with a gap of 25 metres
49
50
51
Conduct load analysis on motors and reshuffle/replace optimum rating motors Replace 40 W tube light fixtures with energyefficient 30 W fixtures Provision of skylight windows overhead to reduce lighting required during day time
52
Obvious solution leading to electrical energy savings Obvious solution leading to electrical energy savings
53
page 101
Techno-economic and environmental analysis Before implementing CP-EE options it is necessary to verify their techno-economic and environmental feasibility. This provides a basis to prioritize implementation of the options. The team identified 53 CP-EE options at LDPM. Of the 53 options, 8 (15%) were rejected at the outset as they were evidently unfeasible. Sixteen options were considered for direct implementation, as their financial and technical implications were fairly minor and quite evident. The remaining 29 options were subjected to testing of their technical feasibility and the viability of those found to be technically feasible was then subjected to environmental and economic analysis. Table 1.8 summarizes the results of the analyses.
Installation of large capacity drum washer with indirect cooling mechanism for improved productivity and quality Optimization of production planning for capacity utilization of the existing drum washers Installation of soft starter and variable speed/frequency drives in drum motors
1 1361
NQ
NQ
Yes
Yes
Reduced wastewater volume and pollution load Increase power factor and reduced GHG emission (accounted for in option 42)
NQ
NQ
NQ
Yes
Yes
682
18 months
Yes
Combining weight reduction, scouring and whitening operations into a single operation Reduction in dye consumption from 5.5% to 4.25% by change in process parameters (e.g. temperature from 130 to 135 and retention time from 30 minutes to 60 minutes)
Yes
Reduced waste water volume and pollution load Reduction in dye consumption and pollution load
NIL
NQ
Immediate
Yes
Yes
NIL
NQ
NQ
continued
page 102
10
Use of indirect steam to direct steam for heating and recovery of condensate for reuse as boiler feed water Optimizing capacity utilization of jet dyeing machine by production planning and procurement of new small jet dyeing machine Replace acetic acid by tartaric acid Eliminate usage of Citric W
Reduced wastewater volume, and 230 t/yr GHG (by 150 t/yr coal) Reduced reprocessing and reduced wastewater volume and pollution load Low pollution load
795
5 453
15 months
11
Yes
Yes
13 633
NQ
NQ
12
Yes
Yes
Nil
NQ
NQ
13
Yes
Yes
Reduced pollution load Reduced pollution load Increased throughput from the machine and reduced specific pollution load Increased throughput from the machine and reduced specific pollution load Reduced pollution load
Nil
NQ
Immediate
14
Reduce usage of levelling agents by 10% Replace the bottom basket in jet dyeing machine by Teflon rods so as to increase the area and enhance the capacity of the machine by 70 kg Enhance capacity of the jet machines by increasing the height of the machine
Yes
Yes
Nil
NQ
Immediate
16
Yes
Yes
23 per machine
NQ
17
Yes
Yes
909
NQ
NQ
18
Use of spent dye bath from polyester dyeing by adding make-up chemicals Replacing ordinary water used for dyeing by RO/ DM water for high dye exhaustion rate
Yes
Yes
2 272
1 818
14 months
19
Yes
Yes
Reduced pollution load (dye exhaustion increased by 8% in trials) Reduced GHG emissions 909 per machine 568 per machine 20 months
20
Install soft starters and variable speed drives on jet machine motors Optimizing the washing operations after dyeing
Yes
Yes
21
Yes
Yes
NQ
NQ
Immediate continued
page 103
34
Operating the machine on continuous drive by installing auto cut off photovoltaic cell
Reduced GHG emission due to savings of 6 300 m3 gas/ year Reduced GHG emission due to savings of 6 000 m3 gas/ year
227
1 432
6 months
35
Yes
Yes
227
1 363
6 months
36
Yes
37
Passing the cloth through roller squeezes between each wash REPLACEMENT OF EXISTING LOOP AGER WITH DIRECT GAS FIRED LOOP AGER SYSTEM (INNOVATIVE SYSTEM DEVELOPED AT THE PLANT AND NOW PATENTED) Direct gas firing in sanforizing drum by slit type of burner
Yes
Trial failed (reject) + Reduced GHG by 2 300 t/year through gas savings of 108 000 m3/yr and coal 1 270 t/yr Reduced GHG emissions by fuel savings of 7 tons lignite Reduced GHG emission due to electrical savings of 75 000 kWh (all electrical options) Reduced GHG emissions due to lignite savings of 784 t/yr Reduced GHG emissions due to lignite savings of 337 t/yr Reduced GHG emissions 45 445 73 598 7 months
39
Yes
Yes
41
Yes
Yes
1 136
3 749
3 months
42
Yes
Yes
7 953
6 817
10 months
43
Yes
Yes
2 272
28 403
2 months
44
Yes
Yes
NIL
12 270
Immediate
45
Yes
Yes
continued
page 104
46
Replace existing boiler system with a new FBC boiler of 32 kg/cm2 pressure coupled with back pressure turbine for cogeneration of 2 MW electrical power Conduct load analysis on motors and reshuffle/replace optimum rating motors
181 779
153 149
51
Yes
Yes
NQ
NQ
NQ
+ = positive
- = negative effect
Values marked NQ cannot be quantified at present because data were missing; they would be quantified after implementation of the CP-EE solution.
Three CP-EE options were rejected on the basis of their technical feasibility analysisone because of non-availability of space in the company, another because trials were not successful, and a third because of non-availability of proven technology at small scale. The company has already implemented a number of low-cost options and has also invested in at least one large, capital-intensive CP-EE option: conversion of the loop ager system to combined direct gas firing and steam. Since implementation of this system, the company has obtained a patent for it. Demonstration of the system at LDPM's premises could persuade other companies to adopt this technology.
page 105
Installation of soft starter and variable speed/frequency drives in drum motors Use of indirect steam to direct steam for heating and recovery of condensate for reuse as boiler feed water Install soft starters and variable speed drives on jet machine motors Operating the machine on continuous drive by installing auto cut off photovoltaic cell Installing photovoltaic cut off switch in padding mangle
10
230
20
NQ
34
Reduced GHG emission due to savings of 6 300 m3 gas/ year Reduced GHG emission due to savings of 6 000 m3 gas/ year Reduced GHG emissions Reduced GHG by 2 206 t/year through gas savings of 108 000 m3/yr and coal 1 270 t/yr
15
35
15
38 39
Reuse the condensate (from cooking pan) to boiler REPLACEMENT OF EXISTING LOOP AGER WITH DIRECT GAS FIRED LOOP AGER (AN INNOVATIVE SYSTEM DEVELOPED AT THE PLANT AND NOW PATENTED) Two end overlapped feeding of cloth to the loop ager for light weight fabric Direct gas firing in sanforizing drum by slit type burner
NQ 2 206
40
NQ
41
Reduced GHG emissions by fuel savings of 7 tons lignite Reduced GHG emission due to electrical savings of 75 000 kWh (all electrical options) Reduced GHG emissions due to lignite savings of 784 t/yr Reduced GHG emissions due to lignite savings of 337 t/yr Reduced GHG emissions Reduced GHG emissions by about 3 200 t/yr
10.7
42
Installation of damper and variable speed drives for ID and FD fans Preheat the feed water to boiler by exit flue gases
67
43
1 200
44
516
45 46
Reduce the coal size (lower mesh size) to be used in boiler Replace existing boiler system with a new FBC boiler of 32 kg/cm2 pressure coupled with back pressure turbine for cogeneration of 2 MW electrical power Insulate all 125 existing flanges
NQ 3 200
47
46
48
Install thermodynamic steam traps in the main header with gap of 25 metres Conduct regular air leak detection tests Reduce compressed air pressure to optimum limit
NQ
49 50
Reduced GHG emissions Reduced GHG emissions due to savings of 8 125 kWh/yr electrical power Reduced GHG emissions Reduced GHG emissions by electrical power savings of 70 664 kWh/year Reduced GHG emissions
NQ 7.2
51 52
Reshuffle and replace optimum rating motors Replace 40W tube light fixtures with energy efficient 30W fixtures Provision of skylight windows overhead to reduce lighting required during day time
NQ 63
53
NQ
TOTAL
7 756 t/yr
page 106
The CP-EE team collected the data from the unit for the month of April 2003 and compared this with the baseline data (i.e. before implementation of the CP-EE options). Table 1.10 shows the comparison of various parameters before and after the implementation of CP-EE options.
Original figures were given in Indian rupees, slight discrepancies between savings per unit price and total savings are due to rounding after conversion to dollars. The figures indicate the magnitude of possible savings. The reduction in dyes used cannot be attributed wholly to the improvement due to implementation of CP-EE solutions. Changes in market conditions, prevalent fashion requiring lighter shade, etc. would also result in reduction in dyes used.
page 107
Lack of Instrumentation for measurement of resources used in the process (e.g. steam and water) Specifications of motors and pumps not available
Motor load analysis for replacing/ reshuffling motors of optimum ratings could not be conducted in detail
Technical specifications of similar type and make of motors were collected from manufacturer and the relevant parameters were compared.
b) Organizational
Frequent changes in the production pattern made monitoring difficult Accurate analysis for dye usage and waste in different sections not possible
Monitoring scheduled per batches processed Analysis done on the basis of the records of 12 days (study period for 1st phase)
Records for dye consumption in dyeing and printing section not maintained
c) Financial
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3.8 Conclusions
The CP-EE demonstration provided a number of valuable lessons, the most important of which is that, when resources (e.g. groundwater) are low-priced, a CP solution alone may not be attractive. However, when combined with EE benefits in terms of electricity savings (e.g. per litre of water saved), a more attractive package can be proposed. Energy audit studies were conducted in the past by external agencies which made suggestions for improvements. However, subsequent change was neither continuous nor regular. The CP-EE studies have enabled the management to build a system of energy auditing and conservation into the day-to-day work pattern, thereby making the concept sustainable. The case study reaffirms that appropriate monitoring is crucial in identifying, assessing and driving CP-EE implementation. The results are summarized in Table 1.12. Finally, due to an economic slowdown in the textile industry in India, the management was restricted from implementing some feasible CP-EE measures. However, as the CP-EE options adopted demonstrate, implementing CP-EE does not necessarily need significant up-front investment. In fact, CP-EE can be an effective tool to sustain a unit in tough economic conditions.
c) Electricity consumption (kWh) d) Coal (lignite) (tons) 6 Reduction in pollution load/year a) Wastewater volume (m3) b) Water pollution load COD (tons) c) Gaseous emissions (GHG) (tons) 7 8 9 10 Improved quality of the product Total investment made Direct savings Payback period
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ENERGY EFFICIENCY
page 110
page 111
Loss of even one drop of oil every second can cost you more than 4 000 litres a year.
CP-EE spotlight
Oil should never be stored at a temperature above that necessary for pumping, as this leads to higher energy consumption. The energy use snapshot (right) illustrates this.
At only 6 C above the required minimum temperature, a lagged fuel oil tank with a diameter of 1.8 m and length of 4.6 m would waste approximately 6 800 kg of steam in a year.
page 112
Oil preheating Line heaters are used to raise the oil from pumping temperature to burning temperature. Table M.2 gives a rough guide to the heating required, but optimum conditions can only be obtained by trial and error.
It is advisable to use a positive displacement pump such as a gear pump to pump fuel oil. Sometimes no oil is transferred through the pipes because of excessive pressure drop and cavitation at the pump. A centrifugal pump is not recommended because, as oil viscosity increases, the efficiency of the pump drops sharply and the horsepower required increases. M1.1.2 Coal Uncertainty in the availability and transportation of fuel necessitates storage and subsequent handling. Stocking of coal has disadvantages including build-up of inventory, space constraints, deterioration in quality and potential fire hazards. Other minor losses associated with the storage of coal include oxidation, wind and carpet loss (formation of a soft carpet of coal dust and soil). One per cent oxidation of coal is equivalent to 1 per cent ash in coal and wind losses may account for 0.51.0 per cent of total losses. The main aim of good coal storage is to minimize carpet loss and losses due to spontaneous combustion. Spontaneous combustion in coal heaps can be caused by the gradual increase in temperature resulting from oxidation. Measures that can help to reduce carpet losses are as follows: Preparing a hard ground for coal to be stacked. Preparing standard storage bays in concrete and brick.
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In process industries, modes of coal handling range from manual to conveyor systems. It is advisable to minimize the handling of coal to avoid further generation of fines and segregation effects. Preparation of coal Preparation of coal prior to feeding into the boiler is important for achieving good combustion. Large and irregular lumps of coal may cause the following problems: Poor combustion and inadequate furnace temperature. Higher excess air resulting in higher stack loss. Increase of unburnts in the ash. Low thermal efficiency.
Sizing of coal Proper coal sizing is one of the key measures in ensuring efficient combustion. Proper coal sizing, specific to the type of firing system, helps towards even burning, reduced ash losses, and better combustion efficiency. Coal is reduced in size by crushing and pulverizing. Pre-crushed coal can be economical for smaller units, especially those which are stoker fired. In a coal handling system, crushing is limited to a maximum size of 6 or 4 mm. Table M.3 shows suitable sizes of coal for different firing systems. The most commonly used devices for crushing are the rotary breaker, the roll crusher and the hammer mill.
Size (mm)
2575 2540
micron = 1/1000 mm
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Coal must be screened before crushing so that only oversized coal is fed to the crusher. This helps to reduce power consumption in the crusher. Recommended practices in coal crushing are: Incorporation of a screen to separate fines and small particles, to avoid extra fine generation in crushing. Incorporation of a magnetic separator to separate iron pieces in coal, which may damage the crusher. Conditioning of coal The fines in coal present problems in combustion, owing to segregation effects. Segregation of fines from larger coal pieces can be greatly reduced by conditioning coal with water. Water helps fine particles to stick to the bigger lumps (due to surface tension of the moisture) and stops fines from falling through grate bars or being carried away by the furnace draught. While tempering the coal, care should be taken to ensure that moisture addition is uniform. It is preferable to do this in a moving or falling stream of coal. If the percentage of fines in the coal is very high, wetting of coal can decrease the percentage of unburned carbon and the excess air level required for combustion. Table M.4 shows the extent of wetting, depending on the percentage of fines in coal.
Blending of coal When coal lots have excessive fines, it is advisable to blend predominantly lumped coal with lots containing excessive fines. Blending coal in this way can help to limit the extent of fines in coal being fired to no more than 25 per cent. Blending of different qualities of coal may also help to provide uniform coal feed to the boiler.
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M1.2 Combustion
Fossil fuels (coal, oil, gases) are combinations of carbon, hydrogen, undesired elements (e.g. sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen etc.), and ash constituents. These elements are burned in the presence of the oxygen in the combustion air. The efficiency of a boiler or furnace depends on the efficiency of the combustion system. For example, combustion of oil is effected by a burner which mixes fuel and air in the correct proportions for complete combustion, with consequent release of heat. Basic combustion reactionsideal or stoichiometric combustion The amount of air to be supplied for combustion of the fuel depends on the elemental constitution of the fuel, i.e. the proportions of carbon, hydrogen, sulphur, etc. in the fuel. Analyses of the compositions of some typical coals are shown in Tables M.5 and M.6. The amount of air required, based on the chemical make-up of the fuel, is called the ideal or stoichiometric amount. This is the minimum amount of air required if mixing of fuel and air by the burner and combustion are to be perfect. For example, for ideal combustion of 1 kg of a typical fuel oil containing 86 per cent carbon, 12 per cent hydrogen and 2 per cent sulphur, the theoretical minimum amount of air required is 14.1 kg.
Moisture (%) Ash (%) Volatile matter (%) Fixed carbon (%)
1
dry basis
page 116
Moisture (%) Mineral matter (%) Carbon (%) Hydrogen (%) Nitrogen (%) Sulphur (%) Oxygen (%) GCV (kcal/kg)
The main products of combustion are carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx). Figure M.1 shows the different constituents of flue gas after complete, i.e. stoichiometric, combustion.
page 117
Table M.7 shows the heat of reaction from different constituents from fuel.
In normal operating conditions it is not possible to achieve complete combustion by supplying just the theoretical amount of air required. A certain amount of excess air is needed to achieve complete combustion and ensure release of all of the heat contained in fuel. Too much excess air, however, leads to heat loss via the chimney; less air leads to incomplete combustion and black smoke. Hence, there is an optimum level of excess air that gives optimum combustion conditionsthis varies from one fuel to another. If excess air is used in combustion, sulphur trioxide (SO3) may also be formed. When using liquid fuels (especially heavy fuel oil) there is a permanent danger that the fuels will contain water. Water is put into the boiler (together with the useful fuel) where the water is heated, evaporated and exhausted through the stack. Water cannot be burned and is ballast, i.e. all of the heat used to heat and evaporate it is lost. When using coal, part of the solid carbon put into the boiler leaves (without being burned) directly in the ash. The heat produced in a boiler by fuel combustion is used to heat water (fresh water or preferably recovered condensate) to boiling point (which depends on the pressure of the water); to evaporate the water (at constant temperature); and then, eventually, to superheat the steam. Air supply Since combustion is not instantaneous but takes place in stages, the fuel needs time to burn in the hot furnace, with sufficient air to complete combustion. Air is therefore admitted in two ways (i) as Primary Air entering the furnace with the fuel or, in the case of solid fuel burning on a grate, through the fuel bed and (ii) as Secondary Air admitted turbulently to complete combustion.
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There are three usual mechanisms by which combustion air can be supplied, these are listed below. Sometimes a combination of the three is employed. i. Natural draught, created when the hot gases pass up the chimney, causing suction in the furnace. ii. Induced draught (ID), caused by a fan located at the boiler outlet sucking air through the system and augmenting the suction of the chimney. iii. Forced draught (FD), caused by a fan located before the furnace and blowing air through. A combination of induced draught and forced draught is known as balanced draught. Control of air and analysis of flue gas For optimum combustion, the real amount of combustion air must be greater than that required theoretically. Part of the stack gas consists of pure air, i.e. air that is simply heated to stack gas temperature and leaves the boiler through the stack. Chemical analysis of the gases is an objective method that helps to achieve finer air control. By measuring CO2 (see Figure M.2) or O2 (see Figure M.3) in flue gases (by continuous recording instruments or Orsat apparatus or some cheaper portable instruments) the excess air level and stack losses can be estimated (using graphs like those shown in the figures). The excess air to be supplied depends on the type of fuel and the firing system.
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For optimum combustion of fuel oil the CO2 or O2 in flue gases should be maintained as follows: CO2 = 14.515 % O2 = 23 %
200
150
100
50
Reasons for incomplete combustion Combustion should be complete within the furnace and this can only happen when the rule of the three Ts (i.e. TIME, TEMPERATURE, TURBULENCE) is strictly observed. This means: 1. Allowing sufficient time for the fuel to burn in the hot furnace. 2. Having the fuel at a sufficiently high temperature to burn. 3. Mixing the fuel turbulently with sufficient air in the combustion chamber. The following are a few possible reasons for incomplete combustion of fuel:
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Air pressure is not sufficient and air passes through the furnace without mixing thoroughly with fuel. The fuel has not reached the ignition temperature to react with air. Fuel and air have not had time to react before the combustion products are cooled. Air ingress through peepholes, leakages at dampers and other places. Late combustion due to change in fuel properties, e.g. more moisture in fuel, high ash content of coal.
M1.3 Boilers
A boiler is a vessel that uses heat liberated by combustion of a fuel to produce hot water or steam. Boilers are pressure vessels, designed to withstand the steam pressures needed in processes. They can be very dangerous if not correctly operated and maintained. An economizer, air heater, or super heater fitted to a boiler will enable most of the heat liberated from the fuel to be used. Super heaters increase the temperature of steam and are necessary to render the steam suitable for use in steam turbines or steam engines. Types of boilers Boilers can be categorized broadly as follows: Water tube Smoke tube Fluidized bed boiler
Water tube boiler Water tube boilers are designed for higher pressures and steam generation rates, normally above 4 tons per hour. They are generally characterized by the following features: Mechanical stokers giving better stoking efficiency for solid fuels. Forced, induced and balanced draught systems helping to improve combustion efficiency. Lower tolerance for water quality making water treatment plant necessary. Higher thermal efficiency levels are possible than for Lancashire boilers. A water tube boiler is shown in Figure M.4.
page 121
Smoke tube boiler Two examples of smoke tube boilers are the package boiler and the Lancashire boiler: Package boiler Package boilers (see Figure M.5) are shell type boilers with smoke tube design. They achieve high heat transfer rates by both radiation and convection. Package boilers are characterized by the following features: Small combustion space and high heat release rate, resulting in faster evaporation. Large number of small diameter tubes leading to good convective heat transfer. Forced or induced draught systems, resulting in good combustion efficiency. Several passes resulting in better overall heat transfer. Higher thermal efficiency than other boilers. Lancashire boiler Lancashire boilers are characterized by the following features: Large thermal storage capacity permitting smooth handling of load fluctuations. Able to tolerate poor feed water quality. High thermal inertia (due to thermal storage) resulting in sluggish start up response. Poor convective heat transfer contributing to low thermal efficiency.
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Fluidized bed boiler Developments in combustion technology for solid fuels such as coal, rice husks, etc. have heralded the introduction of fluidized bed combustion (FBC) boilers, which can burn a wide variety of fuels including low-grade coals effectively. A typical FBC system consists of a cylindrical vessel with air ducts connected to the bottom of the vessel. The fire bedconsisting of sand particles, coal ash or aluminarests on a distribution plate near the bottom and is fluidized by the passage of combustion air upwards through it. A start-up system, using gas or oil burners, heats the bed to a temperature at which coal can be burned. Coal is then fed (pneumatically) into the bed where it is distributed and burns rapidly. The heat liberated by combustion is transferred to water tubes, some of which may be immersed in the bed, to generate hot water or steam. Ash is removed continuously to maintain a constant bed depth. Thermal efficiencies in excess of 80 per cent can be expected of FBC boilers. Types of FBC boilers FBC technology is, at present, divided into two distinct spheres: atmospheric FBC boilers; and pressurized FBC boilers.
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There are two types of atmospheric FBC boilers: bubbling fluidized bed (BFB) boilers and circulating fluidized bed boilers. Pressurized FBC boilers were mainly designed to operate gas turbines. Research work into this technology is under way all over the world. In developing countries, BFB technology has been developed and commercialized successfully, as it meets present industrial requirements. FBC technology and CP It should be borne in mind that going in for these advanced technology boilers not only means saving on operating costs, it also means helping to save the environment. The environmental aspects of production of steam and power are an inseparable part of the energy scene and, today, production still relies predominantly on the burning of fossil fuels. The penalty for this is to load the life-giving environmentour air, water and soilwith pollutants such as dust particles, oxides of carbon, nitrogen and sulphur and other substances which are dangerous to human beings. FBC technology has been developed to cater for a variety of requirements all over the world. In the United Kingdom it was developed for British coals with high sulphur content. These could be burned successfully with low pollution when limestone was added to the bed to absorb the sulphur during combustion. Adding the limestone avoided the use of very extensive and costly filtering/washing system for the flue gases. In India, FBC technology was developed to burn bituminous Indian coal with low calorific value and high ash content but containing little or no sulphur. It was not therefore necessary to add limestone. Another important advantage of FBC systems is that low combustion temperatures in the region of 700900 Clead to the formation of relatively little NOX. Nitrogen oxides include dangerous gases that affect the human respiratory tract and form acids when they mix with humidity in air. Performance evaluation of boilers The efficiency of a boiler depends on several aspects of construction, operation and maintenance. The temperature of a boiler with optimum operation and maintenance depends on its constructionabove all on the number of passes (i.e. the number of times the gas flows through the boiler, see Figure M.6).
page 124
3 pass boiler
4 pass boiler
Heat balance The combustion process in a boiler can be described in the form of an energy flow diagram (see Figure M.7). This shows graphically how the input energy from the fuel is transformed into the various useful energy flows and into heat and energy loss flows. The thickness of the arrows indicates the amount of energy contained in the respective flows.
fuel input
steam output
blow down
page 125
Essentially, a heat balance is an attempt to balance the total energy entering a boiler against that leaving it in different forms. The following example (Figure M.8) illustrates the different losses occurring when generating steam.
12.7% heat loss due to dry flue gas 8.1% heat loss due to steam in flue gas 100% fuel BOILER 1.7% heat loss due to moisture in fuel 0.3% heat loss due to moisture in air 2.4% heat loss due to unburnts in residue 1.0% heat loss due to radiation and other unnacounted loss 73.8% heat in steam
The energy losses can be divided into avoidable and unavoidable losses. The aim of CP must be to reduce the avoidable losses, i.e. to improve energy efficiency. The following losses can be avoided or reduced: Stack gas losses: Excess air (reduce to the necessary minimum which depends on burner technology, operation (i.e. control) and maintenance). Stack gas temperature (reduce by optimizing maintenance (cleaning); load; better burner and boiler technology). Losses as un-burned fuel in stack and ash (optimize operation and maintenance; better burner technology). Blow down losses (treat fresh water; recycle condensate). Losses with condensate (recover the largest possible amount of condensate). Losses by convection and radiation (better boiler insulation). The methodology for assessment of boiler efficiency and losses is given below.
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Evaporation ratio The evaporation ratio is the quantity of steam generated per unit of fuel consumed (see energy use snapshot, right). Boiler efficiency Thermal efficiency of a boiler is defined as the percentage of (heat) energy input that is effectively useful in the generated steam. As shown below, there are two ways of calculating this.
CP-EE spotlight
Typical evaporation ratio for: (a) coal fired boiler producing saturated steam at a pressure of 10 bar, evaporation ratio = 6 (b) oil fired boiler producing saturated steam at a pressure of 10 bar, evaporation ratio = 13
Direct method
Indirect method
For (a): 1 kg of coal can generate 6 kg of steam For (b): 1 kg of oil can generate 13 kg of steam
a. Direct method Parameters to be monitored for the calculation: Quantity of steam generated per hour (Q). Quantity of fuel used per hour (q). The working pressure and superheat temperature (if any). Temperature of feed water. Type of fuel and gross calorific value (GCV) of the fuel.
Boiler efficiency () =
Q x (H h) q x GCV
(examples follow )
page 127
Example 1
Type of boiler: Quantity of steam generated: Steam pressure: Steam temperature: Quantity of coal consumed: Feed water temperature: GCV of coal: Enthalpy of steam at 10 kg/cm2 pressure: Enthalpy of feed water: Coal fired 8 TPH 10 kg/cm2 180 C 1.8 TPH 85 C 4 000 kcal/kg 665 kcal/kg 85 kcal/kg
Boiler efficiency () =
= 64.4%
Example 2
Type of boiler: Quantity of steam generated: Steam pressure: Steam temperature: Quantity of F.O. consumed: Feed water temperature: GCV of F.O.: Enthalpy of steam at 20 kg/cm2 pressure and 300 C: Enthalpy of feed water: Furnace, oil fired 35 TPH 20 kg/cm2 300 C 2.9 TPH 95 C 10 200 kcal/kg 723.5 kcal/kg 95 kcal/kg
Boiler efficiency () =
= 74.4%
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b. Indirect method In this method thermal efficiency is found by subtracting the percentages of all the heat losses from 100. The following parameters have to be known for the calculation: Ultimate analysis of fuel (H2, O2, S, C, moisture content, ash content). Percentage of oxygen or CO2 in the flue gas. Flue gas temperature, in C (Tf). Ambient temperature, in C (Ta), and humidity of air, in kg/kg of dry air. GCV of fuel, in kcal/kg. Percentage combustible in ash (in case of solid fuels). GCV of ash, in kcal/kg (in case of solid fuels). O2 x 100 21 O2
kg/kg fuel
i. Percentage heat loss due to dry flue gas: k x ( Tf Ta ) % CO2 = = = 0.65 for coal 0.56 for oil 0.40 for NG
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ii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of water formed due to H2 in fuel: = 9 x H2 x { 584 + 0.45(Tf Ta ) } GCV of fuel
iii. Percentage heat loss due to evaporation of moisture present in fuel: M { 584 + 0.45(Tf Ta ) } GCV of fuel
iv. Percentage heat loss due to moisture present in air: AAS x Humidity x 0.45 x (Tf Ta ) x 100 GCV of fuel
v. Percentage heat loss due to combustibles in ash: Ash x (100 Comb. in Ash) x GCV of Ash x 100 = GCV of fuel
vi. Percentage heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss: Actual radiation and convection losses are difficult to assess because of the specific emissivity of various surfaces, their inclination and air flow pattern, etc. Loss may be estimated appropriately depending on the surface condition.
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Example 3
Type of boiler: Ultimate analysis of oil: Oil fired C H2 S O2 = 84% = 12% = 3% = 1%
GCV of oil: Percentage of oxygen: Percentage of CO2: Flue gas temperature (Tf ): Ambient temperature (Ta ): Humidity of air:
= 50%
ii.
iv. Heat loss due to radiation and other unaccounted loss = 2.0%
Boiler feed water treatment Water treatment and conditioning are important for boilers. Treating the water helps to prevent formation of scale on heat transfer surfaces. Control of total dissolved solids and alkalinity inhibits corrosion and deposits on superheater tubes, turbine blades, etc.
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The water treatment processes are selected on the basis of the quality of available raw water and boiler requirements. Boiler feed water treatment can be either internal or external, or both. Internal treatment involves dosing of chemicals (sodium carbonate, sodium phosphate, etc.) that help in the precipitation and coagulation of precipitated scale-forming compounds (carbonate hardness) and help them settle in the boiler drum. Hydrazine is also used internally to reduce dissolved oxygen in high pressure boilers. External treatment may use a cold- or hot-lime process as pre-treatment, followed by a base-exchange or demineralization process for further treatment. At very low pressure, straight forward softening is still used. Sometimes a cation exchanger, regenerated with sodium chloride, is also used. Demineralization is the only process used for high pressures. At intermediate pressures, the removal of carbonates (and if necessary of silica) is combined with softening by various methods. The main processes used comprise: Cold lime process for removing carbonates, followed by softening. Hot lime and magnesia process for condensate removal, followed by softening. Removal of carbonates by carboxyl cation exchanger, followed by softening and physical elimination of carbon dioxide. All these processes must be followed by physical (deaeration) and/or chemical removal of oxygen and conditioning treatment. In most processes, steam condensate is collected from all indirect heating systems. There is a danger of corrosion products (e.g. iron picked up from the equipment, steel piping, copper oxides etc.); dissolved salts from condenser leaks; or accidental pollution from black liquor heaters/evaporators; etc. becoming mixed with condensate. Treatment of condensate, together with boiler water treatment, is therefore important given the purity standards demanded for modern boilers. Condensate treatment may consist of one or a combination of the following: Filtration through finely divided (fibrous or granular) materials such as cellulose fibre filters, diatoms (which in addition to their filling properties have a specific adsorbent effect for water only). De-ionization through cation/anion beds. Filtration through magnetic filters.
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Tables M.8 and M.9 give the recommended feed water quality and boiler water limits for low-, medium- and high-pressure boilers:
2040 1010.5 25
2040 1010.5 15
1525 9.810.2 10
Blow down The water fed into the boiler contains dissolved materials and, as the water is evaporated into steam, these are left to concentrate in the boiler in either a dissolved or suspended state. Above a certain level of concentration, these solids encourage foaming and cause carry over of water into the steam, leading to scale formation inside the boiler. This can cause localized overheating which may result in tube failure, etc. It is therefore necessary to control the level of concentration of solids. This is achieved by the process of blowing down, where a certain volume of water is blown off and is
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automatically replaced by feed water, thus maintaining the optimum level of total dissolved solids (TDS) in the water. Blow down is necessary to protect the surfaces of the heat exchanger in the boiler. It is important to recognize that blow down can, if incorrectly carried out, be a significant source of heat loss. This problem calls for careful monitoring and supervision of the water conditions in all boilers, particularly modern, shell-type packaged units which are even more vulnerable than earlier types because of their small water capacity and limited steam space in relation to their output. Table M.10 shows the maximum TDS concentration permissible in various types of boilers.
Further to the above, manufacturers' guidelines must also be consulted. The following formula gives the quantity of blow down required: Blow down (%) = Feed water x % make up (Permissible TDS in boiler Feed water TDS)
If the maximum permissible limit of TDS is 3 000 ppm (as in a package boiler), percentage make up water is 10 per cent and TDS in feed water is 300 ppm, then the percentage blow down is given as: = 300 x 10 = 1.11% 3 000 300
If the boiler evaporation rate is 3 000 kg/hr then required blow down rate is: = 3 000 x 1.110 = 33 kg/hr 100
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via a heat exchanger, and then returned to the heater. At the user end, the flow of thermic fluid is controlled by a pneumatically operated valve, controlled by the operating temperature. The heater operates on low or high fire, depending on the temperature of the returning oil which varies with system load. The advantages of these heaters are: Closed cycle operation with minimum losses compared to steam boilers. Non-pressurized system operation, even for temperatures of around 250 C, against 40 kg/cm2 of steam pressure required in similar steam systems. Automatic control settings, offering operational flexibility. Good thermal efficiency, as losses due to blow down, condensate drain and flash steam do not exist in TFH systems. The overall economics of a TFH depend on the specific application and reference basis. Coal fired TFHs with a thermal efficiency range of 5565 per cent compare favourably with most boilers. Incorporation of heat recovery devices in the flue gas path further enhances thermal efficiency levels. TFH efficiency The efficiency of a heater is defined as the ratio of heat output to heat input. Mathematically, this can be expressed as follows:
Heater efficiency =
mass flow rate of thermic fluid, kg/hr specific heat of thermic fluid, kcal/kg C quantity of fuel consumed, kg/hr forward temperature of thermic fluid, C temperature of returning fluid, C gross calorific value of fuel, kcal/kg
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Thermodynamic trap
Difference in thermodynamic properties of steam and condensate Difference in temperature between steam and condensate
Thermostatic trap
Importance of steam trapping for energy efficiency With ever-increasing energy prices, improvement in steam trapping is a more significant factor than ever in the field of steam applications. True energy efficiency can only be achieved when: a) selection; b) installation; and c) maintenance of steam traps are adequate for the purpose of the installation.
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Factors affecting steam trap selection Guidelines for steam trap selection are shown in Table M.12. Factors affecting their selection are: Maximum and minimum working pressure Maximum and minimum pressure differentials Maximum working temperature Quantity of condensate to be discharged Size Connection type Type of steam trap Equipment to which trap is fitted
Steam trap maintenance The purpose of steam trap maintenance is to maintain steam traps in optimum condition to ensure efficient operation of the steam-using equipment in the plant. The first step in troubleshooting is to observe the operation of the steam trap for symptoms of failure. Steam trap failures can be classified into four groups as follows: Blockage Steam blowing Steam leakage Insufficient discharge
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Steam loss through malfunctioning of steam trap If a disc trap is blowing steam at a pressure of 5 kg/cm2, the annual steam loss is 168 tons. Based on a unit price for steam of, say, US$20/ton, the annual monetary loss is around US$3 360. A failed steam trap therefore causes great loss of steam and of distilled water, wasting both money and resources. The following are therefore important: Periodic inspection of steam traps Replacement of failed steam traps with new ones
OPEN FILE
Trap type: Trip float trap; plan float trap; open top bucket trap; inverted bucket trap; balanced pressure thermostatic trap; liquid expansion thermostatic trap; bimetal thermostatic trap; impulse thermodynamic trap; pilot operated thermodynamic trap; labyrinth thermodynamic trap; orifice plate thermodynamic trap; ogden pump. Application: Steam mainlines; equipment; trace line; etc. Functional status: Good; leaking; blowing steam; shutdown; blockage; bypassed.
Trap type
Serial no.
Trap size
Trap type
Serial no.
Trap size
Remarks
Diagnosis: Replace with free float; replace with disc type; dismantle and clean; incorrect trap selection. Location: Plant ref.; block ref.; department ref. Status of fittings OK/not OK, for: sight glass; bypass valve; filter. Remarks Estimate of steam loss, suggestions, etc.
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M1.5.2 Steam leakage Leakage from steam lines not only wastes heat, it also causes pressure drop in the lines. The quantity of steam leaked depends on the size of the leak and on steam pressure. If visibly evident steam leakage is observed, it must be stopped. Table M.13 gives an indication of steam losses at different steam pressures and leak diameters.
M1.5.3 Removal of air from steam installations Air and other non-condensable gases such as oxygen and carbon dioxide are a natural hazard in any steam-using plant. They can slow down the rate of steam distribution, create cold spots on the heating surface, cause distortion and stressing of the plant and can be the root cause of corrosion related problems. However, it is perhaps their overall effect on heat transfer that is most important from the production point of view. Some practical examples: The presence of air in a jacketed boiling pan increased cooking time from 12.5 minutes to 20 minutes. Sixty per cent air in the steam going to a unit heater reduced output by as much as 30 per cent. Dry saturated steam at 40 psi will have a temperature of 287 C. If there is 90 per cent steam and 10 per cent air, the temperature will be only 280 C. With 25 per cent air the temperature would drop to 270 C. In all of these cases the pressure gauge would remain at 40 psi. In relative terms, the thermal conductivity of air is 0.2 compared to 5 for water, 340 for iron and 2 620 for copper. Which means that a film of air only one
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1/1000 inch (0.025 mm) thick will offer the same resistance to heat flow as a wall of copper 13 inches (32.5 cm) thick. The removal of air is essential and can be carried out by either manual or automatic venting. Manual air venting has the disadvantage of relying on the human element (i.e. a staff member) knowing just when and how often the cock should be opened. The best alternative is obviously an automatic air vent. M1.5.4 Thermal insulation The need for efficient thermal insulation has become more important as both operating temperatures and energy costs have increased. The production, distribution and use of steam require thermal insulation to ensure that process requirements are satisfied. The first consideration is to ensure that steam generated at the boiler can be delivered to the point of use at the correct temperature and pressure. To ensure that energy loss remains within design tolerance it is essential to make the correct choice of thermal insulation system. Types and forms of insulation material Thermal insulation materials can be divided into four types: granular, fibrous, cellular and reflective. Typical thermal insulation materials for use in the 501 000 C temperature range are given in Table M.14.
Table M.14: Typical insulation materials for the 501 000 C temperature range
Section no. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Insulation Cellular glass Glass fibre Rockwool and Slagwool Calcium silicate Magnesia Diatomaceous Silica Alumino silicate Alumino silicate Aluminium Stainless steel Vermiculite Type Cellular Fibrous Fibrous Granular Granular Granular Fibrous Fibrous Granular Reflective Reflective Granular Availability* ab abdef abdeg abc abc abcj def defg j h h abcdgj Density (kg/m3) 150 10150 20250 200260 200 250500 50150 50250 500800 1030 300600 50500 Approx. limiting temperature (C) 450 550 850
* Notes:
850 300 1 000 1 000 1 200 1 200 500 800 1 100
a = slabs b = sections c = plastics d = loose-fill e = mattress f = textile g = sprayable h = reflective j = insulating bricks
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Economic thickness of insulation The effectiveness of insulation follows a law of diminishing returns. Hence, there is a definite economic limit to the amount of insulation that is justified. Beyond a certain level, increased thickness is not viable in terms of cost as this cannot be recovered through small heat savings. This limiting value is termed the economic thickness of insulation (ETI). Firms have different fuel costs and boiler efficiencies and these factors can be brought together to calculate ETI. In other words, for a given set of circumstances, a certain thickness results in the lowest overall cost of insulation and heat loss over a given period of time. Figure M.9 illustrates the principle of ETI.
I+H
cost I
I
H
= = =
H M
I+H =
M insulation thickness
Determining ETI requires attention to the following factors: Fuel cost Annual hours of operation Heat content of fuel Boiler efficiency Operating surface temperature Pipe diameter/thickness of surface Estimated cost of insulation Average exposure at ambient still air temperature
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Heat savings and application criteria A variety of charts, graphs and references are available for heat loss calculation. As this manual is intended for CP practitioners, the more complex procedures for working out heat losses are not considered. Surface heat loss can be calculated with the help of the simple equation for energy loss shown below. This can be used for surface temperatures up to 200 C. Factors such as wind velocity or conductivity of insulating material have not been considered. S = 10 + (Ts Ta) / 20 x (Ts Ta)
Where: S = Surface heat loss (kcal/hr/m2) Ts = Hot surface temperature (C) Ta = Ambient temperature (C)
Based on the cost of heat energy, the value of heat loss in US$ can be worked out as follows: Equivalent fuel loss (Hf)(kg/yr) = Hs x hours of operation per year GCV x b
Where: GCV = Gross calorific value of fuel (kcal/kg) b = Boiler efficiency (as %)
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Example 4
Calculate the fuel savings when a steam pipe with a diameter of 100 mm, supplying steam at 10 kg/cm2 to equipment, and un-insulated over 100 m of its length, is properly insulated with 65 mm of insulating material. Assumptions: Boiler efficiency: Fuel oil cost: Surface temperature without insulation: Surface temperature after insulation: Ambient temperature: 80 % US$300/ton 170 C 65 C 25 C
Existing heat loss: S = [10 + (Ts Ta) / 20] x (Ts Ta) Ts = 170 C Ta = 25 C S = [10 + (170 25)/20] x (170 25) = 2 500 kcal/hr m2 S1 = S = Existing heat loss (2 500 kcal/hr m2 ) Modified System: After insulating with 65 mm of glass wool with aluminium cladding, the hot face temperature will be 65 C Ts = 65 C Ta = 25 C Substituting these values: S = [10 + (65 25) / 20] x (65 20) = 480 kcal/hr m2 S2 = S = Existing heat loss (480 kcal/hr m2) Table M.15 illustrates this further.
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= =
= =
= =
= =
= =
8 400
= =
10 300 kcal/kg
Boiler efficiency
80 %
US$300/ton
= =
Monetary savings
45.052 x 300
US$13 515.64
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Table M.16 can be used as a guide for insulation schemes for steam and condensate lines, and for hot surfaces.
Thermal insulation can be justified by balancing the cost of different heat losses or heat savings against the cost of insulation.
OPEN FILE
Section no.
Equipment reference
Location
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M1.5.5 Condensate recovery Steam is used very extensively as a heating medium in various types of plantsefficient use of steam is therefore the key to energy conservation. The heat energy contained in steam consists of sensible heat and latent heat, the latter only being used in most types of steam-using equipment. When steam gives off its latent heat, it condenses back to water at the saturation point. The sensible heat contained in the condensate amounts to as much as 2030 per cent of the total heat of the steam (see Figure M.10).
Figure M.10 Total enthalpy of saturated steam at 10 kg/cm2
latent heat 481 kcal/kg Total heat = sensible + latent heat = 181 + 481 = 662 kcal/kg
To maintain maximum efficiency of steam equipment, condensate forming in the equipment should be discharged via steam traps as quickly as possible. In other words, the higher the temperature of discharged condensate, the higher the efficiency of the equipment, resulting in the most efficient use of steam. In this case, the discharged condensate has the highest quality of heat it can have, and this heat can be used for other processes. In addition, the condensate itself can be used as make-up water for the boiler. Figure M.11 shows the benefits of condensate recovery.
Figure M.11 Benefits of condensate recovery
total losses total losses
fuel input
steam output
steam consumer
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Condensate recovery has numerous advantages, the most important of these are given below: A. Heat recovery Boiler fuel is saved. Boiler efficiency is improved. B. Water recovery Water for industrial use is saved. Water treatment cost (and chemicals) are saved. Blow down is reduced. C. Additional advantages Air pollution is lessened by reduction in fuel consumption in boiler. No steam trap operating noise. No screening of moisture caused by flashing of condensate discharged through steam traps.
EVERY 6 C INCREASE IN BOILER FEED WATER TEMPERATURE CAN SAVE 1 PER CENT BOILER FUEL
Sizing the condensate return line Table M.17 and Figure M.12 can be used to size the condensate return line, as explained below.
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From Table M.17, it is now possible to determine size, as indicated in Figure M.12, below.
R-400 kg S-800 kg
Table M.17 can now be used to determine the sizes as follows: A to B carries 900 kg/hrsize required is therefore 32 mm. B to C carries 1 120 kg/hrsize required is therefore 32 mm. C to D carries 1 620 kg/hrsize required is therefore 40 mm. D to E carries 2 420 kg/hrsize required is therefore 50 mm.
Lifting the condensate The steam pressure at the steam trap does the lifting, but this may lead to back pressure on the trap and, by doing so, reduce the pressure differential across the trap. To avoid the problem of back pressure, there must always be sufficient steam pressure at the trap to overcome the back pressure. Lifting condensate directly to the condensate return line without considering the above facts has the followings disadvantages. Back pressure in the equipment from which condensate is lifted. Chattering in the equipment, resulting in leakages at joints. Reduced equipment output capacity, and hence an increase in energy consumption. Effects on product quality, especially in paper/textile dryers, as condensate accumulates.
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It is advisable to avoid lifting condensate because, even under the most favourable conditions, lifting can be a hindrance to start-up because it causes back pressure which slows down clearance of condensate at precisely the time this is least desirable. All of this can be avoided by draining the condensate to a receiver by natural fall, and then sending it to the boiler house by an independent pump.
Example 5
In a process house 3t/hr of steam at a pressure of 2.5 kg/cm2 are used indirectly in the equipment. There is no condensate recovery system. The boiler feed water temperature is 25 C.
Feed water temperature = 25 C Feed water temperature = 65 C
Before adjustment
After adjustment
The procedure for calculating the savings that can be achieved by condensate recovery is illustrated in Figure M.13 on the following page.
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hourly condensate recovered: x hours per year: = annual condensate recovered: x heat content increase, feed water temperature = 40 C (25 C to 65 C) = heat recovered: boiler efficiency = 85%: boiler efficiency = 80%: boiler efficiency = 75%: boiler efficiency = 70%: = heat saved:
1 008 x 106 kcal/yr 1.18 1.25 1.33 1.43 1 260 x 106 kcal/yr
Coal calorific value of fuel kcal/kg kg/yr = kg/ton 1 000 kcal/kg kg/yr kg/l heavy medium light = fuel saved tons/yr price/kl x = annual savings price/ton litres/yr
Gas
US$ 37 830
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Factors to be considered in incorporating a condensate recovery system A high condensate temperature necessitates a review of the available net positive suction head, to avoid vapour locking and cavitation problems of feed water pumps. Table M.18 provides guidelines.
In cases where increased feed water temperature gives rise to steaming problems, as in economizers, some of the return condensate can be diverted for process applications. Overflowing of condensate in collection tanks is a common occurrence. This should be avoided by use of a simple control system with float switch. Thermal insulation is often ignored for condensate recovery. It is worthwhile insulating condensate lines to save heat.
M1.5.6 Flash steam recovery Flash steam is produced when condensate at a high pressure is released at a lower pressure. The recovery of flash steam from high pressure condensate constitutes an important area of heat saving. The graph in Figure M.14 illustrates the percentage of flash steam generated under different operating conditions.
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14
Example 6
Consider the case of a machine where 1 000 kg of condensate at 7 kg/cm2 is flashed to atmospheric pressure. From Figure M.14, flash quantity (kg/kg) from condensate is 14.0 per cent. The flash steam generated per hour per 1 000 kg is therefore 140 kg/hr. With an evaporation ratio (see Section M1.3) of 13 (i.e. 1 kg of oil burned in the boiler can produce 13 kg of steam), the equivalent fuel oil saving (kg) by flash heat recovery is 140 13 = 10.76 kg of oil per hour. The annual fuel oil saving for 6 000 working hours would be: = (10.76 x 6000) / 1000 = 64.6 t/year Assuming a fuel oil price of US$300/ton, monetary savings would be: = 64.6t x US$300 = US$19 385 /year
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Flash steam generated is recovered by incorporating a flash vessel. The guidelines in Table M.19 illustrate some essentials of flash vessel design.
In a flash steam recovery systemin the form of a small columnflashing vapours are cooled by a spray. In this system, the vapours move up and lose their heat to the falling water spray. Perforated baffles in the flow path help to provide intimate contact for better heat transfer.
M1.6 Furnaces
The primary functions of an industrial furnace are to heat/melt/soak and generally treat materials at given temperatures. Furnaces can be classified according to their method of operation, their use and their method of utilizing fuel, as shown in Figure M.15. M1.6.1 Types of furnace Specific aspects of different types of furnaces are explained below and parameters of various types are shown in Table M.20. Forging furnace Forging furnaces are used to preheat billets and ingots to forge temperature. The furnace temperature is maintained at around 1 200 to 1 250 C (depending on the carbon content of the steel). Normally, large pieces are soaked for 4 to 6 hours in the furnace to attain a uniform temperature throughout the material. Actual soaking times vary with the type and thickness of the material. Bigger pieces, weighing between 1 and 2 tons, may be reheated several times. Charging and discharging of the material is done manually and this results in significant heat loss during the forging operation. Forging furnaces use an open fireplace system with most of the heat being transmitted by radiation.
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Forging
Periodical
Continuous
Assessment of specific fuel consumption in this type of furnace is rather difficult because it depends on the type of material and number of reheats required. On average, the figure is between 0.65 to 0.85 tons of coal per ton of forging. End fired (box type) furnace The end fired box type furnace is used for batch type re-rolling mills. It is preferred to the pusher type furnace (see below) when there is a wider variety of size and weight of material to be heated. End fired box type furnaces are used, usually, to heat scrap, small ingots and billets weighing from 2 to 20 kg, for re-rolling. Charging and discharging is manual, and the final product is in the form of rods, strips, etc. Re-rolling (batch) furnace Re-rolling (batch) furnaces operate 8 to 10 hours per day with an average output of 1 to 1.5 t/hr. The charge is loaded before firing, and nearly 1.5 hours of heat-up time is required to attain a temperature of 1 200 C. The total cycle time can be broken down into heat-up time and re-rolling time. During heat-up time the material is heated to the required temperature and is then removed manually for re-rolling. After
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completing first re-rolling, which takes around 3.5 to 4 hours, the furnace is loaded with fresh material, which takes only 30 minutes to heat-up for re-rolling. Average output from these furnaces varies from 10 to 15 tons/day and the specific fuel consumption varies from 180 to 280 kg of coal per ton of heated material. Specific coal consumption varies with the weight of the material being heated for re-rolling and with operating efficiency of the furnace. Continuous pusher type furnace Continuous pusher type furnaces have a distinct advantage over batch type furnaces. Although the process flow diagram and operating cycles are the same as those of the batch furnace, the cross-sectional area of the billet or ingot that can be fed into the pusher furnace is 65 to 100 mm2 (45 to 90 kg weight/piece). These furnaces generally operate 8 to 10 hours with an output of 20 to 25 tons per day; their normal rating is around 4 to 6 tons/hour at peak load. Since the length of a pusher furnace is generally between 13.7 and 15.25 metres, the material itself can recover a part of the heat from flue gases as it moves down the length of the furnace. Heat absorption by the material in the furnace is slow and steady and uniform throughout the cross-section. The material pushed into the furnace takes 2 to 2.5 hours to reach the soaking zone, where the temperature is maintained at around 1 200 to 1 250 C. After sufficient soaking, which depends on cross-section, the material is removed manually for rerolling. Specific fuel consumption varies from 180 to 250 kg of coal per ton of heated material. Inefficient furnace operation is one of the major reasons for wide variations in specific fuel consumption. Pot furnaces Pot furnaces are usually used when the final product is small glassware, shells, laboratory instruments, bangles, etc. or wherever a batch is melted intermittently. Coal is burned on a fixed grate with natural draught. In pot furnaces the flue gas temperature just after the furnace is in the range of 1 200 to 1 250 C. Specific fuel consumption is 1.2 to 1.5 tons of coal per ton of glass drawn. This varies from unit to unit, depending on the type of product and coal quality.
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Design parameters Length (mm) Width (mm) Height (mm) 3 000 1 850 900 6 000 2 000 1 100 (front end) 900 (rear end) Grate width (mm) Grate length (mm) 900 1 850 900 1 850 13 700/152 250 1 800 1 050 (front end) 400 (rear end) 900 1 850 Static producer Average weight of molten glass 200 kg per pot Depends on the capacity of the furnace
Operating parameters Furnace temperature (C) Flue gas temperature (C) CO2% in flue gas Specific fuel consumption Tons of coal/ton of material heated 0.60.8 0.180.28 0.180.25 1.21.5 0.551.0 1 2001 250 1 100 310 1 1501 200 700750 412 1 2001 250 550600 412 1 3501 400 1 2001 250 48(O2) 1 4001 450 200350 (just after regeneration) 26 (O2)
Glass furnace: a typical glass furnace consists of 10 to 12 pots, each with a capacity of 200 kg of molten glass. The furnace temperature is maintained at around 1 350 to 1 400 C. Around 14 to 18 hours are needed for complete melting and refining of a batch of glass. Drawing of molten glass from the pots requires another 6 to 8 hours. In the glass tank regenerative furnace, batch charging and glass drawing is continuous. Normally, the quantity of glass drawn ranges from 10 to 20 tons per day in such furnaces. A tank furnace consists of a bath, the bottom and sides of which are usually made of refractory blocks. Ports are provided for mixing of fuel and air above the melting level. The coal is not burned directly in the glass tank furnace. Instead, it is used as a raw material to first generate product gas which, in turn, is cross-flow-fired to heat the tank across the width of the furnace. The mixed batch, comprising sand, limestone, soda ash and cullet, is shovelled into the furnace manually. Melting of the glass in tanks occurs in the following stages:
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1. The batch is pushed into the furnace where it floats on the top of molten glass and melts to a frothy state. 2. Temperature is held sufficiently high to remove gas bubbles and homogenize the bath, refining the glass. 3. Glass then flows to the cooler working end for drawing at a carefully controlled rate/temperature. Molten glass is supplied from the working end to one or more operating units. The forming of glassware may be carried out either by hand or by machine. The glassware is then taken to an annealing furnace. Annealing avoids stresses being set up in the glass by too rapid or uneven cooling, as this may increase its tendency to fracture. Rejected articles, known as cullet, are recycled in the fresh batch.
M1.6.2 Fuel consumption and heat economy For an industrial furnace, the term efficiency, when used in the true sense, refers to the quantity of fuel expended to heat a unit weight of stock. While efficiency for boilers ranges from 60 to 85 per cent, the efficiency of furnaces is sometimes as low as 5 per cent. One reason for the difference in efficiency between boilers and industrial furnaces is in the final temperature of the material being heated. Gases can give up heat to the charge only as long as they are hotter than the charge. Consequently, flue gases leave industrial furnaces at a very high temperature. This factor is responsible for low furnace efficiencies. Examination of Figure M.16 will give a clear understanding of the distribution of heat in a simple furnace.
Figure M.16 Flow of heat in a furnace
2 7
5 2
3 4 3 6 4 2
7 = stack
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Heat flow in a furnace It is desirable for most of the heat liberated by the fuel to be imparted to the stock. However, as shown in Figure M.16, some of the heat in a furnace passes into the furnace walls and hearth, and some is lost to the surroundings by radiation and convection from the outer surface of the walls or by conduction into the ground. Heat is also radiated through cracks or other openings and furnace gases pass out around the door, often burning in the open air and carrying off heat. Heat is also lost every time the door is opened or can be dissipated if stock protrudes beyond the furnace enclosure. Finally, most of the heat lost passes out along with the products of combustion, either in the form of sensible heat or as incomplete combustion. Fuel economy demands that the fraction of total heat that passes into the stock be as large as possible and that all losses be minimized. 1.6.3 Factors affecting fuel economy Complete combustion with minimum excess air To achieve complete combustion of fuel with minimum excess air, a number of factors (such as proper selection and maintenance of control, excess air monitoring, air infiltration, pressure of combustion air) are to be considered. In addition to an abnormal increase in stack losses, the ingress of too much excess air lowers flame temperature, reducing furnace temperature and heating rate. If too little excess air is used, combustion is incomplete and chimney gases will carry away unused fuel potential in the form of unburned combustible gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen, and unburned hydrocarbons which would otherwise have burned usefully in the combustion chamber. Proper heat distribution Ideally, a furnace should be designed so that, in a given time, as much material as possible is heated to as uniform a temperature as possible, with the minimum fuel firing rate. To achieve this, the following points should be considered. i) The flame should not touch the stock and should propagate clear of any solid object. Any obstruction whatsoever de-atomizes the fuel particles, affecting combustion and creating black smoke. If the flame touches the stock, the scale of losses is greatly increased. ii) Refractories are leached if the flames touch any part of the furnace, as the products of incomplete combustion can react with some of the refractory constituents at high flame temperatures.
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iii) The flames from burners in the combustion space should also remain clear of one another. If flames interact, inefficient combustion will occur. This can be controlled by staggering the burners on opposite walls. iv) The flame has a tendency to travel freely in the combustion space just above the material. In small reheating furnaces, the burner axis is never parallel to the hearth but always at an upward angle. Every precaution should be taken to ensure that the flame never impinges on the roof. v) A larger burner produces a long flame which may be difficult to contain within the furnace walls. More burners of less capacity give better distribution of heat in the furnace, and also reduce scale losses while increasing furnace life, as shown in Figure M.17. vi) For uniform heating in smaller reheating furnaces it is advisable to maintain a long flame with a golden yellow colour when firing furnace oil. The flame should not be allowed to become so long that it enters the chimney and comes out at the top or through doors, as occurs when excessive oil is fired. This operational practice is sometimes employed to increase production rate, in reality it helps only marginally. vii) It is also desirable to provide a combustion volume that is adequate to the heat release rate.
incorrect
correct
incorrect
correct
Operating at the desired temperature There is an optimum temperature for furnace operation for any given industrial heating or melting operation. Table M.21 shows operating temperatures for different furnaces. Operating at too high a temperature will not only mean unnecessary waste of fuel and heat, it will also cause overheating of the stock, its spoilage or excessive oxidation and decarburization, as well as over-stressing of refractories. To avoid this, provision should be made for temperature control instruments. In the off condition, only the atomizing air enters the furnace, bringing its temperature down rapidly so that when the oil firing process recommences, the
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amount of oil supplied to the furnace to raise the temperature is far greater than would be necessary had the furnace been operated on proportional control. Reducing heat losses from furnace openings In oil fired furnaces, substantial heat losses occur through furnace openings. For every large opening, heat loss may be calculated by multiplying black body radiation at furnace temperature by the emissivity (usually 0.8 for furnace brick work) and the factor for radiation through openings. Black body radiation losses and radiation factors can be obtained directly from curves and nomograms such as those shown in Figure M.18.
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Minimizing wall losses In intermittent or continuous furnaces, heat losses generally account for around 3040 per cent of the fuel input to the furnace. The appropriate choice of refractory and insulation materials goes a long way towards achieving fairly high fuel savings in industrial furnaces. In industrial furnaces, fuel consumption can be substantially reduced by judicious application of external insulation. Several materials with different combinations of heat insulation and thermal inertia should be considered to minimize heat losses through furnace walls. For intermittent furnaces, the use of insulating refractories of appropriate quality and thickness can cut down heat storage capacity of walls and the time required to bring the furnace to operating temperature by as much as 6070 per cent. Control of furnace draught Ingress of uncontrolled free air must be prevented in any furnace. It is better to maintain a slight excess pressure inside the furnace to avoid air infiltration. If negative pressures exist in the furnace, air infiltration is liable to occur through the cracks and openings, thereby affecting air/fuel ratio control. Neglecting furnace pressure could mean problems of cold metal and non-uniform metal temperatures, which could affect subsequent operations such as forging and rolling and could result in increased fuel consumption. Furnace loading One of the most vital factors affecting efficiency is loading. There is a particular loading at which the furnace will operate at maximum thermal efficiency. If the furnace is under-loaded, a smaller fraction of the available heat in the working chamber will be taken up by the load and the efficiency will accordingly be low. The best method of loading is generally obtained by trial, noting the weight of material put in at each charge, the time it takes to reach a given temperature and the amount of fuel used. Care should be taken to load a furnace at the rate associated with optimum efficiency, although it must be realized that limitations in achieving this are sometimes imposed by availability of work or other factors beyond operational control. Placing of stock The load should be placed on the furnace hearth in such a way that: It receives maximum radiation from the hot surfaces of the heating chamber and the flames. The hot gases circulate efficiently around the heat receiving surfaces.
page 162
There is adequate spacing between the billets. Overlapping of materials results in non-uniformity of temperature and should be avoided. Stock should not be placed in the following positions: In the direct path of the burners or where the flame is likely to impinge. In an area which is likely to cause a blockage or restriction of the flue system of the furnace. Close to any door or opening where cold spots are likely to develop. Load residence time In the interest of fuel economy and work quality, the materials comprising the load should remain in the furnace for the minimum stipulated time to obtain the required physical and metallurgical requirements. When the materials attain these properties they should be removed from the furnace to avoid damage and fuel wastage.
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6 7
Recuperator In a recuperator, heat exchange takes place between the flue gases and the air via metallic or ceramic walls. Ducts or tubes carry the combustion air that is to be preheated, the other side of the exchanger carries the waste heat stream. Ceramic recuperators are bulky and offer considerable resistance to transfer of heat because of low conductivity; they also have a greater tendency to leak. Metallic recuperators are less prone to leaks and thermal expansion and can be controlled. Metallic recuperators are easier to maintain and install and involve less initial cost. For the reasons outlined above, ceramic recuperators are not widely used. Some of the common flow arrangements used in recuperators are shown in Figures M.19M.21. Metallic recuperators can be of three basic types, depending on the method of heat transfer: i.e. radiation, convection, or combined convection and radiation. Ceramic recuperator Ceramic tube recuperators have been developed to overcome the temperature limit of metallic recuperators (around 1 000 C on the gas side). The materials used for ceramic recuperators allow gas side temperatures of up to 1 300 C and temperatures up to 850 C on the preheated air side.
page 164
Insulation and metal covering Hot air to process Exhaust gas from process Centre tube plate Outside ducting Preheated air Cold air inlet
Tube plate
Flue gas
The classification of recuperators based on their type of flow is given in Figure M.21.
Hot input fluid Hot waste gas Hot input fluid Cold input fluid Hot waste gas
page 165
Radiation/convective hybrid recuperator For maximum effectiveness of heat transfer, combinations of radiation and convective designs are used, with the high-temperature radiation recuperator always first (see Figure M.22). These are more expensive than simple metallic radiation recuperators, but are less bulky.
Table M.23 summarizes the applications and advantages of the different types of recuperator.
High temperature applications (flue gases from kilns, metal processing and glass melting furnaces, etc.)
page 166
Regenerator In a regenerator (see Figure M.23), the flue gases and the air to be heated are passed alternately through a heat-storing medium, thereby resulting in transfer of heat. Long periods of reversal result in lower average temperature of preheat and consequently reduce fuel economy.
Figure M.23 Regenerator
Gas Chimney
Air
Economizer For a boiler system, an economizer (see Figure M.24) can be provided utilizing the flue gas heat to pre-heat the boiler feed water. In an air pre-heater, the waste heat is used to heat combustion air. In both cases, there is a corresponding reduction in the fuel requirements of the boiler.
Figure M.24 Economizer
page 167
M1.7.4 Plate type heat exchangers The cost of heat exchange surfaces is a major cost factor when temperature differences are not large. One way of solving this problem is the plate type heat exchanger (see Figure M.25), which consists of a series of separate parallel plates forming narrow flow passages. Plates are separated by gaskets and the hot stream passes in parallel through alternating plates while the counter-flow of liquid to be heated passes in parallel between the hot plates. Plates are corrugated to improve heat transfer. Plate type exchangers are summarized in Table M.24.
M1.7.5 Heat pipe The heat pipe is a device that uses an evaporation-condensation cycle to transfer up to 100 times more thermal energy than copper, the best known conductor. It is a simple device that absorbs and transfers thermal energy with no moving parts, and hence minimum maintenance.
page 168
Liquid
Vapour
Heat out Metal mesh wick acts as return path for liquid working fluid
The heat pipe comprises three main elements: a sealed container; a working fluid; and a capillary wick structure, (see Figure M.26). The container encloses the working fluid which, because the container is sealed, is at its own pressure equilibrium. Thermal energy applied to the outer surface of the heat pipe causes the working fluid near the surface to evaporate instantaneously, picking up the latent heat of evaporation. This region of the heat pipe is the evaporator. The vapour, which now has a higher pressure, moves to the other, cooler, end of the pipe where it condenses, giving up the latent heat of evaporation as it does so. This region of the pipe forms the condenser. The capillary wickfabricated as an integral part of the inner surface of the evacuated container tubeprovides a return path for the working fluid, allowing the cycle to restart. Performance and advantages The heat pipe heat exchanger (HPHE) is a lightweight compact heat recovery system. It requires no input power for its operation and is free from cooling water and lubrication systems. It also lowers fan horsepower requirement and increases overall thermal efficiency of the system. HPHE recovery systems are capable of operating at 315 C with 6080 per cent heat recovery capability. Typical application Heat pipes are used in following industrial applications: a) Process to space heating: The HPHE transfers thermal energy from the process exhaust for use in building heating. Preheated air can be blended if required. The requirement for additional heating equipment to deliver heated make up air is drastically reduced or eliminated.
page 169
b) Process to process: Heat pipe heat exchangers recover waste thermal energy from the process exhaust and transfer this energy to the incoming process air. The warmed incoming air can be used for the same process or other processes, thus reducing process energy consumption. c) HVAC Applications: Cooling: a HPHE can precool building make up air in summer, thus reducing the total tons of refrigeration as well as providing savings in operation of the cooling system. Heating: the process described above is reversed during winter to preheat the make up air. Other industrial applications are: Preheating of steam boiler combustion air. Recovery of waste heat from furnaces. Reheating of fresh air for hot air driers. Recovery of waste heat from catalytic deodorizing equipment. Recovery of furnace waste heat as heat source for other ovens. Pre cooling of cold air. Heat source for air conditioning. Cooling of closed rooms with outside air. Preheating of boiler feed water by waste heat recovery from flue gases in the heat pipe economizers.
M1.7.6 Heat pumps Heat pumps have the ability to upgrade heat from a source to a value more than twice that of the energy required to operate the device. The potential for application of heat pumps is growing and numerous industries have benefited by recovering low grade waste heat, upgrading it and using it in main process streams. Basically, a heat pump system comprises a compressor, condenser, expansion valve, evaporator and a working fluid. It extracts heat from air, water or a process liquid stream and supplies it, via an exchanger, at a higher temperature to a liquid or gas stream. The heat pump employs the same basic principle as the common refrigerator, and the cycle can also be used for cooling. The principle of operation is presented in Figure M.27.
page 170
Heating coil adding heat to supply air from hot gas condensing to hot liquid under pressure
Heat pump applications (see Table M.25) are most promising when both the heating and cooling capabilities can be used in combination. One example of this is a plastics factory where chilled water from a heat is used to cool injection-moulding machines whilst the heat output from the heat pump is used to provide factory or office heating. Other examples of heat pump use include product drying, maintaining dry atmosphere for storage and drying compressed air.
page 171
M1.7.7 Heat (thermal) wheels A variation on the basic methods of heat transfer is the rotary regenerator which uses a cylinder rotating through waste gas and air streams (see Figure M.28). The heat or energy recovery wheel is a rotary gas heat regenerator that transfers heat from an exhaust stream to cooler incoming gases. Its main area of application is when there is a requirement for heat exchange between large masses of air with small temperature differences. Heating and ventilation systems and recovery of heat from dryer exhaust air are typical applications.
Cold outside air Warmed air to room Cooled exhaust air Warm room exhaust air
Direction of rotation
The wheel rotorwhich consists of sectors of either steel mesh or inorganic fibrous materials with a hygroscopic coating of glass ceramicoffers a large surface area to the air or gas flows. The wheel absorbs heat from the hot exhaust gases and, as the rotor revolves, transfers heat to the cooler incoming stream. The speed of rotation of the rotor is usually about 1020 revolutions per minute. A purge bleed between the clean and dirty gas streams is incorporated to avoid contamination between the two streams. Efficiencies of over 80 per cent are claimed for this device, but they vary depending on the individual case (see Table M.26).
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M1.7.8 Self recuperative burner In self-recuperative burners (see Figure M.29), the recuperator is an integral part of the burner, saving costs and making it easier to retrofit to existing furnaces. Recuperator burners are operated in pairs. While one burner is used to burn the fuel, the other burner uses a porous ceramic bed to store heat. After a short period (minutes), the process is reversed and heat stored in the ceramic bed is used to preheat the combustion air.
Natural gas
Combustion air
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M1.7.9 Waste heat recovery system for diesel generation sets Exhaust gases from diesel generation (DG) sets are at high temperatures, ranging from 330 to 550 C depending on the type or make of the engine and the fuel used. The energy in the hot exhaust gases can be recovered usefully for steam, hot water, thermic fluid heating and hot air generation (see Figure M.30).
DG exhaust 350 C
Thermic fluid in
M1.7.10 Applicability of heat exchanger systems Heat exchangers exist for nearly every possible combination of heat source and use. Table M.27 indicates how common types are generally applied.
page 174
Incinerator or boiler exhaust Soaking or annealing ovens, melting furnaces, afterburners, gas incinerators, radiant tube burners, reheat furnaces Glass and steel melting furnaces Curing and drying ovens, boiler exhaust Large boiler or Incinerator exhaust Boiler exhaust
Convective recuperator
Medium to high
Furnace regenerator
High
Refrigeration condensates, waste steam, distillation condensates, coolants from engines, air compressors, bearings and lubricants Drying, curing and baking ovens, waste steam, air dryers, kilns and reverberatory furnaces Exhaust from gas turbines, reciprocating engines, incinerators and furnaces
Heat pipes
Low to medium
Combustion air preheat, boiler make up water preheat, steam generation, domestic hot water, space heat Hot water or steam generation
Medium to high
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Electrical systems
M1.8 Electricity management systems
M1.8.1 Electricity cost Electricity costs for an enterprise consist of the following: Energy costs in the true sense (i.e. the cost of the kWh consumed). Costs of power demand (i.e. the cost of the peak electrical power requirement). Energy costs can be reduced primarily by reducing electricity consumption (i.e. by increasing energy efficiency), while power demand costs can be reduced by other meansby reducing peaks of power consumption. Reducing power peaks can lead to reduced consumption of electrical energy, but this is not an inevitable consequence. Both increasing energy efficiency and reducing maximum electrical load must be preceded by analysis of the processes that consume electrical energy. Very precise knowledge of the processes is necessary to define measures to increase energy efficiency in an effective and economical way, and to be able cut off consumers during (short) periods of time to reduce peak load. M1.8.2 Electric load management and maximum demand control Introduction If processes are not to be interrupted, electricity demand and supply must match instantaneously. This requires reserve capacity to meet peak demands, and the costs of meeting such demandsnormally referred to as demand chargesare relatively high. Managing electricity supply costs therefore requires integrated load management that includes control of maximum demand and scheduling of its occurrence during peak/offpeak periods. Figure M.31 gives an example of the load curve for an enterprise. How such a curve can be plotted is explained in Example 7 (page 178). Basically, there are two ways to reduce maximum load for an enterprise (see Figure M.32): a) cut off the peaks; or b) reduce base load.
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page 177
Controlling peak load by load management Load prediction Before considering methods of load prediction, some terms used in connection with power supply need to be defined. Connected loadthe nameplate rating (in kW or kVA) of the apparatus installed at a consumers premises. Maximum demandthe maximum load that a consumer uses at any time. Demand factorthe ratio of maximum demand to connected load.
page 178
CP-EE spotlight
The average load, maximum load, load factor and electrical energy consumption during the day can be calculated as follows: i) Maximum load is 540 W for 2 hours of the day, from 7 p.m. to 9 p.m.
ii) Energy consumption during 24 hours of the day is: (5 x 60) + (480 x 1) + (540 x 2) + (240 x 3) = 2 580 Wh = 2.58 kWh/day
Energy consumed during 24 hours x 100% 540 W x 24 hours 2580 x 100% 540 W x 24 hours
In a wire drawing unit, three items of preliminary wire drawing equipment with loads of 50 HP per wire were used simultaneously during the day shift. The simultaneous maximum demand for the overall plant was about 450 kVA. Operation of the three items of wire drawing equipment was rescheduled to the 3rd shift, when only a few items of equipment were operating. With rescheduling, maximum demand was reduced by 150 kVA, resulting in savings of about US$2 000 per year in demand charges, as well as flattening the load curve considerably.
19.9%
107.5 kW
page 179
Rescheduling of loads To minimize simultaneous maximum demands, running of units or carrying out of operations that demand a lot of power can be rescheduled to different shifts. To do this, it is advisable to prepare an operation flow chart and a process run chart. Analysing these charts and adopting an integrated approach make it possible to reschedule the operations and to run heavy equipment in such a way as to reduce maximum demand and improve the load factor (see Figure M.33).
CP-EE spotlight
Staggering of motor loads When running large capacity motors, staggering of running is advisable, with a suitable time delay (as permitted by the process) to minimize simultaneous maximum demand (depending on load conditions) from these motors. Storage of products It is possible to reduce maximum demand by using electricity during off-peak periods to build up storage of products/materials or chilled/hot water. Additional machinery and storage costs are often justified by reduction in demand chargesfor example, storing chilled water at night to provide day time air conditioning; adding raw material/clinker grinding facilities in cement plants; storing chipped wood in paper plants; etc. Off-peak operation can also help to save energy because of more favourable conditionsfor example, lower ambient temperatures can reduce needs for cooling, etc.
In a pipe manufacturing plant, three automatic moulds with motor loads of 70 kW were operated simultaneously. The operators were instructed to incorporate a time delay into the running of these motors. This resulted in a reduction of 50 kVA in maximum demand, and savings of around US$660 per year in demand charges.
page 180
However, a cost-benefit analysis has to be made for solutions like those outlined above; they will then be considered for implementation if economically viable. Shedding of non-essential loads When maximum demand tends towards a preset limit, it can be restricted by temporary shedding of some non-essential loads. It is possible to install direct demandmonitoring systems that switch off non-essential loads when a preset level of demand is reached. Simpler systems give an alarm, and the loads are shed manually. Sophisticated microprocessor controlled systems are available that provide a wide variety of control options. These provide the following options: Accurate prediction of demand. Graphic display of present load, available load, demand limit. Visual and audible alarm. Automatic load shedding in a predetermined sequence. Automatic restoration of load. Recording and metering.
Simple load management systems with manual load shedding are employed in some industries. Operation of diesel generation sets When diesel generation (DG) sets are used to supplement the power supplied by the electricity utilities, it is advisable to connect the DG sets for the duration of peak demand periods. This considerably reduces load demand on the utility supply, and minimizes demand charges. If the DG sets generate at the same voltage as the supply authority, it is advisable to run the systems in parallel. This results in considerable reduction in maximum demand if the diversity of loads in the plant is used to share the peak load on the system. If the heat produced by the engine (cooling water, exhaust gases) can be used, additional profit is gained. In this case, operation of the DG as a cogeneration plant could be considered.
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M1.8.3 Power factor improvement Power factor basics For purely resistive electrical loads, voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R) have a simple linear relationship expressed by the equation: V = I x R and for power (kW): kW = V x I In practice, however, purely resistive loads are a rarity, and the alternating current supplied by electricity utilities (usually at 50 or 60 Hz) is almost always applied to inductive loads (e.g. motors, transformers, induction furnaces, etc.). Inductive loads require an electromagnetic field to operate and they therefore draw additional reactive power (kVAR) to provide for this magnetizing component. Figure M.34 illustrates this situationKW, the active power (shaft power or true power required) and the reactive power (kVAR) are 90 out of phase, with reactive power (kVAR) lagging the active power (kW). (As will be seen below, the lag has significance for power factor correction). The vector sum of kW and kVAR, is the apparent power, termed kVA. It is kVA that represents the actual electrical load on the distribution system.
Figure M.34
kW
kVA
kVAR
From Figure M.34, it can be seen that if reactive power is zero (i.e. no inductive kVAR needed) kVA and kW will be equal but if the inductive kVAR requirement increases, the kVA required to provide the same active power (kW) also increases. In other words, the ratio of kW to kVA varies with the reactive power drawn. This ratio is called the power factor. It is always equal to or less than unity.
page 182
If all loads to which electricity utilities supply power had unity power factor, maximum power would be transferred for the same distribution system capacity. In reality, however, loads have power factors ranging from 0.2 to 0.9, and the lower power factors place additional stress on the electrical distribution network. Low power factors result largely from part load operation of motors and other equipment. The effects of low power factors are: Maximum kVA demand for a given kW load increases. Line I2R losses increase considerably. On-line voltage drops are higher. Gross power consumption increases. Distribution system (transformers, cables) bear an increased load.
Notes: kW = kVA x P.F. Line current = kVA 3 x voltage in kilovolts It can be seen that, for the same kilowatt load, line current varies with power factor from 208.7 amps to as much as 347.8 amps, i.e. an increase of 66.7 per cent, with a corresponding increase in load on the distribution system, and increase in distribution losses to 278 per cent.
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Electricity suppliers impose penalties on users with low power factors, as these place a heavy burden on distribution system capacity. There is therefore good reason to compensate for reactive power. Compensating for reactive power A very effective and well-established method of improving power factor is to incorporate capacitors. The capacitor is a device which stores energy in an electric field and has the characteristic of drawing leading reactive power. In other words, current in a capacitor leads voltage by 90 and the reactive kVAR is therefore in exact opposition to inductive kVAR. It therefore tends to nullify the reactive power drawn, as illustrated below in Figure M.35. By connecting an appropriately sized capacitor across an inductive load, the effects of a low power factor can be nullified.
kVAR
The reactive power demand at plant level can be reduced to a considerable extent by using capacitor banks. Maximum demand can also be reduced by maintaining optimum power factor at the main incoming bus. High-voltage capacitor banks (suitable for voltages of 11 kV and above) are available with microprocessor-based control systems. These systems switch the capacitor banks on and off in accordance with load power factors.
page 184
It was proposed to provide additional capacitors to improve the instantaneous power factor of high unit loads. Additional requirement of capacitors to improve the instantaneous P.F. to 0.96 Expected reduction in M.D. Savings in demand charges at US$3.0 per kVA M.D. Estimated cost of installation Simple payback period
= =
30 kVAR 12 kVA
= = =
Selecting capacitors The figures given in Table M.28 are factors to be multiplied with the input power (kW) to give the kVAR of capacitance required to change from one power factor to another.
page 185
Knowing the existing power factor, Table M.28 can be used to find the factor to raise the power factor from its present value to a desired value. For induction motors with different ratings and speeds, to improve power factor to 0.95 and above, the rating of the capacitor (in kVAR) for direct connection to induction motor or a particular speed can be selected from Table M.29.
Table M.29:
Recommended capacitor rating for direct connection to induction motors (in kVAR) (to improve power factor to 0.95 or more)
Motor speed (rpm) 3000 1500 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 1000 1.5 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.0 6.0 6.5 7.0 8.0 9.0 750 2.0 3.5 4.5 5.5 6.5 7.5 8.0 9.0 10.0 10.5 600 2.5 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.5 8.5 10.0 11.0 12.0 13.0 500 2.5 4.0 5.5 6.5 8.0 9.0 10.5 12.0 13.0 14.5
Motor H.P.
2.5 5.0 7.5 10.0 12.5 15.0 17.5 20.0 22.5 25.0
1.0 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0
The rated voltage of the capacitor should be equal to the rated voltage of the system, provided voltage variation is not more than 10 per cent. If the voltage variation is more, say 15 percent, the capacitor rating must be higher, so that the maximum permissible voltage of the capacitor bank is equal to or slightly higher than the maximum system voltage. For such capacitors, the actual capacity at normal operating conditions is given by: Actual kVAR = Rated kVAR x Operating voltage Rated voltage
2
page 186
Location of capacitors Location of capacitors is an important factor. For the benefit of electricity boards, connection of capacitors on the H.T. side is good enough. Although the cost of H.T. capacitor per kVAR is low, the cost of the associated switchgear is quite high. Apart from this, plant operations may be affected significantly from time to time because of capacitor problems. There is also a possibility that all of the reactive current will flow through the L.T. cable and transformers, leading to higher losses. Alternatively, the capacitors can be connected on the L.T. side of the main substation, although this does not help in reducing distribution losses. The best solution for location of capacitors is to connect at load centres, e.g. connecting capacitors directly to motors or group of motors at motor control centres. Operation of capacitors without load is not a significant problem as the plant will be operated under leading P.F. and voltage may rise to a small extent. Automatic P.F. correction control is also available and is required only in special cases. Correction of P.F. at motors has a number of advantages, since induction motors are the main source of reactive currents in every industrial plant. Advantages include: absence of additional switchgear; no separate control of capacitor required for switching on and off; reduced effect of motor inrush; etc. On the other hand, there are common problems associated with direct connection: excess voltage due to self-excitation after switching off; and large transient torque after fast reclosure. Generally, compensation at motor terminals is restricted to correcting the no load current so that the P.F. at full load is corrected to 0.90.95 and, at partial load, the P.F. is near to unity. Table M.30 gives typical values of capacitors to be connected directly with induction motors. Other types of load requiring use of capacitors include induction furnaces, induction heaters, arc welding transformers, etc. The capacitors are normally supplied with control gear for use with induction furnaces and induction heating applications, as frequency is often different and, essentially, load characteristics change during melting or heating cycles. P.F.s for arc furnaces vary widely over the melting cycle, changing from 0.7 at the start to 0.9 at the end of the cycle. Power factors for arc welders and resistance welders are corrected by connecting capacitors across the primary winding of the transformers, without which their P.F. would be around 0.35. The recommended capacitor ratings for various sizes of welding transformers are given in Table M.31.
page 187
page 188
Case 2: Motor replaced for efficiency Input = 48.30 kW Motor Efficiency = 88% Output = 42.5 kW Pump Efficiency = 55% Delivery = 23.375 kW
Case 3: Pump replaced for efficiency Input = 37.95 kW Motor Efficiency = 88% Output = 33.39 kW Pump Efficiency = 70% Delivery = 23.375 kW
Electric motors are intrinsically highly efficient and the margins for savings from their replacement or improvement are low in comparison to those for driven equipment, where much higher savings can be obtained. Squirrel cage induction motors, the mainstay in industry, have operational efficiency of 8595 per cent, depending on the HP rating, rpm, age, and extent of loading.
page 189
Given the increasing costs of electricity, replacement of old and rewound motors by energy-efficient ones can be advantageous, especially if the motors run for long hours. The margin for kW savings is given by the following equation: (New efficiency Old efficiency) x 100 New efficiency
% kW savings =
It should also to be appreciated that, at todays electricity costs, the running cost of a motor is 8 to 10 times its investment cost. It is therefore highly advisable to select higher efficiency motors in the first place. Recent technologies that improve motor operation and energy efficiency are: Electronic soft starters, to optimize inrush starting currents and increase life. Variable speed drives, to optimize energy needs in cases where capacity control is needed. Recommended good operational practices are: Operating motor with correct, balanced voltage, giving 35 per cent savings and longer life. Proper lubrication, to maintain efficiency and reduce failures. Proper ventilation and heat evacuation, to reduce failures and enhance life. Power factor correction at motor terminals is recommended, especially in cases where H.P. ratings are over 50 and where running periods are long. Regular check on motor loading (amps) is recommended, to monitor variations. Alignment, bearings, cable terminations, lubrication and V-belt tension (in case of belt drives) are points that warrant regular attention for safe/smooth operation. Variable speed drives By design, common squirrel cage induction motors run at nearly constant speed. Conversely, pumps, fans, compressors, conveyors, rolling mills, crushers, extruders and many other motor applications are subject to load variation and require capacity control. Some traditional forms of control, such as throttling, valves, damper operations, bypass operations, have very poor energy efficiency. A variety of variable speed drive alternatives are available to help improve energy efficiency, offering a much more elegant method of speed and capacity control for driven machines. Table M.32 presents a menu of advantages and disadvantages.
page 190
Gears
Low cost
Chains
Low cost
Friction drives
Low cost
Multi-speed motors
Eddy-current drives Max. speed ratio 10:1 Fluid coupling drives Max. speed ratio 5:1
Simple, relatively low cost, stepless speed control Simple, relatively low cost, stepless speed control
Solid-state electronic control methods Voltage control <25 kW, 20100% Voltage source inverter (VSI) <750 kW, 100:1 Current source inverter (CSI) <25 kW, 10150% Pulse width modulation (PWM) < 750 kW, 100:1 Simple, low cost Harmonics, low torque, low efficiency, limited speed range No regenerative braking, problems at low speed (< 10%) Poor power factor, poor performance at low speed No regenerative braking, slightly less efficient than VSI
Good efficiency, simple circuit design Regenerative braking, simple circuit design Good power factor, low distortion
Example follows
page 191
Example 12: Comparison before and after a variable speed drive installation
The table below shows measurements before and after installation of a PWM inverter variable speed drive on a 45-kW, 4-pole blower fan motor in a yarn quenching application in a textile mill, indicating potential savings.
page 192
OPEN FILE
Note: Type could include: induction motor, direct current (DC); synchronous motor
OPEN FILE
Notes: Actual output power = Actual measured motor input power x Rated motor efficiency factor % motor loading = Actual measured output power Rated motor power
Voltage (kV)
Serial no.
Current (Amps)
Efficienmcy (%)
Speed (rpm)
Voltage (kV)
Serial no.
Type
page 193
M1.9.2 Transformers A transformer is a device that transfers energy from one AC system to another. Transformers receive energy at one voltage and deliver it at another. This allows electrical energy to be generated at relatively low voltages; to be transmitted at high voltages and low currents (reducing line losses); and to be used at safe voltages. Transformers consist of two or more coils that are electrically insulated, but magnetically linked. The primary coil is connected to the power source; the secondary coil connects to the load. The turns ratio is the ratio of the number of turns in the primary coil to the number of turns on the secondary. The secondary voltage is equal to the primary voltage multiplied by the turns ratio. Ampere-turns are calculated by multiplying the current in the coil by the number of turns. Primary ampere-turns are equal to secondary ampere-turns. Voltage regulation of a transformer is the percentage increase in voltage from full load to no load. Losses and efficiency Transformers are inherently very efficient, by design. Efficiency varies from 96 per cent to 99 per cent. However, transformer efficiency depends on load (% loading), making efficiency dependent not only design but also on the effective operating load. Transformer losses are of two types: 1. No-load loss, also referred to as core lossthe power consumed to sustain the magnetic field in the transformer's core. 2. Load lossassociated with full-load current flow in the transformer windings and due, primarily, to the resistance of the winding material. Because transformers traditionally used copper windings, load loss is also referred to as copper loss. From Ohms Law for power in a resistor (P=I2R), copper loss varies with the square of the load current. 3. For a given transformer: PTOTAL = PNO-LOAD + (% Load/100)2 x PLOAD where % load = (actual load of transformer / rated power of transformer).
page 194
Reducing transformer losses A. Proper transformer sizing Greatly oversized transformers can contribute to inefficiency. When transformers are matched to their loads, efficiency increases (see Table M.33).
B. Energy efficient amorphous transformers Amorphous iron is expensive but reduces core loss to less than 30 per cent of conventional steel core losses. An alternative, less expensive core material is silicone steel which has higher losses than amorphous iron but lower than standard carbon steel (see Table M.34).
page 195
OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Power rating Primary voltage (high voltage) Secondary voltage (low voltage) Voltage ratio (HV/KV) Primary current Secondary current Impedance Power factor No-load losses Full-load losses
Units 1
kVA kV kV Amps Amps Ohms kW kW
Transformer reference 2 3 4
OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Power rating Primary (average values) a) Voltage b) Current c) Power Factor d) Power Input
Units 1
kVA
Transformer reference 2 3 4
Secondary (average values) a) Voltage b) Current c) Power Factor d) Power Output Volts Amps kVA kW %
Efficiency 3d x 100 2d
% Loading
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M1.9.3 Pump systems Pumps are only one component of pumping systems which also include motors, drives, piping and valves. Typically, much less than half the electricity input to a pumping system is converted into useful movement of fluid. The rest is dissipated in the various components that make up the system. Energy losses are even greater when the system is not operating at its design point. There is, therefore, a considerable potential for saving electricity, by both improving component efficiencies and through better system design. Centrifugal pumps Centrifugal pumps are used for the vast majority of pump applications in industry. Centrifugal pumps impart energy to the fluid by centrifugal action. They rely on the flow of fluid to create a seal to prevent fluid flowing backward through the pump. The volute type (see Figure M.37) is the most common centrifugal design. The impeller vanes generally curve backwards, but radial and forward vanes are also used. The velocity head of the fluid is converted into pressure head.
Figure M.37 Volute centrifugal pump casing design
Discharge
Impeller
Impeller vanes
Need for careful selection of pumps The characteristic curve of a centrifugal pump is shown in Figure M.38. Pumps have to be selected so that they operate at their best efficiency point. Oversizing of flow during initial selection can lead to shifting of the efficiency point, resulting in reduced operational efficiency. An oversized pump also needs to be throttled for reduced flow conditions.
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250 ft. 76 m
156 ft. 47 m
The relationship between head, capacity and power is given by the following equation:
= kW
The following example shows how the most appropriate size of pump can be selected in practice.
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As shown in Figure M.38, impeller E is the one that should be used to do this, but the pump is oversized, so the larger impeller A is used with the pump discharge valve throttled back to 68 m3/hr, giving an actual head of 76 metres. The kilowatts now look like this: 68 x 76 / 360 = 14.3 kW being produced by the pump, and 14.3 / 0.50 = 28.6 kW required to do this. Subtracting the amount of kilowatts that should have been used gives: 28.6 14.8 = 13.8 extra kilowatts being used to pump against the throttled discharge valve. Extra energy used = 8 760 hrs (i.e.1 yr) x 13.8 = 120 880 kW. For the facility in question, that meant a saving of US$10 000/year. In this example the extra cost of the electricity could almost equal the cost of purchasing two or three pumps.
NOTE: Why the oversized pump? Safety margins were added to the original calculations. Several people were involved in the pump buying decision, and each of them was afraid of recommending a pump that would prove to be too small for the job. It was anticipated that a larger pump would be needed in the future, so it was purchased now to save buying the larger one later on. It was the only pump the dealer had in stock and a pump was needed badly. The dealer may have proposed a special deal on the larger size. The pump was taken out of the spare parts inventory. Capital equipment money is scarce so the larger pump appeared to be the only choice.
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Affinity laws for pumps The basic laws governing a pump are:
Q1 / Q2 = N1 / N2, e.g.: 100 / Q2 = 1750/3500, Q2 = 200 GPM H1/H2 = (N12) / (N22) e.g.: 100 / H2 = 1750 2 / 3500 2 H2 = 400 Ft P1 / P2 = (N13) / (N23) e.g.: 5/P2 = 17503/ 35003 P2 = 40 Where: Q = discharge head H = head N = rpm P = power
Flow control strategies Varying flow requirements can be met by conventional and low cost options such as by pass control or throttle control, but both of these methods are highly energy inefficient. There are occasions when permanent change in the amount of fluid pumped or a change in the discharge head of a centrifugal pump may be desirable. This can be achieved economically by trimming the impeller or replacing it with a reduced size impeller or, at the worst, replacing the pump itself. The most efficient way to deal with varying flows is by means of a variable speed drive. This ensures that the pump always operates at the best efficiency point and eliminates the need for any throttling. The virtue of this method is that it reduces the energy input to the system instead of dumping the excess. With decreasing costs in power electronics, variable speed drives are becoming more popular today. Variable flow requirements can also be met by multiple pump operation, with pumps switching on and off as required.
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60 80% 40 60% 20 Plm 40% 20% 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 per cent rated flow
OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Make Type (reciprocating/centrifugal) Discharge capacity (flow) Head developed Density of fluid handled Temperature of fluid handled Pump input power Pump speed Pump efficiency Specific power consumption Pump motor: Power Full-load current Voltage Power factor Speed Frequency Efficiency
Units 1
Pump reference 2 3 4
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OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Fluid flow measured or estimated (Q) Suction pressure (include head correction due to pressure gauge location) Discharge pressure (include head correction due to pressure gauge location) Total dynamic head (32) (TDH) Density of the fluid ( ) Motor input power (P) Frequency Combined efficiency (pump + motor) (Q x ) x 9.81 x (TDH/) x 100 P Pump efficiency = Combined efficiency x 100 motor efficiency Specific power consumption % Motor loading w.r.t rated power % Pump loading w.r.t rated capacity % Pump loading w.r.t design TDH
Units 1
m3/sec mwc mwc mwc kg/m3 kW Hz %
Pump reference 2 3 4
10 11 12 13
kW/(m3/hr) % % %
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M.1.9.4 Fan systems Introduction Fans and blowers provide air for ventilation and industrial process requirements. They are distinguished by the method used to move the air, and by the system pressure at which they must operate. As a general rule, fans operate at pressures up to around 2 psi, blowers at between 2 psi and 20 psi, although custom-designed fans and blowers may operate well above these ranges. Air compressors are used for systems requiring more than 20 psi. Figure M.40 shows the components of a centrifugal fan, one of the most widely used air movers. The role of the components is explained below.
Figure M.40 Fan system components
Air outlet
Impeller wheel
Shaft
Air inletair enters the turning impeller wheel. Impeller wheelimparts energy to the air in the form of motion and pressure. As the wheel turns, air between the blades is moved in the direction of the blade and accelerated outward by centrifugal force. Shaftturned by a motor coupled either directly to the shaft or via V-belts and pulleys. Scroll housingdirects air from the impeller wheel to the fan outlet efficiently. Outlettypically connected to a duct distributing the air to where it is needed. Fans generate a pressure to move air (or other gases) against a resistance caused by ducts, dampers, or other system components. The fan rotor receives energy from a rotating shaft and transmits it to the air. The energy appears in the air, downstream of the fan, partly as velocity pressure and partly as static pressure. The ratio of static to velocity pressure varies for different fan designs. Fans are typically characterized by the algebraic sum of the two pressures, known as total pressure. Parts of the fan other than the rotor (such as the housing, straightening vanes, and diffusers) influence the ratio of velocity and static pressure at the outlet, but do not add energy to the airflow.
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Typical applications and efficiencies Fan and blower selection depends on the volume flow rate, pressure, type of material handled, space limitations, and efficiency. Fan efficiencies differ from design to design and also between types. A range of fan efficiencies is shown in Table M.35. Table M.36 lists a few of the many applications and the type of equipment typically used.
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Fan speed and gas flow rate A basic understanding of fan operating principles is necessary to evaluate the performance of an industrial ventilation system. The fan speed, expressed as revolutions per minute (rpm), is one of the most important operating variables. The flow rate of the air moving through the fan depends on the fan wheel rotational speed. As the speed increases, the airflow rate increases, as indicated by the sample data in Table M.37.
It is important to understand that a 10 per cent decrease in fan speed results in a 10 per cent decrease in the airflow rate through the ventilation system. This relationship is expressed in the first fan law: rpm2 rpm1 = = = = Baseline airflow rate, ACFM New airflow rate, ACFM Baseline fan wheel rotational speed, revolutions per minute New fan wheel rotational speed, revolutions per minute
Q2 = Q1
Note: The rate of airflow through a fan is always expressed in terms of actual cubic feet per minute (ACFM). Fan static pressure rise The air stream moving through the fan experiences a static pressure rise due to the mechanical energy expended by the rotating fan wheel. As indicated in Figure M.41,
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the static pressure at the outlet is always higher than the static pressure at the inlet. The general equation for calculating the static pressure rise across a fan is: Fan Sp = SP(Fan outlet) Sp Fan inlet) VP(fan inlet) Where: SP(Fan outlet) = Static pressure at fan outlet, in W.C. SP(Fan inlet) = Static pressure at fan inlet, in W.C. VP(Fan inlet) = Velocity pressure at fan inlet, in W.C.
Air in, ACFM Centrifugal fan Fan SP = [0.05 (10) 0.4] in W.C. 9.65 in W.C.
The fan SP (static pressure) is related to the square of the fan speed as indicated in the second fan law shown below. The fan static pressure rise is usually expressed in units of inches of water column.
rpm2 rpm1 = = = =
Baseline fan static pressure rise, in W.C. New fan static pressure rise, in W.C. Baseline fan wheel rotational speed, revolutions per minute New fan wheel rotational speed, revolutions per minute
The static pressure rise across the fan increases rapidly as fan speed increases. This is illustrated in Table M.38, using sample data.
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Speed vs. power The brake horsepower is related to the cube of the fan speed as indicated in the third fan law, shown below: rpm2 rpm1 = = = =
3
BHP2 = BHP1
Baseline brake horse power New brake horse power Baseline fan wheel rotational speed, revolutions per minute New fan wheel rotational speed, revolutions per minute
Energy audit of a fan The first step in the energy audit of a fan system is the collection of ducting details and of fan characteristic curves. A typical curve is shown in Figure M.42.
Figure M.42 Fan characteristic curve
5.0 static pressure across fan (kPa) 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 Peak efficiency point A 100 B Peak efficiency + 10%
ef f
c en ic i
y
fan
tic s
ch
ar a
ics ist er ct
te sys
ar ac te
ch
ris
30
40 volume (m2/s)
50
60
70
0 80
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The fan and system operating efficiencies may then be determined from measurements of the power input to the motor, the heads at various places in the system, and the flow rate. The power input to the motor may be measured with a portable power analyser. Heads may be measured by using a pitot tube and manometer. Along with these measurements, the temperature of flow should also be measured (using a thermometer or thermocouple) for calculation of flow density, using the known density value at NTP (temperature 273 K and pressure 1 atm). The rpm of fan rotation may also be measured using a tachometer. Once the above measurements have been made, the fan and system efficiencies may be calculated as follows: Air kW x 100 m x input kW
Fan efficiency =
(
Air kW =
Flow in TPH x1000 kg 100kg/m3 mmWC x mWC x x 9.81m/sec2 3600 Sec a 1000
) (
1000 Where: a = m = density of air at measured temp. (kg/m3) efficiency of motor (0.85 for small kW motors, 0.9 for large kW motors and 0.95 for HT motors) Input kW = AC input power to motor terminals
CP-EE measures for fans and blowers Improving fan efficiency When fan design efficiency is low, replacement by fans of a more efficient design may be considered. Fan efficiency improvement may also be obtained when a fan impeller design is changed from one of low intrinsic efficiency to one having higher intrinsic efficiency, for example switching from radial bladed impeller to backward, straight bladed impeller. When fan-operating efficiency is low because of mismatch between fan and system (resulting from over-design) the following may be considered:
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Reducing fan speed (by pulley change or variable speed drives). Replacement of impeller with a smaller one in the same series. Manufacturers usually supply more than one impeller for the same casing, allowing a change in head or flow. Depending on the specific job, this can allow either an increase or a decrease in flow or head, typically 1025 per cent. Reduction in impeller diameter, by cutting it. Improving system efficiency When system efficiency is to be improved, a detailed audit of the ducting may be done. In addition to the losses from leaks/ingress there are often a number of flow losses that can be reduced when the system is analysed to pinpoint specific areas where energy savings can be made. Even small leaks represent a constant parasitic loss of energy and of system efficiency. All leaks in the ducting should be located and eliminated. Examine the possibility of reducing pressure loss in bends, cross-sectional area changes and stream splits and joints, through redesign. Reducing damper losses Throttle dampers are a very common means of controlling flow delivered by a fan. They regulate the flow by offering mechanical resistance to it, thereby consuming a large amount of energy in the form of head loss across the damper. Where capacity regulation is desired it is, therefore, desirable to use one of the following methods in preference to damper control: Inlet guide vanes. Variable speed fluid couplings or eddy current couplings. Liquid rotor resistance control. Variable speed AC/DC drives.
The variations in power consumption for different methods of capacity regulation are shown in Figure M.43.
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Energy savings from variable speed drives From 1. Constant volume 2. Constant volume 3. Constant volume 4. Outlet dampers 5. Outlet dampers 6. Inlet vanes To Outlet dampers Inlet vanes VFDs Inlet Vanes VFDs VFDs % savings 11 31 72 23 69 59
OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Make Type (axial/centrifugal) (Backward curve/forward curve) Discharge flow Total head developed Name of fluid medium handled Temperature of fluid medium handled Density of fluid handled Dust concentration Flow control type Flow control range Fan input power Fan speed Fan efficiency Specific power consumption Fan motor
Units 1
m3/hr mwc C kg/Nm3 mg/Nm3 % kW rpm % kW/(m3/hr)
Fan reference 2 3 4
15 16 17 18 19 20 21
Rated power Full-load current Voltage Power factor Speed Frequency Efficiency
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OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Fluid (medium) flow (Q) (measured using pitot tube at fan discharge) For suction pressure (measured at fan inlet using U-tube manometer) For discharge pressure (measured at fan discharge using U-tube manometer) Total head developed (TDH) [34/1000] Temperature of fluid medium (measured at fan inlet using a thermometer) Density of fluid medium handled (r) (taken from standard data and corrected to operating temperature/pressure conditions) Motor input power (P) measured at motor terminals or switchgear using panel or portable energy meter/power analyser Frequency Combined efficiency ( fan + motor) (Q x r) (9.81) (TDH/r) x 100 P x 1000 Fan efficiency = Combined efficiency x 100 Motor efficiency % Motor loading w.r.t rated power % Motor loading w.r.t rated capacity % Motor loading w.r.t rated head Specific power consumption
Units 1
m3/sec
Fan reference 2 3 4
mmWC
mmWC
mWC
kg/m3
kW
8 9
Hz %
10
11 12 13 14
% % % kW/(m3/h)
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M1.9.4 Compressed air systems Compressed air is used in almost all types of industries and accounts for a major share of the electricity used in some plants. It is used for a variety of end-uses such as pneumatic tools and equipment, instrumentation, conveying, etc. and is preferred in industry because it is convenient clean, readily available and safe. Compressed air is probably the most expensive form of energy available in a plant, yet it is still often chosen for applications for which other energy sources would be more economical for example, pneumatic grinders are chosen rather than electric ones. As a general rule, compressed air should only be used if safety improvement, significant productivity gains, or labour reductions will result. Typical overall efficiency is around 10 per cent. Depending on requirements, compressed air systems consist of a number of components: compressors, receiver, filters, air dryers, inter-stage coolers, oil separators, valves, nozzles and piping. Figure M.44 shows a system layout. The compressor is the main system componentit must therefore be selected carefully. The most commonly used compressors in industry are reciprocating and screw types. Centrifugals are also used where very large volumes are required.
Reciprocating compressors A reciprocating compressor (see Figure M.45) is a positive displacement machine that uses a piston moving inside a cylinder to produce compression. The piston moves
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Second stage
Drive motor
Baseplate
Crankcase (frame)
through the cylinder, sucking in atmospheric air at one end of its stroke and compressing it at the other. Reciprocating compressors are available as oil-free or lubricated types. The reciprocating compressor probably accounts for most of the compressors used worldwide. Screw compressors A screw compressor (see Figure M.46) is a positive displacement machine that uses a pair of intermeshing rotors instead of a piston to produce compression. The rotors comprise helical lobes fixed to a shaft.
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One rotor, called the male rotor, will typically have four bulbous lobes. The other, female, rotor has valleys machined into it that match the curvature of the male lobes. Typically, female rotors have six valleys meaning that for one revolution of the male rotor, the female rotor only turns through 240. For the female rotor to complete one cycle, the male rotor has to rotate 1.5 times. Screw compressors are available as oil-free machines, oil-lubricated machines and, more recently, as water lubricated machines. CP-EE options in compressed air systems A comprehensive compressed air system audit should include an examination of both air supply and usage and the interaction between supply and demand. An audit determines the output (flow) of a compressed air system, energy consumption in kilowatt-hours, annual cost of operating the system and total air losses due to leaks. All components of the compressed air system are inspected individually and problem areas are identified. Losses and poor performance due to system leaks, inappropriate use, demand events, poor system design, system misuse, and total system dynamics are evaluated and CP-EE measures are derived. Important aspects of a basic compressed air system audit are discussed below. Pressure drop A properly designed system should have a pressure loss of much less than 10 per cent of the compressor's discharge pressure, measured between the receiver tank output and the point of use. Excessive pressure drop will result in poor system performance and excessive energy consumption. Leaks As illustrated by Figure M.47, leaks can be a significant source of wasted energy in an industrial compressed air system, sometimes wasting 2550 per cent of a compressor's output. Proactive leak detection and repair can reduce leaks to less than 10 per cent of compressor output.
Cost calculated using electricity rate of US$0.05 per kWh, assuming constant operation and an efficient compressor.
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In addition to being a source of wasted energy, leaks can also contribute to other operating losses. Leaks cause a drop in system pressure, which can make air tools function less efficiently, adversely affecting production. In addition, by forcing the equipment to cycle more frequently, leaks shorten the life of almost all system equipment (including the compressor package itself). Increased running time can also lead to additional maintenance requirements and increased unscheduled downtime. Finally, leaks can lead to addition of unnecessary compressor capacity. Leakage can come from any part of the system, but the most common problem areas are couplings, hoses, tubes, and fittings, pressure regulators, open condensate traps and shut-off valves and pipe joints, disconnects, and thread sealants. Estimating amount of leakage For compressors that use start/stop controls, there is an easy way to estimate the amount of leakage in the system. This involves starting the compressor when there are no demands on the system (i.e. when all the air-operated end-use equipment is turned off). A number of measurements are taken to determine the average time it takes to load and unload the compressor. The compressor will load and unload because the air leaks will cause it to cycle on and off as the pressure drops from air escaping through the leaks. Total leakage (percentage) can be calculated as follows: (T x 100) (T + t)
Leakage will be expressed in terms of the percentage of compressor capacity lost. The percentage lost to leakage should be less than 10 per cent in a well-maintained system. Poorly maintained systems can have losses as high as 2030 per cent of air capacity and power. These tests should be carried out quarterly, as part of a regular leak detection and repair programme. Leak detection Since air leaks are almost impossible to see, other methods must be used to locate them. The best way to detect leaks is to use an ultrasonic acoustic detector that recognizes the high frequency hissing sounds associated with air leaks. These portable units consist of directional microphones, amplifiers, and audio filters, and usually have
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either visual indicators or earphones to detect leaks. A simpler method is to apply soapy water with a paintbrush to suspect areas. Although reliable, this method can be time consuming. How to fix leaks Leaks occur most often at joints and connections. Stopping leaks can be as simple as tightening a connection or as complex as replacing faulty equipment such as couplings, fittings, pipe sections, hoses, joints, drains, and traps. In many cases leaks are caused by bad or improperly applied thread sealant. Select high quality fittings, disconnects, hoses, tubing, and install them properly with appropriate thread sealant. Non-operating equipment can be an additional source of leaks. Equipment no longer in use should be isolated by a valve in the distribution system. Once leaks have been repaired, the compressor control system should be re-evaluated to ascertain the total savings potential A leak prevention programme A good leak prevention programme will include the following components: identification (including tagging), tracking, repair, verification, and employee involvement. All facilities with compressed air systems should establish an aggressive leak prevention programme. A cross-cutting team involving decision-making representatives from production should be formed. The leak prevention programme should be part of an overall programme aimed at improving the performance of compressed air systems. Once leaks are found and repaired, the system should be re-evaluated. Rationalization of compressed air use The need for compressed air should be questioned at every usage point. In some instances, the volume of air may be more important than pressure. Under such circumstances alternative options like centrifugal blowers or roots blowers can be considered. Misuse of compressed air for cleaning should be avoided. Using lower pressure Compressor discharge pressure should be closely matched with the requirement (allowing for pressure drops in the distribution system). Higher than necessary discharge pressure is detrimental to performance since it increases the compression ratio and hence the power consumption. Table M.39 illustrates the effect of increased discharge pressure on specific power consumption of reciprocating compressors.
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1 2 3 4 7 8 10 15
Heat recovery As much as 8093 per cent of the electrical energy used by an industrial air compressor is converted into heat. In many cases, a properly designed heat recovery unit can recover anywhere from 5090 per cent of this available thermal energy and put it to use heating air or water. Typical uses for recovered heat include additional space heating, industrial process heating, water heating, make up air heating, and boiler make up water preheating. Recoverable heat from a compressed air system is not, however, normally hot enough to be used to produce steam directly. Use of multiple compressors When the demand on a compressed air system is variable in nature, and exhibits well defined peak and slack demand periods, use of a single compressor designed to meet peak demand would lead to under-loading of the compressor and increased duration of the no-load cycle. Unloading power is 30 per cent of full load power. In this situation, energy savings can be realized by using multiple compressors. The number of compressors in operation is adjusted to the compressed air demand, thereby avoiding under-loading of compressors. Replacement/de-rating of oversized compressors In the case of oversized compressors, the power wastage during unloading can be reduced by either replacing the compressor in the case of oversized machines, or by de-rating. De-rating can be achieved by running the compressor at a lower speed.
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Empirical relations Some useful empirical relationships for compressors are given below:
Leakage (Nm3/min) =
( ( (
Initial receive pressure kg/cm2.a final receiver pressure kg/cm2.a Atmosphere pressure kg/cm2.a
Volume of receiver + volume of line between compressor and receiver in m3 Time taken to fill receiver from initial pressure to fonal pressure in minutes 273 273 + reciever temperature C
x 100
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OPEN FILE
Units 1
Nm3/min kg/cm2.g rpm m3
Compressor reference 2 3 4
Motor rating Power Full load current Voltage Power factor Speed Frequency Specific power consumption kW Amps Volts P.F. rpm Hz kW/m3/min
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OPEN FILE
Units 1
m3
Compressor reference 2 3 4
Note: Each compressor must have its own receiver. Procedure: 1) The air compressor being tested for capacity is first isolated from the rest of the system, by operating the isolating non-return valve. 2) The compressor drive motor is shut-off. 3) The receiver connected to this air compressor is emptied. 4) The motor is re-started. 5) The pressure in the receiver begins to rise. Initial pressure, say 2 kg/cm2 , is noted. The stopwatch is started at this moment. 6) The stopwatch is stopped when receiver pressure has risen to, say, 9 kg/cm2. 7) Time elapsed is noted. 8) Compressor capacity is evaluated as:
(Nm3/min) =
P2 P1 P0
) ( ) (
x Vr t x
273 273 + T
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OPEN FILE
CP-EE spotlight
Units
-Seconds Seconds Nm3/min %
t1 t1 + t2
x 100 (Evaluated)
Leakage cfm
Leakage % 100
x (Capacity of compressor)
Note: 1) Per cent or Nm3/min of compressed air leakage is evaluated, and the energy cost of compressed air is determined. 2) Plant survey is undertaken to physically identify obvious compressed air leakages. No instruments are really necessary. However, an ultra-sonic leak detector may be used, optionally. 3) Elimination of leakage sources leads to direct and immediate compressed air and electricity cost savings. Procedure: 1) Leakage test is conducted when entire plant is shut-down or when all compressed air users are not working. It would be advantageous if separate sections could be isolated from one another by isolating valves. 2) A dedicated compressor is switched on to fill the system network with compressed air. 3) Since there are no compressed air users, the air compressor will unload the moment the system pressure reaches the set point (say, 8 kg/cm2.g). 4) If the system has no leaks, the air compressor will remain unloaded indefinitely. 5) However, since there are bound to be system leaks, the receiver pressure gradually begins to drop, until the lower set point is reached, at which point the air compressor is loaded again and begins to generate compressed air. 6) Load and unload times are measured using a stopwatch over 56 cycles, and average load and unload times are worked out. 7) Compressed air leakage (%) and quantity are then evaluated.
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page 222
Approach
Composite
Cooling range
Cross flow
continued
page 223
Equalizer line
Fan deck
Latent heat
Louvers
Make up
Water deliberately discharged from the system in order to reduce the concentration of salts and other impurities in the circulating water. A cooling towers inlet water temperature minus its outlet water temperature. The proportion of outlet air which re-enters the tower. Heat that increases the temperature of a body to which it is added. The rate of heat transfer represented by 2 000 tons of ice melting in a 24 hour period (12 000 Btu/hr). The allowable percentage reduction of inlet water flow to a cooling tower. A hyperbolic discharge plenum at the top of a draw-through, prop. fan cooling tower. The shape increases the efficiency of the fan by converting some of the velocity pressure to static pressure for increased air flow. The temperature read from the wet bulb of a thermometer placed in a moving air stream.
CP-EE spotlight Inefficient operation of a tower with a cold water temperature around 1.5 C higher than it should be can increase process plant energy consumption by 10 per cent or more.
Wet bulb
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M1.10.2 Energy audit of cooling towers Cooling towers are energy audited to assess present levels of approach and range against their design values; to identify areas of energy wastage; and to suggest improvements. During an energy audit, parameters such as those listed below are measured, using portable instruments: Wet bulb temperature of air Dry bulb temperature of air Cooling tower inlet water temperature Cooling tower outlet water temperature Exhaust air temperature Electrical readings of pump and fan motors Water flow rate Air flow rate
The instruments used and the corresponding parameters measured are listed in Table M.41.
Water flow rate Air flow rate Pump and fan electrical parameters
Various electrical parameters such as kW, kVA, P.F., voltage, current and frequency are measured using the power analyser. Knowing the percentage loading and power factor of a motor, it is possible to estimate its operating efficiency from motor characteristic curves. If efficiency is low, the possibility of replacing it with a new motor may have to be considered.
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OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Units
Dry bulb temperature Wet bulb temperature CT inlet temperature CT outlet temperature Range Approach CT effectiveness Average water flow Average air quantity Liquid gas (L/G) ratio Evaporation loss CT heat loading
Basic equations used a) CT Range (C) = [CW inlet temp (C) CW outlet temp (C)] b) CT Approach (C) = [CW outlet temp (C) Wet bulb temp (C)] c) CT Effectiveness (%) = 100 x (CW temp CW out temp) / (CW in temp WB temp) d) L/G Ratio (kg/water/kg air) = Total CW water flow in CT (kg/hr) / Total air flow in CT (kg/hr) e) CT heat loading (kcal/hr) = CW flow (m3/hr) x T (C) x density of water (kg/m3) f) CT evaporation loss (CMH) = CW circulation (CMH) x CW Temp. difference across CT in C rate / 675
g) % Evaporation loss in cooling tower = Evaporation loss in CMH x 100 / CW circulation rate CMH
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page 227
expansion valve
compressor
suction
liquid and low temperature vapour. Various types of valves are used: high-pressure float valves, low-pressure float valves, and thermostatic expansion valves. The liquid refrigerant passes to the evaporator where it is vaporized at constant temperature. The refrigerant vapour is then returned to the compressor suction line and the circuit is complete. Types of evaporators are: direct expansion, flooded shell and tube, and re-circulation. Vapour absorption refrigeration Vapour absorption systems use a heat source instead of the compressor. This is an economically attractive proposition where waste heat is available. The working principle is described in Figure M.49 and important facts are listed below: The common commercial absorbent/ refrigerant pair is lithium bromide (L-Br)/water. The refrigerant travels from the evaporator to the absorber as a vapour. The absorbent has a strong affinity for the refrigerant and absorbs it, creating a vacuum (0.2 psia in a L-Br system); the heat is removed by cooling water. The refrigerantabsorbent solution is then pumped towards the condenser, passing through the generator. Heat applied to the generator causes the refrigerant to vaporize, leaving behind the absorbent liquid. The refrigerant vapour, now separated from the liquid absorbent, travels to the condenser. The liquid absorbent is re-circulated to the absorber through the regulating valve, bringing it down to the evaporator pressure.
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GENERATOR condenser weak solution throttling valve regulating valve waste heat/direct fired strong solution
M1.11.3 Energy efficiency evaluation Once a refrigeration system has been installed, its operating efficiency and overall running costs will be largely determined by the effectiveness of day-to-day monitoring. The commonly used figures for comparison of refrigeration systems are: the Coefficient of Performance (COP), Energy Efficiency Ratio (EER), and Specific Power Consumption (SPC). If both the refrigeration effect (heat removed from evaporator) and the work done by the compressor (or the input power) are in the same units (TR or kcal/hr or kW or Btu/hr), the ratio is: COP = Refrigeration effect Power supplied
If the refrigeration effect is expressed in kcal/hr and the work done in watts, the ratio is: EER = Refrigeration effect (Btu/hr) Power supplied (Watts)
The other commonly used and easily understood useful figure is Specific Power Consumption (SPC): Power consumption(kW) Refrigeration effect (TR)
SPC =
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M1.11.4 Estimation of capacity of refrigeration system and air-conditioning systems The capacity of the liquid chilling system can be estimated if water/brine flows and chiller inlet/outlet temperatures are known: Heat load (TR) = Q x d x s x (Tin Tout) 3023
Where: Q = flow (m3/hr) d = density (kg/m3) s = specific heat (kcal/kg/C) Tin = temperature at inlet (C) Tout = temperature at outlet (C)
Method of capacity estimation for systems having hot wells and cold wells to balance primary and secondary refrigerants For this method of estimation of refrigeration capacity, the secondary pump (process side) should be switched off for about 30 to 60 minutes. The compressor and primary pumps should then be operated and the time to drop the temperature of the secondary refrigerant in the hot and cold well by about 5 C should be noted. Cooling capacity = V x d x s x dT (3023 x t) + Primary power pump (kWt) 3.51
Where:
V = volume of the secondary refrigerant in the hot and cold well (m3) d = density of the secondary refrigerant (kg/m3) T = drop in temperature (C) t = time taken (hours) s = specific heat of the secondary refrigerant (kcal/kg/C)
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M1.11.5 Heat load calculation for centralized air-conditioning systems Q x d x (hin hout) 4.18 x 3023
Where: Q = flow, m3/hr (can be measured with an anemometer) D = density, kg/m3 (1.2 kg/m3 approx.) hin = enthalpy at AHU inlet, kJ/kg hout = enthalpy at AHU outlet, kJ/kg (Dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures can be measured at the air-handling unit (AHU) inlet and outlet; this data can be used with a psychrometric chart to determine the enthalpy of air at the AHU inlet and outlet.) The power consumption for these systems can be measured using a portable power meter or an energy meterspecific power consumption can then be calculated.
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OPEN FILE
Refrigeration compressor
Make Type Capacity (of cooling) Chiller: a) No. of tubes b) Diameter of tubes c) Total heat transfer area d) Chilled water flow e) Chilled water temp. difference
Units 1
Machines reference 2 3 4
TR
m m2 m3/hr C
Condenser: a) No. of tubes b) Diameter of tubes c) Total heat transfer area d) Condenser water flow e) Condenser water temp. diff. m m3/hr C
Chilled water pump: a) Nos. b) Capacity c) Head developed d) Rated power e) Rated efficiency m3/hr mWC kW %
Condenser water pump: a) Nos. b) Capacity c) Head developed d) Rated power e) Rated efficiency m3/hr mWC kW %
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OPEN FILE
Parameter reference
Chilled water flow (using a flow meter or assessed by level difference) Chilled water pump motor input power Chilled water pump suction pressure Chilled water pump discharge pressure Chiller water inlet temperature to chiller Chiller water outlet temperature from chiller Condenser water inlet temperature Condenser pump suction pressure Condenser pump discharge pressure Condenser water outlet temperature Chiller (evaporator) outlet refrigerant temperature Refrigerant pressure Condenser inlet refrigerant temperature Refrigerant pressure Actual cooling capacity [(1)*(6-5)/3024] COP [11/(10-11)] Compressor motor input power Specific energy consumption Input power to CT fan Input power to chilled water pumps in operation Input power to condenser water pumps in operation Overall system specific power consumption [(2+17+19+20)/15]
Units 1
m3/hr
2 3 4 5 6
kW kg/cm2g kg/cm2g C C
7 8 9 10 11
12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
21
kW
22
kW/TR
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fixture wall
switch
work surface
floor electricity in
Periodic maintenance of the lighting system installed on the shop floor has a profound impact on the energy consumed. In many industrial lighting systems, the fittings act as dust traps. If they are not cleaned periodically, they will collect more dust resulting in lower illumination. Efficient lamps and luminaires can not only reduce maintenance costs, they can even lower power consumption. For instance, use of twin-lamp fluorescent fittings with polystyrene diffusers can provide the same degree of lighting with lower wattage consumption. Similarly, high pressure sodium lamps provide energy savings of up to 80 per cent compared to high wattage tungsten filament lamps.
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In some systems, electronic control can provide energy conservation of around 25 per cent at near unity power factor. Automatic switch off of lights can be provided when they are not required. Solar or mechanical timer switches can be used to turn off artificial lighting as soon as the optimum light level is reached. M1.12.1 Choice of lighting The following guidelines will help in choosing lighting: Choose which is positioned used only for and the right light where it is needed when it is needed as long as it is need at the illumination level needed.
Search for savings With so many different types of lighting on the market, levels of efficiency and performance must be known if the best choice is to be made. Table M.42 gives the luminous efficiency of various lamp sources.
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The table shows ranges of efficiency and lamp-life. As can be seen, the lighting efficiency (lumens per watt) of a low-pressure sodium lamp is many times (1017 times) greater than that of an incandescent (tungsten-filament) lamp. It should also be noted that, in general, the efficiency of a specific lamp type is higher for higher power lamps. Fittings should always be suitable for the maximum wattage of lamp with which they are used. Higher wattage of lamps will produce more heat and could damage the fittings or shade and may even cause a fire. Fluorescent tube lights are preferred to general lighting service (GLS) lamps because, for the same amount of electricity consumption, they produce four times the amount of light obtainable from GLS lamps. The tubes last much longer, as they have a life of 6 000 to 7 000 hours, although frequent switching on and off shortens this substantially. Today, so-called electricity saving bulbs can be used as a substitute for tungsten filament bulbs. These are compact fluorescent tubes which can be screwed into the existing conventional bulb socket. These compact fluorescent bulbs consume about 80 per cent less electricity than a conventional bulb while producing the same amount of light. They also have a life about 6 to 8 times longer. Table M.43 shows norms of illuminance required for various work stations. M1.12.2 Control of lighting Even with efficient lamps and luminaires, energy used for lighting can be wasted in several ways. In general, people usually turn lighting on only when they need it, but cannot be relied upon to turn it off when daylight would provide adequate light, or when rooms are unoccupied. The ideal solution would be to provide a manual switch and some form of control for switching off. A further source of unnecessary use results from the common practice of controlling large areas of lighting with small numbers of switches, or by having confusing switch layouts so that individual requirements can only be met by turning on many luminaires. Controls are a very effective way of reducing lighting costs, but before incurring significant capital costs, it is suggested that occupancy patterns and behaviour be studied.
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150 200
300
500
750
1 000
1 500
2 000
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Manual controls Switch arrangements should at least permit individual rows of luminaires parallel and nearest to window walls to be controlled separately. Switches should be as near as possible to the luminaires which they control. One simple method which has been used effectively is the pull-cord operating ceiling switches adjacent to each luminaire, or pull-chord switches with timer controls so that the lamp automatically switches off after a pre-set period. Automatic controls a) Photo-electric controls Photo-electric control of lighting can ensure that lighting is turned off when daylight alone provides the required illuminance. For example, a photo-electric sensor could respond to the exterior illuminance at the work place. b) Time controls If the occupation of a building effectively ceases at a fixed hour every working day, it may be worth installing a time switch so that most of the lighting is switched off at that time. c) Mixed control systems Switch control can give considerable energy savings. For instance, a time control system can switch off all selected lights for fixed period in the day, but personal, local override (switch on) controls can be provided. This general principle is well suited to multi-occupant spaces such as group offices. An idea of wastage of electrical energy due to unnecessary lighting can be obtained from Table M.44.
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Table M.44: Loss in electrical energy as a result of misuse or wastage and its value per year
Item 40 W Tube light 60 W Ceiling fan 100 W Bulb 250 W Air cooler 450 W HPMV lamp 500 W Incandescent lamp 1 HP Electric motor 1 ton Window A.C. 1.5 ton Window A.C. 1 ton Water cooler
* Cost of electricity is considered as US$0.055 per kWh
Value* (US$) 0.88 1.26 2.14 5.30 8.51 10.03 7.95 25.86 35.03 17.91
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Maximum demand controllers Load factor improvement and peak demand reduction. Relevant to industrial/commercial establishments/utilities. Automatic power factor controllers Power factor improvement. Relevant to all industries. High efficiency motors Motors with efficiencies of 9296 per cent, often with a 10 year performance guarantee, are available on the market from all leading motor manufacturers. They are capable of working at temperatures as high as 80100 C. Static variable speed drives, frequency drives, inverters Thyristor control systems where speed is controlled by varying the voltage and frequency. Higher efficiency at partial loads. Relevant to medium and large industries and power plants. Energy efficient fluorescent lighting system (fluorescent lamps, sodium vapour lamps, compact fluorescent lamps) Higher lumens per watt. Relevant to shop floor working bays, buildings, street lights and yard lighting. Electronic regulators for fans Reduction in energy loss during part load operation. Relevant to industrial offices, technical buildings, domestic applications. Solid-state soft starters Solid-state thyristor control systems. Applied voltage is varied with load on motor. Higher efficiency at part loads. Relevant to conveyor belts, inching loads and equipment operating frequently with part loads in medium and large industries.
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High efficiency steam turbines High efficiency impulse steam turbines of 5 MW and less have been developed with efficiencies as high as 70 per cent. The back pressure class of turbines can be used in designing cogeneration systems for industries. This would not only help in reducing purchased energy but also in providing valuable power in cases of grid power shortage. Innovation in cogeneration system The steam based cogeneration system (bottoming cycle) may be suitable where steam to power ratio is high. If steam to power ratio is low, gas turbine based cogeneration systems (topping cycle or combined cycle) are more appropriate. The latter system can absorb steam fluctuations to a certain level without sacrificing overall system efficiency. A recent development is based on the Cheng cycle where any excess steam is superheated and injected back into the gas combustor. This system allows maximum electric power generation with no or less process steam or maximum power, as well as process steam generation simultaneously. On-line plugging of leaks Leak prevention in steam and compressed air systems. Relevant to continuous industries, power stations. Ceramic fibre Reduction in heat storage and radiation losses, due to low thermal mass. Relevant to furnaces, kilns, fired heaters, heaters, ovens, heat treatment furnaces, etc. Luminous wall furnace High emissivity refractory coatingsa development of the US Space Programme prevent high temperature of refractory linings of furnaces. The results are 1015 per cent fuel savings; increased furnace structure radiation; improved temperature uniformity; and increased working life of refractory and metallic components. Dynamic insulation Air or other fluid is forced through the insulating material to oppose (contraflux) or enhance (proflux) the transmission of heat, as required. It has additional benefits, e.g. building insulation, pre-heated supply of filtered fresh air is readily available. Can be used for boiler and furnace as pre-heated combustion air.
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utilize low temperature waste heat sources and upgrade them to temperature levels at which they become useful. Condensing heat exchanger Extracts not only sensible but also latent heat of water vapour in flue gases of boilers and furnaces. Condensing heat exchangers comprise Teflon coated heat exchanger surfaces resistant to acidic corrosion, thereby allowing the flue gases to be cooled to very near ambient temperature, thus increasing the efficiency of boilers substantiallyto over 92 per cent in the case of oil and gas firing systems. Special design heat exchanger Heat transfer rate can be dramatically increased at sonic velocity. Based on this principle, a special design of heat exchanger with much higher overall heat transfer coefficients than those attainable in shell and tube type heat exchangers has been developed. These devices are relatively maintenance free. Heat exchangers with spherical matrices and helical inserts in the tubes have been developed, reducing heat exchanger surfaces by 2530 per cent. Microprocessor based system More precise control of critical parameters. Relevant to boilers, furnaces, utilities, distillation columns, process plants, power plants.
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Industrial drying by electromagnetic radiation Infrared, microwave, radio frequency and ultraviolet radiation are now being used for drying purposes. Drying efficiencies increase by as much as 5070 per cent. All these techniques, are useful for particular types of product drying, e.g. microwave for food processing; radio frequency for drying of paper, yarn packages, etc.; infrared for curing of adhesives; ultraviolet for paint curing.
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Weekly tasks i. Cleaning of all filters ii. Draining of water from all tanks
Troubleshooting hints Oil not pumpable Viscosity too high Blocked lines and filters Sludge in oil Leak in oil suction Vent pipe choked Blocking of strainers Sludge or wax in oil Heavy precipitated compounds in oil Rust or scale in tank Carbonization of oil due to excessive heating Excess water in oil Water delivered along with oil Leaking manhole Seepage from underground tank Ingress of moisture from vent pipe Leaking heater steam coils
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Pipeline plugged Sludge in oil High viscosity oil Foreign materials such as rags, scale and wood splinters in line Carbonization of oil
Start up Check for correct sized burner/nozzle. Establish air supply first (start blower). Ensure no vapour/gases are present before light up. Ensure a flame from a torch or other source is placed in front of the nozzle. Turn ON the (preheated) oil supply (before start-up, drain off cold oil).
Operations Check for correct temperature of oil at the burner tip (consult viscosity vs. temperature chart). Check air pressure for LAP burners (63.5 cm to 76.2 cm w.c. air pressure is commonly adopted). Check for oil drips near burner. Check for flame fading/flame pulsation. Check positioning of burner (ensure no flame impingement on refractory walls or charge). Adjust flame length to suit the conditions (ensure flame does not extend beyond the furnace).
Load changes Operate both air and oil valves simultaneously (For self-proportioned burner, operate the self-proportioning lever. Do not adjust valve only in oil line). Adjust burners and damper for a light brown (hazy) smoke from chimney and at least 12 per cent CO2.
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Oil supply left in ON position after air supply cut off during earlier shut off. ii. Too high a positive pressure in combustion chamber. iii. Furnace too cold during starting to complete combustion (when temperature rises, unburned oil particles burn). iv. Oil pressure too low. i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. i. Insufficient draft or blower of inadequate capacity. Oil flow excessive. Oil too heavy and not preheated to the required level. Suction air holes in blower plugged. Chimney clogged with soot/damper closed. Blower operating speed too low.
5. Clinker on refractory
Flame hits refractory because combustion chamber is too small or burner is not correctly aligned. ii. Oil dripping from nozzle. iii. Oil supply not cut off before the air supply during shut-offs. i. ii. iii. iv. Nozzle exposed to furnace radiation after shut-off. Burner fed with atomizing air over 300 C. Burner block too short or too wide. Oil not drained from nozzle after shut off.
i. Improper ratio of oil and air. ii. Burner nozzle oversized. iii. Excessive draft. iv. Improper oil/air mixing by burner. v. Air and oil pressure not correct vi. Oil not preheated properly. vii. Oil viscosity too low for the type of burner used. viii. Oil leaks in oil pipelines/preheater. ix Bad maintenance (too high or rising stack gas temperature).
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Shut down Close oil line first. Shut the blower after a few seconds (ensure gases are purged from combustion chamber). Do not expose the burner nozzle to the radiant heat of the furnace. (When oil is shut off, remove burner/nozzle or interpose a thin refractory between nozzle and furnace). Important! Burners should be dismantled and cleaned periodically, preferably once per shift (always keep spare burners ready).
A.3 Boilers
Periodic tasks and checks outside of the boiler All access doors and platework should be maintained air tight with effective gaskets. Flue systems should have all joints sealed effectively and be insulated where appropriate. Boiler shells and sections should be effectively insulated. Is existing insulation adequate? If insulation was applied to boilers, pipes and hot water cylinders several years ago, it is almost certainly too thin even if it appears in good condition. Remember, it was installed when fuel costs were much lower. Increased thickness may well be justified. At the end of the heating season, boilers should be sealed thoroughly, internal surfaces either ventilated naturally during the summer or very thoroughly sealed with tray of desiccant inserted. (Only applicable to boilers that will stand idle between heating seasons).
Safety and monitoring Explosion relief doors should be located and/or guarded to prevent injury to personnel. Safety valves should have self-draining discharge pipes terminating in a safe location that can be easily observed. Installed instruments should be maintained in working order and positioned where they can be seen easily. Provide test points with removable seal plugs in the flue from the boiler, to enable flue gas combustion tests to be carried out. Do you check boiler combustion conditions periodically? CO2 or O2 readings and exit temperatures can be obtained using relatively inexpensive portable
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equipment. Adjusting combustion by optimizing the fuel/air ratio costs nothing and can make substantial savings. Do you monitor exit temperatures? There should be a steady rise between boiler flue-duct cleaning intervals and this should not be allowed to exceed, say, 40 C. Try to clean based on temperature indications, rather than on the calendar. Some older sectional boilers and certain smoke tube type shell boilers can be fitted with baffles or retarders to improve heat transfer and therefore efficiency. Have you checked whether this is possible on your boilers? Is there adequate ventilation to give sufficient combustion air for the boilers? Insufficient ventilation can, at the least, lead to poor combustion and at worst could enable dangerous gases to accumulate in the boiler house. Check the water side of the boiler periodically for corrosion or scale formation. Do you know the actual load on the boiler? A rough guide can be obtained from oil or gas burners by timing the on/off periods, or the time on full flame for fully modulating burners. With underfeed coal stokers, see what is the lowest speed that will cope with demand, or put on full speed and time the on/off periods. If the boiler is oversized, either permanently or during part of the year, consider whether it can be de-rated during those periods by adjusting burners or stokers to operate only up to a top limit that is lower than full maximum output. Try to keep the boiler operating for the highest possible percentage of time. Is there adequate boiler/burner control to match the load and prevent excessive and unnecessary cycling? If you have more than one boiler, do you isolate boilers which are in excess of load requirements? Automatic flue isolation should be used, if possible, to prevent excessive purging by chimney draught during idle periods. In multi-boiler hot water installations, are the boilers hydraulically balanced to ensure proper sharing of the load? Consider fitting heat exchangers/recuperators to flues; these can recover 57 per cent of energy available.
Boilers: extra items for steam-raising and hot-water boilers Check regularly for build-up of scale or sludge in the boiler vessel or check TDS of boiler water each shift, but not less than once per day. Impurities in boiler water are concentrated in the boiler and the concentration has limits that depend on type of boiler and load. Boiler blow down should be minimized, but consistent with maintaining correct water density. Recover heat from blow down water.
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With steam boilers, is water treatment adequate to prevent foaming or priming and consequent excessive carry over of water and chemicals into the steam system? For steam boilers: are automatic water level controllers operational? The presence of inter-connecting pipes can be extremely dangerous. Have checks been made regularly on air leakages round boiler inspection doors, or between boiler and chimney? The former can reduce efficiency; the latter can reduce draught availability and may encourage condensation, corrosion and smutting. Combustion conditions should be checked using flue gas analysers at least twice per season and the fuel/air ratio should be adjusted if required. Both detection and actual controls should be labelled effectively and checked regularly. Safety lock-out features should have manual re-set and alarm features. Test points should be available, or permanent indicators should be fitted to oil burners to give operating pressure/temperature conditions. With oil-fired or gas-fired boilers, if cables of fusible link systems for shutdown due to fire or overheating run across any passageway accessible to personnel, they should be fitted above head level. The emergency shut down facility is to be situated at exit door of the boiler house. In order to reduce corrosion, steps should be taken to minimize the periods when water return temperatures fall below dew point, particularly on oil and coal fired boilers. Very large fuel users may have their own weighbridge and so can operate a direct check on deliveries. If no weighbridge exists, do you occasionally ask your supplier to run via a public weighbridge (or a friendly neighbour with a weighbridge) just as a check? With liquid fuel deliveries do you check with the vehicles dipsticks? With boiler plant, ensure that the fuel used is correct for the job. With solid fuel, correct grading or size is important, and ash and moisture content should be as the plant designer originally intended. With oil fuel, ensure that viscosity is correct at the burner, and check fuel oil temperature. The monitoring of fuel usage should be as accurate as possible. Fuel stock measurements must be realistic. With oil burners, examine parts and repairs. Burner nozzles should be changed regularly and cleaned carefully to prevent damage to burner tip.
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Maintenance and repair procedures should be reviewed especially for burner equipment, controls and monitoring equipment. Regular cleaning of heat transfer surfaces maintains efficiency at the highest possible level. Ensure that the boiler operators are conversant with the operational procedures, especially any new control equipment. Have you investigated the possibility of heat recovery from boiler exit gases? Modern heat exchangers/recuperators are available for most types and sizes of boiler. Do you check feed and header tanks for leaking make up valves, correct insulation or loss of water to drain? The boiler plant may have originally been provided with insulation by the manufacturer. Is this still adequate with todays fuel costs? Check on optimum thickness. If the amount of steam produced is quite large, invest in a steam meter. Measure the output of steam and input of fuel. The ratio of steam to fuel is the main measure of efficiency at the boiler. Use the monitoring system provided: this will expose any signs of deterioration. Feed water should be checked regularly for both quantity and purity. Steam meters should be checked occasionally as they deteriorate with time due to erosion of the metering orifice or pilot head. It should be noted that steam meters only give correct readings at the calibrated steam pressure. Recalibration may be required. Check all pipe work, connectors and steam traps for leaks, even in inaccessible spaces. Pipes not in use should be isolated and redundant pipes disconnected. Is someone designated to operate and generally look after the installation? This work should be included in their job specification. Are basic records available to that person in the form of drawings, operational instructions and maintenance details? Is a log book kept to record details of maintenance carried out, actual combustion flue gas readings taken, fuel consumption at weekly or monthly intervals, and complaints made? Ensure that steam pressure is no higher than need be for the job. When night load is materially less than day load, consider a pressure switch to allow pressure to vary over a much wider band during night to reduce frequency of burner cut-out, or limit the maximum firing rate of the burner.
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Examine the need for maintaining boilers in standby conditionsthis is often an unjustified loss of heat. Standing boilers should be isolated on the fluid and gas sides. Keep a proper log of boiler house activity so that performance can be measured against targets. When checking combustion, etc. with portable instruments, ensure that this is done regularly and that load conditions are reported in the log: percentage of CO2 at full flame/half load, etc. Have the plant checked to ensure that severe load fluctuations are not caused by incorrect operation of auxiliaries in the boiler house, for example, ON/OFF feed control, defective modulating feed systems or incorrect header design. Have hot water heating systems been dosed with an anti-corrosion additive and is this checked annually to see that concentration is still adequate? Make sure that this additive is NOT put into the domestic hot water heater tank, it will contaminate water going to taps at sinks and basins. Recover all condensate where practical and substantial savings are possible.
Boiler rooms and plant rooms Ventilation openings should be kept free and clear at all times and the opening area should be checked to ensure this is adequate. Plant rooms should not be used for storage, airing or drying purposes. Is maintenance of pumps and automatic valves in accordance with the manufacturers instructions? Are run and standby pump units changed over approximately once per month? Are pump isolating valves provided? Are pressure/heat test points and/or indicators provided each side of the pump? Are pump casings provided with air release facilities? Are moving parts (e.g. couplings) guarded? Ensure that accuracy of the instruments is checked regularly. Visually inspect all pipe work and valves for any leaks. Check that all safety devices operate efficiently. Check all electrical contacts to see that they are clean and secure. Ensure that all instrument covers and safety shields are in place. Inspect all sensors, make sure they are clean, unobstructed and not exposed to unrepresentative conditions, for example temperature sensors must not be exposed to direct sunlight nor be placed near to hot pipes or process plant. Ensure that only authorized personnel have access to control equipment.
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Each section of the plant should operate when essential, and should preferably be controlled automatically. Time controls should be incorporated and operation of the whole plant should, preferably, be automatic. In multiple boiler installations, boilers not required to be available should be isolated on the water side andif safe and possibleon the gas side too. Make sure boilers cannot be fired. Isolation of flue system (with protection) also reduces heat losses. In multiple boiler installations the lead/lag control should have a change round facility. Where possible, any reduction in the system operating temperature should be made by devices external to the boiler, the boiler plant operating in a normal constant temperature range.
Water and steam Water fed into the boilers must meet the specifications given by the manufacturers. The water must be clear, colourless and free from suspended impurities. Hardness nil. Max. 0.25 ppm CaCO3. pH of 8 to 10 retard forward action or corrosion. pH less than 7 speeds up corrosion due to acidic action. Dissolved O2 less than 0.02 mg/l. Its presence with SO2 causes corrosion problems. CO2 level should be kept very low. Its presence with O2 causes corrosion, especially in copper and copper bearing alloys. Water must be free from oilit causes priming.
Boiler water Water must be alkalinewithin 150 ppm of CaCO3 and above 50 ppm of CaCO3 at pH 8.3. Alkalinity number should be less than 120. Total solids should be maintained below the value at which contamination of steam becomes excessive, in order to avoid cooling over and accompanying danger of deposition on super heater, steam mains and prime movers. Phosphate should be no more than 25 ppm P2 O5. Make up feed water should not contain more than traces of silica. There must be less than 40 ppm in boiler water and 0.02 ppm in steam, as SiO2. Greater amounts may be carried to turbine blades.
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Table A.1: Maximum boiler water concentrations recommended by American Boiler Manufacturers Association
Boiler steam pressure (ata) 020 2030 3040 4050 5060 6070 70100 Maximum boiler water concentration (ppm) 3 500 3 000 2 500 2 000 1 500 1 250 1 000
Water treatment plants suitable for the application must be installed to ensure water purity, and chemical dosing arrangement must be provided to further control boiler water quality. Blow downs should be resorted to when concentration increases beyond the permissible limits stipulated by the manufacturers. Alkalinity not to exceed 20 per cent of total concentration. Boiler water level should be correctly maintained. Normally, 2 gauge glasses are provided to ensure this. Operators should blow these down regularly in every shift, or at least once per day where boilers are steamed less than 24 hours a day.
Blow down (BD) procedure A conventional and accepted procedure for blowing down gauge is as follows: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Close water lock Open drain cock (note that steam escapes freely) Close drain cock Close steam cock Open water cock Open drain cock (note that water escapes freely) Close drain cock Open steam cock Open and then close drain cock for final blow through.
The water that first appears is generally representative of the boiler water. If it is discoloured, the reason should be ascertained.
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Flue gases
Measure temp. and compare composition at selected firings and adjust recommended valves.
Combustion air supply Burners Check controls are operating properly. May need cleaning several times a day. Clean burners, pilot assemblies, check condition of spark gap of electrode burners. Observe flame failure and characteristics of the flame. Check for leakages. Check for excess loads which will cause excessive variation in pressure.
Check adequate openings exist in air inlet. Clean passages. Same as weekly. Same as weekly, clean and recondition.
Fuel system
Check pumps, pressure gauges, transfer lines. Clean them. Check for damages. Check gland packing for leakages and proper compression.
Belts for gland packing Air leaks in water side and fire side surfaces Air leaks Refractories on fuel side Elec. system Hydraulic and pneumatic valves Clean panels outside.
Clean surface as per manufacturers recommendation annually. Check for leaks around access openings and flame. Repair. Inspect panels inside. Clean equipment, oil spillages to be arrested and air leaks to be avoided. Clean, repair terminals and contacts etc. Repair all defects and check for proper operation.
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Refrigeration Refrigeration capacity reduces by 6 per cent for every 3.5 C increase in condensing temperature. Reducing condensing temperature by 5.5 C results in a 2025 per cent decrease in compressor power consumption. A reduction of 0.55 C in cooling water temperature at condenser inlet reduces compressor power consumption by 3 per cent. 1 mm scale build-up on condenser tubes can increase energy consumption by 40 per cent. 5.5 C increase in evaporator temperature reduces compressor power consumption by 2025 per cent.
Electric motors High efficiency motors are 45 per cent more efficient than standard motors. Every 10 C increase in motor operating temperature beyond the recommended peak is estimated to halve the motors life. If rewinding is not done properly, efficiency can be reduced by 58 per cent. Balanced voltage can reduce motor input power by 35 per cent. Variable speed drives can reduce input energy consumption by 515 per cent. As much as 35 per cent of energy can be saved for some pump/fan applications. Soft starters/energy savers help to reduce power consumption by 37 per cent of operating kW.
Lighting Replacement of incandescent bulbs by CFLs offer 7580 per cent energy savings. Replacement of conventional tube lights by new energy-efficient tube light with electronic ballast helps reduce power consumption by 4050 per cent. 10 per cent increase in supply voltage will reduce bulb life by one-third. 10 per cent increase in supply voltage will increase lighting power consumption by an equivalent 10 per cent.
Buildings An increase in room temperature of 10 C can increase the heating fuel consumption by 610 per cent. Installing automatic lighting controls (timers, daylight or occupancy sensors) saves 1025 per cent of energy. Switching off 1 ton window A/C for 1 hour daily during lunch hour avoids consumption of 445 kWh.
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Electrical measuring instruments Electrical measuring instruments measure major electrical parameters such as kVA, kW, PF, Hertz, kVAr, current and voltage. Some instruments also measure harmonics. The instruments are used on-line, i.e. on running motors without the need to stop the motor.
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Hand-held instruments Instantaneous measurements can be made with hand-held meters. More advanced meters provide cumulative readings with print-outs at specified intervals.
Combustion analyser Combustion analysers have in-built chemical cells that measure gases such as O2, CO, NOX and SOX.
Fuel efficiency monitor Fuel efficiency monitors measure oxygen levels and flue gas temperatures. Calorific values of common fuels are fed into the microprocessor which calculates the combustion efficiency.
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Fyrite A hand-operated bellow-pump draws a flue gas sample into the solution inside the Fyrite. A chemical reaction changes the liquid volume giving an indication of the amount of gas. Separate Fyrites can be used for O2 and CO2 measurements.
Contact thermometer Contact thermometers are thermocouples that measure, for example, the temperatures of flue gases, hot air or hot water by insertion of a probe into the stream. A leaf type probe is used with the same instrument to measure surface temperature.
Infrared thermometer Infrared thermometers are non-contact type instruments giving a temperature read out when pointed directly at a heat source. They are useful for measuring hot spots in furnaces, surface temperatures, etc.
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Pitot tube and manometer Air velocity in ducts can be measured using a pitot tube and manometer. Useful for further flow calculations.
Water flow meter This non-contact flow measuring device uses the Doppler effect or ultrasound. A transmitter and receiver are positioned on opposite sides of the pipe and the meter indicates the flow directly. Water and other fluid flows can be measured easily with this meter.
Speed measurements Speed measurements are critical in any audit exercise, as they may change with frequency, belt slip or loading. A simple tachometer is a contact type instrument used where direct access is possible. More sophisticated and safer instruments, such as stroboscopes, are of the non contact type.
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Leak detectors Ultrasonic leak detectors are available to detect leaks of compressed air and other gases which cannot normally be detected by the human senses.
Lux meters Illumination levels are measured with a lux meter. The instrument comprises a photo cell which senses the light output and converts this to electrical pulses used to produce a read out in lux.
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The GHG Indicator is included on the CP-EE CD-ROM together with this Manual. Click here to access the files on the CD-ROM
AGGREGATION
NORMALIZATION
FUEL CONSUMPTION
ELECTRICITY USE GHG EMISSION FACTOR TRANSPORT FIGURES TOTAL GHG NORMALIZED GHG
Using the Indicator allows a company (or other organization) to analyse its major GHG emission sources (e.g. direct fuel consumption, electricity use, transport for personnel and freight, and production process). Then, using conversion data provided and the calculator tools, GHG emission factors can be applied to calculate the companys or organizations emissions. Finally, normalizing factors such as turnover, production, added value and numbers of employees are applied to normalize total emissions. Details of the GHG Indicator are explained below in a question and answer format.
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Table D.1: Emissions from fuel usecountry-specific net calorific values (NCV) for coal and CO2 emissions
Country Australia Bangladesh China Egypt India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Kazakhstan Kuwait Kyrgyzstan Malaysia Nepal New Zealand Pakistan Singapore South Korea Sri Lanka Syria Thailand United Arab Uzbekistan Default NCV (TJ/ton) 21.227 16.329 16.37 17.710 16.454 17.710 17.710 17.250 27.758 18.673 17.710 18.673 19.407 17.543 23.781 15.701 13.105 19.176 17.710 17.710 19.887 17.710 18.673 19.841 CO2 EF (tons CO2/ton of coal used) 1.97 1.52 1.52 1.65 1.53 1.65 1.65 1.60 2.58 1.73 1.65 1.73 1.80 1.63 2.21 1.46 1.22 1.78 1.65 1.65 1.85 1.60 1.73 1.84
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What if my country is not listed in Table D.1 and I want to calculate GHG emissions? If your country is not listed, you can use the default value (1.84 tons of CO2/ton of coal) at the end of Table D.1. What if I use more than one fuel? Refer to Worksheet D.1 which gives EF values for CO2 emissions from different types of fuels. Multiply the respective EFs for the relevant fuels by the amounts of those fuels your company uses to obtain the CO2 emissions. You can also total the respective CO2 emissions and divide by the total weight of fuel to get an overall EF for your company.
Emission
Tons X tCO2 tCO2 tCO2
0.0003413 0.0002496 0.0002020 0.0002667 0.0002786 0.0002271 0.0002575 0.0002218 0.0002641 0.0002905 0.0002641 0.0003631 0.0002641 0.0002641 0.0002403 0.0002641
KWh
tCO2
1.84 3.07 2.93 3.19 3.08 2.95 3.17 2.61 2.90 3.27 3.21 2.92 3.09 3.25 2.92 2.92
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Total fuel consumption = 4 047 tons = 12 446 tCO2 Total CO2 emissions released CO2 Emission Factor for the refinery = Total CO2 / total fuel input = 12 446 / 4 047 = 3.075 t CO2 per ton of fuel
How do I calculate GHG emissions for the utility generated electricity consumed by my company? (My company consumes 100 000 kWh per year.) A complete list of emission factors for electricity usage by country (using IEA data) is given in Table D.2. First, find your country and determine its EF (e.g. for Thailand, the emission factor is 0.000618). Multiply the EF by consumption (in this example this gives: 100 000 x 0.000618 = 6.18 tons of CO2). My company exports power and steam for economic as well as social reasons. How do I calculate in this case? Your company should not be accountable for the associated emissions. Such emissions should be accounted for by the user of the electricity or heat. The emissions corresponding to the amount or heat exported should be calculated and should then be deducted from your companys emission total. My company imports electricity or heat generated by public CHP. How do I calculate? If you import electricity from a public CHP plant, use the electricity factors given in Table D.2 and then use Worksheet D.1 to calculate the CO2 emissions. The electricity emission factors in Table D.2 incorporate public CHP schemes in the energy mix.
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Table D.2: Electricity emission factors for different countries (tCO2/kWh) for 1990 and 1996
Country Africa Asia (excl. China) Australia Bangladesh China Egypt Emirates Europe India Iran Iraq Israel Japan Kazakhstan Korea Kuwait Malaysia Middle East Nepal New Zealand Non-OECD: Pakistan Singapore South Africa Sri Lanka Syria Tajikistan Thailand Turkey Turkmenistan United Arab Venezuela 0.000237 0.000176 0.00041 0.00089 0.000796 0.000003 0.000546 0.000000 0.000619 0.000492 0.000000 0.000438 0.000622 0.00077 0.000205 0.00065 0.000068 0.000618 0.000461 0.000731
Source IEA.
1990 emission factor 0.00066 0.000658 0.000777 0.000604 0.00071 0.000546 0.000616 0.000496 0.000761 0.000541 0.000549 0.000814 0.000346 0.000000 0.000317 0.000591 0.000664 0.000632 0.000674 0.000103
1996 emission factor 0.000663 0.000724 0.000791 0.00054 0.000772 0.000561 0.000783 0.00042 0.00089 0.000534 0.000554 0.000801 0.000321 0.001312 0.000297 0.000512 0.000594 0.00065 0.000632 0.000099
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My company generates GHGs other than CO2 from its process. How do I account for GHG emissions? Production of process-related GHGs is estimated (in tons) and converted to CO2 equivalents using the global warming potential (GWP) for a 100 year-time horizon as a conversion factor. Worksheet D.2 can be used for process-related emissions.
CO2 equivalent
Carbon dioxide CC1 4 CFC-11 CFC113 CFC 116 CFC12 CFC114 CFC115 Chloroform HCFC 123 HCFC 124 HCFC 22 HFC 125 HFC 32 HFC Methane Methylene chloride
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How do I account for my transport related emissions? Emissions from transport are broken down by transport mode. The guidelines in the GHG Indicator cover: i) road vehicle transport; ii) non-road transport. For road vehicle transport, first calculate the total fuel consumption for three major transport fuels, and use Worksheet D.3 to calculate the CO2 emissions. My company rents transport for employees. How do I calculate GHG emissions in this case? The nature of rented transport makes it difficult to calculate the consumption of specific fuel types. Vehicle-kilometre calculations are used in this instance. Worksheet D.3 can be used to calculate CO2 emissions for rented transport and non-road transport.
Basic unit
kilometre or mile kilometre or mile kilometre or mile person.kilometre or person.mile person.kilometre or person.mile person.kilometre or person.mile tonne.kilometre or tonne.mile tonne.kilometre or tonne.mile tonne.kilometre or tonne.mile tonne.kilometre or tonne.mile tonne.kilometre or tonne.mile
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I have finally managed to calculate all energy and process emissions from my company. What do I do next? Aggregate all the emissions and then normalize the data. What is aggregation? Aggregation means summing of energy and transport related CO2 and processrelated emissions. See Table D.3 and the accompanying note. What is normalization? Normalization is the process of dividing total CO2 emissions by turnover, employees, added value and unit production. Table D.4 gives an example of normalizing for a cement plant emitting 1 500 000 tCO2/year.
Step 1 Insert the relevant totals of CO2 from the previous worksheets for each category. Step 2 Add the column and insert the total in box at the bottom.
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Step 1 From your group/company accounts, insert the relevant figures in column 1. Step 2 Divide the total CO2 by column 1 and insert the answer in column 2. Step 3 Use the answers in column 2 as the ratio for amount of CO2 produced for each of the normalizing factors, e.g. 1.11 t. CO2 for every ton of cement produced.
Turnover
$ 20 000 000
Added value
$ 500 000
Employees
500
3 000
Unit production
1.11
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E: Information resources
This section provides links to Cleaner Production and Energy Efficiency resources on the Internet. Resources are grouped together under various headings for ease of navigation. Clicking on the blue hyperlinks in the text will launch your web browser and link you directly to the appropriate resource. Please read the Disclaimer (below) before consulting any of the Internet resources listed in this Manual.
DISCLAIMER
UNEP DTIE has no control over any of the Internet resources listed in this Manual and therefore cannot guarantee that the information held therein will always be accurate and complete. Although UNEP DTIE endeavours to provide links to websites which contain accurate information, we are unable to guarantee that these pages will not contain errors, or incomplete or out-of-date information. Therefore, neither UNEP DTIE nor any of its contributors can be held responsible for any loss, damage or expense that might be caused by any action, or lack of action, that a user of this service might take as a result of reading material on a site found using the links provided. Responsibility for such actions, or lack of actions, remains with the reader.
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E: Information resources
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E: Information resources
Motors and drives Covers all aspects of motors, from an explanation of how they work, to the advantages/disadvantages of adjustable speed drives. Also included are special pages on motor maintenance and troubleshooting, and economic implications of replacing existing motors with different types of motors. The information on this site is especially valuable for commercial and industrial consumers. http://cipco.apogee.net/mnd Commercial energy systems Covers the following areas in energy systems for commercial buildings (from fast food to retail stores, to commercial operations of all descriptions): lighting; power quality; commercial cooking; HVAC design; HVAC systems; CES design; building design process; commissioning. http://cipco.apogee.net/ces Various energy systems How facilities can save thousands on fan, pump and compressor, blower, motor and AC unit costs. The site includes typical problems, opportunities, a system cost calculator and an optimization checklist for the benefits of optimizing the system(s) in a facility. http://www.productiveenergy.com/home/index.asp
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E: Information resources
UNEP Sustainable Energy Finance Initiative The Sustainable Energy Initiative is a joint effort of UNEP and its collaborating centre the Basel Agency for Sustainable Energy (BASE) aimed at fostering the sustainable energy community, growing its common knowledge set and building alliances and partnerships that, together, positively influence the flow of capital into the sustainable energy sector. http://sefi.unep.org
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E: Information resources
Product and supplier finder More than 11 000 on-line catalogues covering: sensors, transducers and detectors; manufacturing and process equipment (e.g. heating and cooling equipment, industrial heaters, industrial machine safeguarding, inspection tools and instruments, materials processing equipment); material handling; data acquisition and signal conditioning; mechanical components; industrial computing; motion and controls; flow transfer and control; and test and measurement equipment. http://www.globalspec.com/ProductFinder/ Association of Energy Services Professionals The Association of Energy Services Professionals is dedicated to advancing the professional interests of individuals working to provide value through energy services and energy efficiency by sharing ideas, information and experience. http://www.aesp.org/ SEE-Tech Solutions Pvt. Ltd. A company specializing in consulting, training and performance auditing in the areas of energy conservation, energy efficiency improvement and industrial safety. The company also provides software solutions for energy auditing. http://www.letsconserve.org/seemain.php Trade portal for Indian products On-line marketplace for industrial process equipment and accessories, and many other Indian products. http://www.easy2source.com/ CADDET Energy Efficiency A collection of studies (analysis reports) made by experts from CADDET Energy Efficiency members and other IEA agreements, providing detailed reviews across a wide range of topical energy efficiency subjects. They can be obtained from CADDET Energy Efficiency National Teams (a summary can be provided, for a fee). http://www.caddet-ee.org/reports/index.php
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E: Information resources
National Inventory of Manufacturing Assistance Programs (NIMAP) The NIMAP inventory is linking sources with consumers of technical information and services. Simple lack of awareness on the part of eligible recipients is a major barrier to achieving energy policy goals. http://www.oit.doe.gov/bestpractices/nimap/ Database for Energy Efficient Resources (DEER) Database for Energy Efficient Resources (DEER) contains extensive information on selected energy-efficient technologies and measures. The DEER provides estimates of the average cost, market saturation, and energy-savings potential for these technologies in residential and non-residential applications. http://www.energy.ca.gov/deer Thai-Danish cooperation on sustainable energy The Sustainable Energy Database provides an overview of activities and players in the field of sustainable energy in Thailand, and in the Isaan region in particular. http://www.ata.or.th/indexeng.html Tata Energy Research Institute (TERI) TEDDY Online (TERI Energy Data, Directory and Yearbook) provides ready-to-use information on different segments (energy and environment) of the Indian economy and some aspects of international economy. http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC4556.htm IEA Clean Coal Centre The worlds foremost provider of information on efficient coal supply and use, IEA Coal ResearchThe Clean Coal Centre enhances innovation and continued development of coal as a clean source of energy. http://www.iea-coal.org.uk/ Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme The Energy Technology Systems Analysis Programme (ETSAP) of the International Energy Agency (IEA) is a research partnership dedicated to enabling its partners and their clients to develop sound integrated energy and environmental policy. http://www.etsap.org/index.htm
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E: Information resources
ETDEs Energy Database ETDEs Energy Database contains a large collection of energy literature, with more than 3.8 million abstracted and indexed records. Updated twice monthly, the database contains bibliographic references to, and abstracts from, journal articles, reports, conference papers, books and other documents. The database covers a variety of subjects including environmental aspects of energy production and use, and energy policy and planning, as well as the basic science that supports energy research and development. http://www.etde.org/edb/energy.html The Bureau of Energy Efficiency (BEE) The BEE website, is a comprehensive source of information on energy conservation- (EC) related developments and issues. It provides an update on the related policy framework especially in the context of the EC Act 2001 as well as topical write-ups, news and highlights on developments in India. The site also features activities taken up by the BEE with stakeholders, co-opting expertise from bilateral/multilateral agencies. http://www.bee-india.com/ National Lighting Product Information Programme NLPIP, helps lighting professionals, contractors, designers, building managers, homeowners and other consumers find and use efficient, quality products that meet their lighting needs. With the support of government agencies, public benefit organizations and electrical utilities, NLPIP disseminates objective, accurate, timely, manufacturer-specific information about energy-efficient lighting products. http://www.lrc.rpi.edu/programs/NLPIP/index.asp
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E: Information resources
Textile: smart guide A useful guide including a summary of business cases in textile manufacturing in different countries. http://www.emcentre.com/unepweb/tec_case/textile_17/house/casename.shtml US EPA Sector Notebooks The US EPA Sector Notebooks are comprehensive overviews of environmental issues in about 30 major industries. Each includes descriptions of the industry, including operations, pollutants and regulations, pollution prevention methods, and related resources. Highly recommended. http://www.epa.gov/compliance/resources/publications/assistance/sectors/notebooks/ European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau The European Integrated Pollution Prevention and Control Bureau produces comprehensive guides to industry sector environmental management. About 15 guides have been completed; many others are being developed. http://www.jrc.es/pub/english.cgi/0/733169 Australian National Pollutant Inventory Industry Handbooks The Australian National Pollutant Inventory Industry Handbooks are manuals for estimating emissions from about 50 types of industries. Each Handbook has detailed process descriptions, information about emission sources, and benchmarks and formulas for estimating emissions. Highly valuable to engineers. http://www.npi.gov.au/handbooks/approved_handbooks/index.html On-line collection of pollution prevention references This on-line collection of pollution prevention core references includes technical references, fact sheets and case studies on pollution prevention for 30 selected industry sectors. http://wrrc.p2pays.org/industry/indsector.htm Energy Data and Analysis database (Asia Pacific ) The Expert Group on Energy Data and Analysis (EGEDA) is responsible for providing policy relevant energy information to APEC bodies and the wider community, through collecting energy data of the APEC region, managing the operation of the APEC Energy database through the coordinating agency. http://www.ieej.or.jp/egeda/database/database-top.html
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E: Information resources
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E: Information resources
Motor solutions online self assessment tool This self-assessment tool is designed to assist organizations in rating motor and equipment management skills, from initial selection to eventual replacement. Not a test, rather a tool to help identify and prioritize change within an organization change that can reduce life-cycle cost of equipment ownership and increase profits. http://www.peak.co.nz/ausat/
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F: Conversion tables
Systme International (SI) and metric units have been adopted internationally for energy calculations. For instance, the joule, the SI unit of energy, is commonly used in conjunction with other SI units such as the metre, the kilogram and the kelvin (for temperature). The conversion tables presented below show how some units commonly used in engineering and other professions equate to SI and metric units.
= = = = = = = = =
1 000 000 000 1 000 000 1 000 0.1 0.01 0.001 0.000001 0.000000001 0.000000000001
= = = = = = = = =
M k d c m m n p
= = = = = = = =
= = = = = = = =
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F: Conversion tables
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F: Conversion tables
Specific volume and weights 1 m3/kg 1 kg/m3 = = 16.02 ft.3 /lb 0.0624 lb/ft3 1 ft.3/lb 1 lb/ft3 = = 0.0624 m3/kg 16.01 kg/m3
Pressure 1 kg/cm2 1 mm WC = = 14.223 lb/sq.in.(psi) 0.002937 in. of Hg 1 lb/sq.in 1 in. of Hg 1 ounce/sq.in = = = 0.0703 kg/cm3 340.39 mm WC 43.9 mm WC
Velocity 1 m/sec 1 m/sec = = 196.9 ft/min. 3.28 ft/sec 100 ft/min 100 ft/sec = = 0.508 m.sec 30.4 m/sec
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F: Conversion tables
Table F.4: Conversion of common units of heat (thermal power and energy)
1 Btu 1 Btu 1 Btu/sec 1 Btu/lb. 1 Btu/cu.ft 1 Btu/sq.ft.h 1 Btu/sq.ft.h F 1 Btu/ft.h F 1 Btu/lb F 1 Btu/cu.ft F = = = = = = = = = = 0.252 kcal 1.055 kJ 1.055 kW 0.556 kcal/kg (2.3244 kJ/kg) 8 900 kcal/m3 (37.26 kJ/m3) 2.71 kcal/m3 h (3.155 kW/m2) 4.886 kcal/m2 h C (5.678 kW/m2 C) 1.49 kcal/mh C (17.296 kW/m C) 1.001 kcal/kg C (4.187 kJ/kg C) 16.2 kcal/m3 C (67070 kJ/m3 C)
= = = = = = = = = = =
3.968 Btu 0.948 Btu/sec 0.239 kJ 860 kcal 0.948 Btu 3412 Btu/h 0.4302 Btu/lb 0.578 Btu/h ft F 0.1761 Btu/h ft2 F 0.239 Btu/lb F 0.0149 Btu/ft3 F
1 kJ/kg C 1 kJ/m3 C
1 kcal/kg 1 kcal/m3
= = = = = m3 = = = =
1.80 Btu/lb 0.112 Btu/cu.ft. 0.369 Btu/sq.ft.h 0.205 Btu/sq.ft.h F 0.67 Btu/ft.h F 8.07 Btu in/sq.ft. F 0.999 Btu/lb F 0.0624 Btu/cu.ft. F 1 kWh
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F: Conversion tables
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F: Conversion tables
66 20
93 72
93 72
GCV (kcal/kg) Sediment (max. % weight) Sulphur total (max. % weight) Water content (max. % volume)
1.0
1.0
1.0
0.25
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General
CDM CP CP-EE EE EMS JI LDPM MoU NCPC NGO POPs UNEP DTIE UNEP Clean Development Mechanism Cleaner Production Integrated Cleaner Production and Energy Efficiency Energy Efficiency Environmental management system Joint Implementation Luthra Dyeing and Printing Mills (facility assessed for Case Study in Chapter 3) Memorandum of understanding National Cleaner Production Centre Nongovernmental organization Persistent Organic Pollutants UNEPs Division of Technology, Industry and Economics United Nations Environment Programme
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CSI CT CW DG DM DP EER ETI ETP F.O. FAD FBC FD FH FIFO GCV GHG GLS GPM H.P. H.T. H2 H2O Hg HVAC HVDC I ID IRR LAP L.T. M&E M.D. N N2 NCV NG NOx
Current source inverter Cooling tower Cooling water Diesel generator Demineralized (water) Pressure drop Energy efficiency ratio Economic thickness of insulation Effluent treatment plant Fuel oil Free air delivery Fluidized bed combustion Forced draught (fans) Fired heater First in, first out Gross calorific value Greenhouse gas General lighting service Gallons per minute Horsepower High tension (voltage) Hydrogen (molecular) Water Mercury (also used in pressure units, i.e. mercury column) Heating, ventilation and air conditioning High voltage direct current Electrical current Induced draught (fans) Internal rate of return Low air pressure (burners) Low tension (voltage) Material and energy (balance) Maximum demand Speed of rotation (machinery, etc.) Nitrogen (molecular) Net calorific value Natural gas Nitrogen oxides
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NPV NTP O&M O2 P PCB P.F. (PF) PFD PI PPM PWM R R&D RFT RO RPM S SO2 SO3 SOx SOP SPC TD TDH TDS TFH TR TS VSD VSI WB W.C. (WC) W.R.T. WHR
Net present value Normal temperature and pressure (273 K, 1 atm) Operating and maintenance (costs) Oxygen (molecular) Pressure Printed circuit board Power factor Process flow diagram Profitability index Parts per million Pulse width modulation Refrigeration Research and development Right first time Reverse osmosis (water treatment) Revolutions per minute Sulphur Sulphur dioxide Sulphur trioxide Sulphur oxides Standard operating practice Specific power consumption Thermodynamic Total dynamic head Total dissolved solids (water) Thermic fluid heater Ton of refrigeration (also refrigeration ton) Total solids (water) Variable speed drive Voltage source inverter Wet bulb Water column With respect to Waste heat recovery
Commonly used and standard abbreviations for units are not included here. The Conversion Tables (pages 287292) give explanations of units used in the Manual which may not be familiar to all readers, in addition to their equivalents in SI or metric units.
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