Bio notes

Enzyme immobilization Mechanism : Attached to , or retained within, an insoluble support material Advantages :

Immobilized whole cell enzyme Immobilized cell-free enzyme Advantage : No side reactions since other enzymes are not Do it when enzymes are expensive or difficult present to extract from cells in an active form Disadvantage: optimum condition for product Some difficult to extract optimum condition for cell

Immobilized enzymes vs isolated free enzyme Immobilized enzymes isolated free enzyme Easy recovery for reuse Greater enzyme stability, as immobilization helps to maintain enzyme structure Easy harvesting of products Extends the life of proteolytic enzymes by preventing them from digesting each other Isolated free enzyme have much higher enzymatic activitry

Note for explaining questions for DRQ: 1. State what is the change 2. Give reason 1. Always give data from graph/table Designing an experiment Must write how to get the results Specifiy how much When adding something, good idea to mix well Do not forget to write precipitate when applicable Write down the predicted observations if its a gradual change

Eg) Chemicals of life Disaccahraides Sucrose= glucose + fructose (only non reducible sugar) Lactose= glucose + galactose Maltose=glucose + glucose All with formular C12H22O11 Process name to form: dehydration synthesis Check: to break down it requires hydrolysis, is it always slow like sucrose? Polysachharides Process name : enzyme mediated dehydration synthesis Storing of polyscaahrdirs Starch in plants, glycogen in animials Why they are used for storage Fat Triglyceride molecule Process name: dehydration synthesis, breakdown: hydrolysis Saturated fat Solid Animal fat Mono-unsaturated Liquid Olive oil, healthy oil Poly-unsaturated Liquid Vegetable oil Large size makes them less soluble in water, exert no osmotic influence Fold into compact shape Easily converted into sugar by hydrolysis when required

State at rtp Exmplae

Energy value Functio n

Carbohydtrate 16 Source of energy Formation of nucleic acids To form supporting

Fat 38 Insulating material to prevent heat loss

Proteins 17 Synthesis protoplasm Synthesis enzymes of of

Solven for fat Formation of soluble antibodies viatmeins Production of sex hormones and growth hormones Test Reaction mechanism: Reaction mechanism: Test step: Reducing sugars will reduce Ethanol dissolves, fat, 1) To 2cm3 of Cu2+ in benedict to Cu+, the oil does not mix protein into test forming brick-red Cu(1) oxide. but its left as minute tube droplets dispesed, 2) 1cm3 of NaOH Test steps suspension a milky 3) Then shake 1) Add equal amt of white appearance 4) Then drop by volume of benedicts drop, add CuS04, solution Test steps shaking after 2) Boil it in water batch 1) Add 2cm2 of each drop 3) Blue ethanol to a 5) Violet/purple greenorange drop of oil colouration seen brick red ppt 2) Shake mixture 3) Add 2cm2 of water 4) White emulstion is formed as heat is evolved Link to Overconsumption of disease sugars lead to convrrting into fats And stored in adipose tissue structures like cellulose cell wall

Plant nutrition Functions of : Epidermis Mesophyll 1) Cuticle is waterproof, hence it 1)palisade mesophyll is long and contain reduces evaporation and prevents many chroloplasts, bacteria from growing 2) It focuses light on mesophyll layer 2)spongy mesophyll is irregularly shaped and has a lot of air spaces for gaseos exchange 3) Helps the leaf to keep its shape

Chloroplasts contain 1) Stroma enzymes for light indednpend statga 2) Grana chrolophyll molecule, contain enzymes for light dependent stage

Entry of substances Co2 into leaf Water and mineral into leaf 1 1) Co2 is used in photosynthesis 1) Water and mineral absorbed by root 2) Conc of c02 in atmosphere greater 2) Transported to leaf by phloem then in leaf 3) Once out of phloem, xylem, it is 3) Diffusion gradient exists diffused from cell to cell 4) Co2 from atmosphere diffuse 5) Into air spaces 6) Co2 dissolves in thin film of water in mesophyll layer of cell

Definition : Limiting factor : any factor that affects the result if quantity its changed Glucose produced: 1) Transported as sucrose, and storage organs 2) Used as substratef for respiration 3) Stored as starch 4) In darkness, starch is reconverted into glucose for respiration

Cell respiration Definition: oxdising food substances, with release of energy Uses of energy from cellular respiration: 1. Movement of muscles 2. Repair, develop, and growth of cells 3. Used in active transport in body, movement of materials against concentration gradient Aerobic respiration Anaerobic respiration

Eqn Where it takes place Energy released Stages of respiration Advantages

C6h1206+6O26co2+6h20+ energy Mitochondria 38ATP worth of energy Glycolysis, kreb cycle, electron transport chain oxidative phospholayation More energy is produced No waste products like lactic acid, ethanol They are harmful to organisms if they accumulate

C612062c2h5OH+co2 C612h062C3H6O3 Muscles, yeast 2 atp worth of energy Glycolysis Extra energy for muscles Survival of cells in oxygen absent environment

Atp-adp cycle 1) Energy from respiration used to phospholate ADP to create atp 2) Energy is stored in bonds 3) When it is needed, atp is hydrolysed into adp to release energy Atp +h20 adp + inorganic phosphate Photosyntheisis 6C02+6h20 c6h12o6 Anabolic(formation) Energy stored in glucose Happens only in presense of light Increase in dry mass Respiration C612H06co2 + h20 + energy Catabolic( breakdown) Energy released All the time Decrease in dry mass

External respiration Advantages of breathing through the nose: 1) Dust and foreign particles are trapped in hair and mucus on mucus membrane 2) Warms air, moistens air 3) Can detect harmful chemicals Special features Trachea and bronchi 1) Epithelium lining have gland cells 2) Which screte mucus 3) Help trap dust and bacteria Aveolar sacs 1) are moist, so that it can dissolve gases for diffusion 2) are 1 cell thick, Intercoastal muscles 1) external and internal 2) they work antagonistically, 3) when ribs moves up

4) also have cilia 5) Moves particles up to the pharynx and to the oesohagus 6) bronchial tube divide repeatedly to give smaller tubes

3) well supplied with blood capillaries

and down, they change volume of thaoracic cavity

Mechanisms of breathing good to explain when marks are higher; explain what happens in lungs when breathing downward) out (rib move

When breathing in ( ribs move upward)

Diagraphm flattens downwards, external Diaphragm arches upwards, , external coastal intercoastal muscle contract, intneral muscle relax, internal contract relax 1) thoraric cavity decreases 1) thoracic cavity expands 2) lung contract 2) lung expand to fill in the enlarged 3) pressure in lung increase, greater space than atm, 3) pressure decrease 4) air rushes out of lungs 4) pressure of atmosphere greater than in lung 5) air rushes into lungs Explanation on gaseous exchange 1) oxygen in aveoli get dissolved in thin film of moisture( where exactly is the layer of moisture? Both sides?) 2) there is higher conc of oxygen in aveoli than blood, 3) diffusion gradient exsits, 4) oxygen then combines with haemoglobin to form oxy-haemoglobin Adaptations to function efficiently for human respiratory system explanation increased SA for gas exchange Keep cells healthy and dissolve and diffuse through gases Allows rate of gaseous exchange to be faster allows diffusion of gases to take place rapidly

Adaptation Numerous round avelous Moisture lining Alveolar richly supplied with blood capillaries Wall of aveoli and capillary wall one cell thick

For fish explanatation 1) gill arch support the raker and filamenr 2) rakes filter solid particles before water pass over filament( prevent clogging) 3) gill filament long thin structures that have many capillaries close to surgace 4) filaments present in large SA for gas exchange 1) water and blood flow in opposite directions, inside gill capillary 2) water always contain higher conc of 02 compared to blood in capliaary along whole length of gill filament 3) therefore diffusion gradient maintained ( X constant diffusion gradient) 4) most oxygen diffuses out of blood

Adaptation External structure of gills

Counter current principle

Diffusion gradient for O2 and co2 02 1) maintained by continous flow of air in alveoli 2) by movementofribs anddiaphramg that brings in air 3) rich in oxygen 4) 5) air entering aveoli has higher conc of 02 than c02 C02 1) maintained by continuous flow of blood in capillaries 2) carry away oxygenated blood, bringing deoxygenated blood 3) has higher conc of c02 than 02

Respiratory problems what it is Explanation Colourless, and odorless 1) it bind irreversibly with gas haemoglobin 2) cannot be used to bind with 02 3) decreased efficiency of oxygen transport( not exchange!) Hyper production of 1) cilia will be paralysed by the mucus in bronchus and excess mucus trachea 2) cannot remove the mucus by peristalsis 3) airway is blocked, breathing becomes difficult Partition of aveolar sacs to 1) surface area to volume e ratio disintegrate decreases

CO poisoning

Chronic bronchitis

Emphysema

Lung cancer

2) decreased efficiency in gas exchange 3) less oxygen absorbed into blood stream, more oxygen exhaled out 4) thus causing breathlessness 1) decreased lung capacitity 2) lung take in less amount of air 3) decreased amount of 02, 4) efficiency of gas exchange decreases 5) thus causing inability to breathe deeply and shortness of breath

Transport in plants Monocot Vascular bundle throughout stem Parallel veins in leaf Floral parts in threes 1 cotyledon Dicot Vascular bundle arranged in a ring Netlike leaf veins Floral part in 4 or 5s 2 cotyledon

Special functions of Xylem Phloem 1) made up of lignin that is waterproof, 1) made up of sieve cell and companion 2) hollow, no cytoplasm or nucleus cell 3) so that there is minimum obstruction 2) cross walls between neibouring tubes to waterflow are joined together by sieve plates. 4) lignification strengthens xylem 3) Sieve plats allow substances to pass 5) transport water & dissolved mineral through salt from roots to all other parts of 4) Sieve tube cells do not have nucleous plant or cytoplasm 5) Close to companion cell to keep them alive 6) In trees, only the outmerosrt secondary xylem transports water, not the older cylem

Movement of water in plants Entering the root 1) Absorbed in root tip of the root hair 2) Water potential of cell sap in root hait lower than soil water 3) Water enters root hair cell by osmosis

Movement in the cortex of the root to xylem

In Xylem

Water leaving leaf

through a partially permeable membrane *extra: 1) some plants establish symbiotic relationship with fungi. 2) Fungal filaments absorb water more rapidly, 3) some of which transferred to plant 1) Travels through: apoplast( cell wall) , symplast(cytoplasm) , vacuolar pathway 1) Powered by 2 minor, 1 major force 2) Root pressure: entry of water into root creates a pressure to push water up 3) Capillary action- water can rise up through fine tube of xylem 4) Main: transpiration pull : evaporation of water at leaves creates a tension which pull water up 1) Water in xylem moved to mesophyll cells 2) Water travels cell to cell by osmosis 3) Diffuse to inter-cellular airspaces and to stomata

Factors affecting transpiration: 1) Humidity 2) Temperature 3) Wind 4) Water supply Phloem transporting food 1) Loading of sucrose( not glucose !) from the source cell, 2) Increases lowers the water pontential inside sieve tube 3) Hence water enters to phloem by osmosis( not diffusion!) 4) And this creates a pressure gradient that forces sap to flow along tube 5) The pressure is relieved when sucrose is deposited to sink cell, 6) Water enters the xylem again Meristems

Growth occurs throughout the plants life, a condition know as inderterminate frowth. At any given time, typical plant consists of embryonic, developing and mature organs. Because of perpectually embryonic tissues called meristem.s 2 types of meristems 1) Apical meristems- located at tip of root, buds of shoot, provide additional cells for platnt to grow- primary groath 2) Lateral meristems- vascular cambium and cork cambium. Vascular cambium adds layers of cascular tissue called secondary cylem and secondarty pholme. Cork cambium replaces epidermise with periderm, which is thicker and tougher. 2 types of root 1) Traverse section of typical root 2) Traverse section of root with parenchyma in the centre- usually monocots Functions Selective barrier regulating passafe of substances from the soil solution into the vascular cyclinder. Also prevents solutes that have been accumulated in xylem cell from leaking out Outermost cell layer in the vascular cyclineder Lateral root elongates and psushes throifh the coreyx and epidermis, until it emerges from the established root Active transport enables too to accumulate essential minderals K+ Used for starch storage, fill up the stem

Endodermis

Pericycle

Root Parenchyma

Gene expression and control of cellular differentiation -cell of developing organism synthiese differnet protenis and diverge in structure and function even though they share common genome ( meristems) - meristematic cells are not dedicated early to form specific tissues and organs. Instead the cells final postion in an emergying organ determines what kind of ceel it will become Transpirtational pull 1) Air in intercullar air space, it is saturated with H20(g) because of moist walls of cells, 2) Water vapour of leaf diffuses down its water potential gradient and exit the leaf through stomata

Cohesion and adhesion in ascent of xylem sap

Root pressure

1) Water molecules exiting yclem in the elad tug on adjacent water moldecules, and this pull is relayed by hydrogen bonds 2) Draws water in a continous stream 3) Adhesion- the strong adhesion of water moeldcuels to the hydrophilic walls of xylem cell aids offsetting gravity 4) Note that transpirational pull can extend downwards only if the chain is unbroken 1) Accumulation of minerals in root, 2) Thus water flows from cortext, generating root pressure

Physical forces that enable transport in plants

Role of proton pumps 1) During active trasnsport of dissolved minerals, 2) It uses proton pump, which uses ATP to pump out H+ out of cell, 3) Thus making the inside of plant cell more negacitve in charge relative to outsife Water potential is affected by ( measured by psi): 1) Physical pressure 2) Solute concentration Water potential determines the direction of movement of water, plant biologists measure in MPa, most plant cells exist at approx. 1MPa. =solute concentration + water potential solute potential 1) When solutes are added into pure water, 2) Solutes bind with H20 molecuels 3) Lowers capacity of water to do worok, 4) Hence always lowergin water potential

5) Hence always negative Pressure potential 1) Physical pressure on solution Bulk flow in long distance transport 1) Long distance transport offcurs through bulkflow , the movement of fluid driven by pressure. 2) In bulk flow,water and silutes move trhough vessles of cylem and through the sieve tube of phloem. 3) However, it is active transport at a cellular elevel that maintain the pressure difference. 4) This only depends on prsssure, in contrast with osmsosis, which moves only water, it moves whole solution, water plus minerals in dissol evd. Stomata Leaves begin to wilt in prolonged drought conditions, as cells lose their turgor pressure Transpiration lower the temp of leave by 10-15, thus prevent leaf from reaching tem p that culd denature various enzymes involved in photosynthesis and other metabolic process. Somtatal density- the more amount of stomata present, the less concentration of c02 in air Factors that stimulate stomata Light Illumination of blue-light receptors in the plasma membrane of guard cell Depletion of C02 within airspaces of leaf, Put in chamber devoid of c02, they will open ( which occurs when photosynthesis begins in stomata the mesophyll) Circadian rythyms( biological clock) Even put in the dark environment, they will continue to open

Adaptations to reduce water loss Adaptation CAM plants Explanation Mesophyll cells in CAMP lant have enzymes that incorpate c02 into organic acids during night, In day , organic acids are broken down to release co2, Thus reducing the need to open stomata duing day Reduce waterloss by evaporation Trap moisture, hence higher humidity

Thick cuticle, multiple layered epidermal tissue Sunken stomata

Hairy

Movement of sucrose 1) In contrast to the unidirectional transport of water, direction of phloem sap is variable 2) Sieve tubes carry sugars from a sugar source to sugar sink 3) Sugar sink usually receives sugar from nearest source 4) Phloem loading require active transport because sucrose concentration in sieve tube higher than mesophyll 5) Done by proton pumping 6) Concentration of sucrose always lower at sugar sink, because sink cells are in starch, which is insoluble