INTRODUCTION

In this first part of our history we shall learn the little that we today know about the Filipinos before the arrival of the Spaniards. We shall look into them their origin, the foreign influences that affected them, their religious beliefs, their political organization, and their economic and social life. From this study we shall be able to see the advance they made with the introduction of the Christian civilization. Most people including many Filipinos believe that Philippine history with the arrival of Ferdinand Magellan, a Portuguese explorer on the 17th 1521 and that there is nothing of importance to report prior to this time. often wondered what type of civilization and peoples existed here prior Spanish arrival. began March I have to the

UNIT- I
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PREHISTORY AND ANCESTRAL HERITAGE

Prehistory

The First People and Their Country

First Inhabitants: The first people that lived in the Philippines belonged to three classes, all of small size. We call these first inhabitants aborigines. They were pygmies The Negritos; The most numerous class of the first people were called Negritos by the Spaniards. They are also called Aetas or Itas. Their skin is very dark brown, and looks almost black. They have big brown eyes, small flat noses, and kinky hair. Their average height is about 145 centimeters for men, less than five feet. Most of the Negritos may today be found in the mountains of Luzon. The Negritos are very wild. They do not have fixed homes. They go from one place to another, whenever they may find food, such as wild plants, tubers, and fruits. They live by hunting, and are very skillful with their bows and arrows. They wear very little clothing. They ornament their bodies by cutting patterns on their breasts, backs, and arms. Some cut their teeth to points. The Negritos are fond of dancing and singing. They sing and dance in the feasts that they celebrate, such as marriages and burials. Another class of aborigines has clear skin and straight hair. To this class belong the Mangyans of Mindoro. It is thought that the earliest inhabitants of the Philippines lived some 40000 years ago. On Palawan, the long and small island in de western Visayas, human bones were found dating to about 22.000 years ago. Stone tools from ancient times were found too on Palawan. The age of the tools is estimated to be about 30.000 years old. A analyses showed that the tools have similar features as tools which were found on Kalimantan (Indonesia).

Tribal Groups

A Negrito woman, one of many indigenous ethnic groups of the Philippines. Mangyan indigenous people of Mindoro.

The indigenous peoples of the Philippines consist of a large number of varied groups across the country. They are the 12 million descendants of the original 2

inhabitants of the archipelago who have somehow managed to resist centuries of colonization and in the process have retained their own customs, traditions and life ways. In 1990 the more than 100 upland tribal groups constituted approximately 3% of the population. As lowland Filipinos, both Muslim and Christian, grew in numbers and expanded into the interiors of Luzon, Mindoro, Mindanao, and other islands, they isolated upland tribal communities in pockets. Over the centuries, these isolated tribes developed their own special identities. The folk art of these groups was, in a sense, the last remnant of an indigenous tradition that flourished throughout the Philippines before Islamic and Spanish contact. Technically, the upland tribal groups were a blend in ethnic origin like other Filipinos, although they did not, as a rule, have as much contact with the outside world. They displayed great variety in social organization, cultural expression, and artistic skills. They showed a high degree of creativity, usually employed to embellish utilitarian objects, such as bowls, baskets, clothing, weapons, and even spoons. Technologically, these groups ranged from the highly sophisticated Bontocs and Ifugaos, who engineered the extraordinary Rice Terracess, to more primitive groups. They also covered a wide spectrum in terms of their integration and acculturation with lowland Christian Filipinos. Some, like the Bukidnons of Mindanao, had intermarried with lowlanders for almost a century, whereas others, like the Kalingas on Luzon, remained more isolated from lowland influences.

Picture sami deleon Hohenheim

Picture: University of

The original people of the Philippines were ancestors of the people known today as Negritos or Aeta. They are very small people with a dark skin and curly brown hair. The Aeta came 13000 - 10000 years ago from the Asian continent. In earlier the times they lived widespread throughout the Philippines. Today they are living in the remote highland areas of Luzon, Palawan, Panay, Negros and Mindanao. About 2300 years ago Malayan people arrived from the mainland in the Philippines and brought a more advanced culture; dairy, iron melting and production of iron tools, pottery techniques and the system of sawah's (rice fields). 3

In the tenth century Muslim traders come from Kalimantan (Indonesia) to the Philippines. A few centuries later, the Islam spread out in the southern part of the Philippines. Until now, the Islam is strong rooted on Mindanao and the other (smaller) islands of the southern part of the Philippines.

Geography of the Philippines

The Philippines is an archipelago with a tropical climate and a mountainous terrain. It is located a little above the equator and bounded by the Pacific Ocean, the China Sea and the Celebes Sea. It lies some 600 miles southeast of the coast of mainland Asia and is strung on the north-south axis, bounded by China to the north and Indonesia and North Kalimantan to the south. The Philippines consists of 7,100 islands and islets with a total land area of 115,000 square miles. The two largest islands which are at the same time principal regions are Luzon and Mindanao. The former has a total land area of 54,000 square miles and the latter has 37,000 square miles. The third principal region is the group of islands and islets called the Visayas in the central part of the archipelago. The irregular coastline of the whole country extends to a little less than 11,000 miles. All the islands are seasonally inundated by river systems flowing from mountains. The plains and valleys are well-populated. The mountains, many of which are volcanic in origin, the extensive river sytems and the tropical climate endow the Philippines wiht extremely fertile agricultural lands suitable for a wide variety of crops for food and industrial use. It has vast forest, mineral, marines and power resources. Its forests cover a little over one-third of the land. Its mineral resources include iron, gold, copper, nickel, oil, coal, chrome, and so many others.

If the natural wealth of the Philippines were to be tapped and developed by the Filipino people themselves for their own benefit, it would be more than enough to sustain a population that is several times bigger than the present one. However, U.S. imperialism, domestic feudalism and bureaucrat capitalism prevent the Filipino people from making use of their natural resources to their own advantage. As of now, U.S. imperialism and all of its lackeys exploit these natural resources for their own selfish profit and according to their narrow schemes at the expense of the toiling masses. The Filipino people have been generated by several racial stocks. The main racial stock is Malay, which accounts for more than 85 per cent. Other significant factors in the racial composition of the people are Indonesian and Chinese. The Arab, Indian, Spanish, American and Negrito factors are present, but only to a marginal degree. The national minorities of today comprise at least 10 percent of the population. They inhabited the greater part of the archipelago until a few decades ago when landgrabbers started to dispossess and oppress them. They have been set apart from the rest of the people principally by Christian chauvinism employed by Spanish colonialism and U.S. imperialism, as in the case of the Muslims in Mindanao and the non-Christian mountain tribes all over the country. There is also Malay racism bred by foreign and feudal exploiters of the people. This is often directed against the Chinese and the Aetas. To this day, there are more than 100 languages and dialects. The nine most widely spoken are Tagalog, Ilocano, Hiligaynon, Subuhanon, Bicol, Pampango, Pangasinan, Samarnon, and Maguindanao. Tagalog is the principal base of the national language which can now be spoken by the majority of the people in varying degrees of fluency
http://www.skyinet.net/~courage/philfacts.htm

The Philippines is an archipelago comprising 7,107 islands with a total land area of 300,000 km. The 11 largest islands contain 94% of the total land area. The largest of these islands is Luzon at about 105,000 km. The next largest island is Mindanao at about 95,000 km. The archipelago is around 800 km from the Asian mainland and is located between Taiwan and Borneo.The islands are divided into three groups: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao. The Luzon islands include Luzon itself, Mindoro, Marinduque, Masbate and Batanes Islands. The Visayas is the group of islands in the central Philippines, the largest of which are: Palawan, Panay, Negros, Cebu, Bohol, Leyte and Samar. The Mindanao islands include Mindanao itself, plus the Sulu Archipelago, composed primarily of Basilan, Sulu, and TawiTawi.

Location: Climate: Terrain:

Southeastern Asia, archipelago between the Philippine Sea and the South China Sea, east of Vietnam tropical marine; northeast monsoon southwest monsoon (May to October) (November to April);

mostly mountains with narrow to extensive coastal lowlands lowest point: Philippine Sea 0 m highest point: Mount Apo

Elevation extremes: 2,954 m

Natural resources: timber, petroleum, nickel, cobalt, silver, gold, salt, copper Land use: (2005) Irrigated land: areable land: 19%permanent crops: 16.67% other: 64.33% 15,500 sq km (2003)

Natural hazards: astride typhoon belt, usually affected by 15 and struck by five to six cyclonic storms per year; landslides; active volcanoes; destructive earthquakes; tsunamis Environment - current issues: uncontrolled deforestation especially in watershed areas; soil erosion; air and water pollution in major urban centers; coral reef degradation; increasing pollution of coastal mangrove swamps that are important fish breeding grounds Environment - international agreements: party to: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Climate Change-Kyoto Protocol, Desertification, Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Marine Dumping, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Tropical Timber 83, Tropical Timber 94, Wetlands, Whaling signed, but not ratified: Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants

Geography - note: the Philippine archipelago is made up of 7,107 islands; favorably located in relation to many of Southeast Asia's main water bodies: the South China Sea, Philippine Sea, Sulu Sea, Celebes Sea, and Luzon Strait People Population: 94,000,000 (2010 est.) Administrative divisions: 81 provinces and 136 chartered cities provinces: Abra, Agusan del Norte, Agusan del Sur, Aklan, Albay, Antique, Apayao, Aurora, Basilan, Bataan, Batanes, Batangas, Biliran, Benguet, Bohol, Bukidnon, Bulacan, Cagayan, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Camiguin, Capiz, Catanduanes, Cavite, Cebu, Compostela, Davao del Norte, Davao del Sur, Davao Oriental, Dinagat Islands, Eastern Samar, Guimaras, Ifugao, Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, Iloilo, Isabela, Kalinga, Laguna, Lanao del Norte, Lanao del Sur, La Union, Leyte, Maguindanao, Marinduque, Masbate, Mindoro Occidental, Mindoro Oriental, Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, Mountain Province, Negros Occidental, Negros Oriental, North Cotabato, Northern Samar, Nueva Ecija, Nueva Vizcaya, Palawan, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Quezon, Quirino, Rizal, Romblon, Samar, Sarangani, Shariff Kabunsuan, Siquijor, Sorsogon, South Cotabato, Southern Leyte, Sultan Kudarat, Sulu, Surigao del Norte, Surigao del Sur, Tarlac, Tawi-Tawi, Zambales, Zamboanga del Norte, Zamboanga del Sur, Zamboanga Sibugay chartered cities: Alaminos, Angeles, Antipolo, Bacolod, Bago, Baguio, Bais, Balanga, Batac, Batangas, Bayawan, Baybay, Bayugan, Bislig, Bogo, Borongan, Butuan, Cabadbaran, Cabanatuan, Cadiz, Cagayan de Oro, Calamba, Calapan, Calbayog, Candon, Canlaon, Carcar, Catbalogan, Cauayan, Cavite, Cebu, Cotabato, Dagupan, Danao, Dapitan, Davao, Digos, Dipolog, Dumaguete, Escalante, El Salvador, Gapan, General Santos, Gingoog, Guihulngan, Himamaylan, Iligan, Iloilo, Isabela, Iriga, Kabankalan, Kalookan, Kidapawan, Koronadal, La Carlota, Lamitan, Laoag, Lapu-Lapu, Las Pinas, Legazpi, Ligao, Lipa, Lucena, Maasin, Makati, Malabon, Malaybalay, Malolos, Mandaluyong, Mandaue, Manila, Marawi, Marikina, Masbate, Mati, Meycauayan, Muntinlupa, Munoz, Naga (Camarines Sur), Naga (Cebu), Navotas, Olongapo, Ormoc, Oroquieta, Ozamis, Pagadian, Palayan, Panabo, Paranaque, Pasay, Pasig, Passi, Puerto Princesa, Quezon, Roxas, Sagay, Samal, San Carlos (in Negros Occidental), San Carlos (in Pangasinan), San Fernando (in La Union), San Fernando (in Pampanga), San Jose, San Jose del Monte, San Juan, San Pablo, Santa Rosa, Santiago, Silay, Sipalay, Sorsogon, Surigao, Tabaco, Tabuk, Tacloban, Tacurong, Tagaytay, Tagbilaran, Taguig, Tagum, Talisay (in Cebu), Talisay (in Negros Occidental), Tanauan, Tandag, Tangub, Tanjay, Tarlac, Tayabas, Toledo, Tuguegarao, Trece Martires, Urdaneta, Valencia, Valenzuela, Victorias, Vigan, Zamboanga Independence: 12 June 1898 (independence proclaimed from Spain); 4 July 1946 (from the US) National holiday: Independence Day, 12 June (1898); note - 12 June 1898 was date of declaration of independence from Spain; 4 July 1946 was date of independence from US Legal system: based on Spanish and Anglo-American law; accepts compulsory ICJ jurisdiction with reservations 7

Suffrage: 18 years of age; universal Executive branch: chief of state: President Ninoy Aquino (since January 2010); note - president is both chief of state and head of the government: Legislative branch: bicameral Congress or Kongreso consists of the Senate or Senado (24 seats - one-half elected every three years; members elected at large by popular vote to serve six-year terms) and the House of Representatives or Kapulungan Ng Mga Kinatawan Judicial branch: Supreme Court (15 justices are appointed by the president on the recommendation of the Judicial and Bar Council and serve until 70 years of age); Court of Appeals; Sandigan-bayan (special court for hearing corruption cases of government officials) Flag description: two equal horizontal bands of blue (top; representing peace and justice) and red (representing courage); a white equilateral triangle based on the hoist side represents equality; the center of the triangle displays a yellow sun with eight primary rays, each representing one of the first eight provinces that sought independence from Spain; each corner of the triangle contains a small, yellow, fivepointed star representing the three major geographical divisions of the country: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao; the design of the flag dates to 1897; in wartime the flag is flown upside down with the red band at the top
http://www.answers.com/topic/philippines

Physical Setting Physical map of the Philippines

The Philippine archipelago lies in Southeast Asia in a position that has led to its becoming a cultural crossroads, a place where Malays, Arabs, Chinese, Spaniards, Americans, Japanese and others have interacted to forge a unique cultural and racial blend. The archipelago numbers some 7,107 islands and the 8

nation claims an exclusive economic zone (EEZ) of 200 nautical miles (370 km) from its shores. The Philippines occupies an area that stretches for 1,850 kilometers from about the fifth to the twentieth parallels north latitude. The total land area is slightly more than 300,000 square kilometers. Only approximately 1,000 of its islands are populated, and less than one-half of these are larger than 2.5 square kilometers. Eleven islands make up 95 percent of the Philippine landmass, and two of these Luzon and Mindanao measure 105,000 and 95,000 square kilometers, respectively. They, together with the cluster of the Visayan Islands that separate them, represent the three principal regions of the archipelago that are identified by the three stars on the Philippine flag. Topographically, the Philippines is broken up by the sea, which gives it one of the longest coastlines of any nation in the world. Most Filipinos live on or near the coast, where they can easily supplement their diet from approximately 2,000 species of fish. Off the coast of eastern Mindanao is the Philippine Trough, which descends to a depth of 10,430 meters. The Philippines is part of a western Pacific arc system that is characterized by active volcanoes. Among the most notable peaks are Mount Mayon near Legazpi City, Taal Volcano south of Manila, and Mount Apo on Mindanao. All of the Philippine islands are prone to earthquakes. The northern Luzon highlands, or Cordillera Central, rise to between 2,500 and 2,750 meters, and, together with the Sierra Madre in the northeastern portion of Luzon and the mountains of Mindanao, boast rain forests that provide refuge for numerous upland tribal groups. The rain forests also offer prime habitat for more than 500 species of birds, including the Philippine eagle (or monkey-eating eagle), some 800 species of orchids, and some 8,500 species of flowering plants. The country's most extensive river systems are the Pulangi River, which flows into the Mindanao River (Rio Grande de Mindanao); the Agusan, in Mindanao which flows north into the Mindanao Sea; the Cagayan in northern Luzon; and the Pampanga, which flows south from east Central Luzon into Manila Bay. Laguna de Bay, east of Manila Bay, is the largest freshwater lake in the Philippines. Several rivers have been harnessed for hydroelectric power. To protect the country's biological resources, the government has taken a first step of preparing a Biodiversity Action Plan to address conservation of threatened

Political Geography
Provinces of the Philippines and Regions of the Philippines The Philippines is divided into a hierarchy of local government units (LGUs) with the 81 provinces as the primary unit. Provinces are further subdivided into cities and municipalities, which are in turn composed of barangays. The barangay is the smallest local government unit. The Philippines is divided into 178,000 regions with all provinces grouped into one of 16 regions for administrative convenience. The National Capital Region however, is divided into four special districts. 9

Most government offices establish regional offices to serve the constituent provinces. The regions themselves do not possess a separate local government, with the exception of the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao. Regions

Ilocos Region (Region I) Cagayan Valley (Region II) Central Luzon (Region III)\ Calabarzon (Region IV-A) Mimaropa (Region IV-B) Bicol Region (Region V) Western Visayas (Region VI) Central Visayas (Region VII) Eastern Visayas (Region VIII) Zamboanga Peninsula (Region IX) Northern Mindanao (Region X) Davao Region (Region XI) Soccsksargen (Region XII) Caraga (Region XIII) Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao (ARMM) Cordillera Administrative Region (CAR) National Capital Region (NCR; Metro Manila) Provinces

Abra Agusan del Norte Agusan del Sur Aklan Albay Antique Apayao Aurora Basilan

Bataan Batanes Batangas Benguet Biliran Bohol Bukidnon Bulacan 10

Cagayan Camarines Norte Camarines Sur Camiguin Capiz Catanduanes Cavite Cebu Compostela Valley Cotabato Davao del Norte Davao del Sur Davao Oriental Dinagat Islands Eastern Samar Guimaras Ifugao Ilocos Norte Ilocos Sur Iloilo Isabela Kalinga La Union Laguna Lanao del Norte Lanao del Sur Leyte Maguindanao

Marinduque Masbate Misamis Occidental Misamis Oriental Mountain Province Negros Occidental Negros Oriental Northern Samar Nueva Ecija Nueva Vizcaya Occidental Mindoro Oriental Mindoro Palawan Pampanga Pangasinan Quezon Quirino Rizal Romblon Samar Sarangani Siquijor Shariff Kabunsuan Sorsogon South Cotabato Southern Leyte Sultan Kudarat Sulu 11

Surigao del Norte Surigao del Sur Tarlac Tawi-Tawi Zambales Zamboanga del Norte Zamboanga del Sur Zamboanga Sib

12

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banaue_Rice_Terraces

Ifugao Rice Terraces: The 8th Wonder of the World

The Ifugao Rice Terraces or popularly known worldwide as Banawe Rice Terraces was inscribed in the UNESCO World Heritage List in 1995 because of its great beauty that expresses conquered and conserved harmony between humankind and the environment. This primitive agricultural engineering feat is well known all over the world. It was built 2,000 years ago on the slopes of the towering mountains of Northern Luzon, Philippines by bare human hands. If place end to end, it would extend more than 22,500 kilometers, that is, 8 times longer than the Great Wall of China, or more than half of the earth's circumference, amazing isn't it? The Ifugao rice terraces are largely regarded as the 8th wonder of the world. It is also well known that the Banawe and other Ifugao rice terraces were built without forced labor, unlike the other Seven Wonders of the World, which employed slaves. Ifugao rice fields are worthy of high rank among the wonders of the world. There are places where they reach from an altitude of 2500 feet to one of 5000 feet, and many places where they extend from an altitude of 1500 feet to one of 4500 feet. Ifugaos must be highly commended for constructing the rice terraces, since they did not have surveying instruments and modern machinery at their disposal. The rice terraces are more than a sight to behold and an ancient monumentthey are actually a very functional agriculture and ecological masterpiece. Likewise, the rice terraces have been producing rice for centuries, showing that the Ifugaos were able to maintain the fertility of the rice fields' soils and even contain soil erosion.

A view of a promising bountiful harvest

Besides being an engineering feat, the Ifugao rice terraces demonstrate that farming can blend in harmony with culture, and more importantly, nature. Preparation of the rice field for planting is done manually using basic implements only.

During Planting Season

The Ifugao's irrigation system diverts water from rivers and streams, and channels these to the terraces through a series of dikes and pipes. The pipes can be bamboo of various diameters, which make sure only the right amount of water is channeled to the terraces, and that no soil erosion is caused by excessive water flow. At the upper point of most terraces are well-preserved rainforests, the primary source of water. So simple yet efficient is the irrigation system of the rice terrace. For hundreds of years, Ifugaos have diverted stream water for irrigation up to five to six kilometers. Using the stream's current and sheer manpower, they rolled stones and small boulders from mountaintops and formed these as rock walls to hold mountainsides and create rice terraces.

SUMMARY
The first inhabitants of the Philippines were pygmies. The Indonesians were the first invaders. The great majority of the people belong to the Malay race. The different groups continue mingling and blending, so that in the future there is likely to be only one type, which will answer to the name Filipino. Our country is beautiful. It is naturally rich and situated. It has an even climate favorable to the cultivation of many plants. There is plenty of room for the development of agriculture and industry, since much of the natural resources remained untouched.

Philippine History/Before The Coming of Spanish Colonialists

Before the coming of Spanish colonizers, the people of the Philippine archipelago had already attained a semi communal and semi slave social system in many parts and also a feudal system in certain parts, especially in Mindanao and Sulu, where such a feudal faith as Islam had already taken roots. The Aetas had the lowest form of social organization, which was primitive communal.

The Society
The balangay was the typical community in the whole archipelago. It was the basic political and economic unit independent of similar others. Each embraced a few hundreds of people and a small territory. Each was headed by a chieftain called the rajah or datu.

Social Structure
The social structure comprised a petty nobility, the ruling class which had started to accumulate land that it owned privately or administered in the name of the clan or community.

Maharlika: an intermediate class of freemen called the Maharlika who had enough land for their livelihood or who rendered special service to the rulers and who did not have to work in the fields. Timawa: the ruled classes that included the timawa, the serfs who shared the crops with the petty nobility. Alipin: and also the slaves and semislaves who worked without having any definite share in the harvest. There were two kinds of slaves then: those who had their own quarters, the aliping namamahay, and those who lived in their master's house, the aliping sagigilid. One acquired the status of a serf or a slave by inheritance, failure to pay debts and tribute, commission of crimes and captivity in wars between barangays.

Islamic Monarchy
The Islamic sultanates of Sulu and mainland Mindanao represented a higher stage of political and economic development than the barangay. These had a feudal form of social organization. Each of them encompassed more people and wider territory than the barangay. The sultan reigned supreme over several datus and was conscious of his privilege to rule as a matter of hereditary "divine right." Though they presented themselves mainly as administrators of communal lands, apart from being direct owners of certain lands, the sultans, datus and the nobility exacted land rent in the form of religious tribute and lived off the toiling masses. They constituted a landlord class attended by a retinue of religious teachers, scribes and leading warriors . The sultanates emerged in the two centuries precedent to the coming of Spanish colonialists. They were built up among the so-called third wave of Malay migrants whose rulers either tried to convert to Islam, bought out, enslaved or drove away the original non-Muslim inhabitants of the areas that they chose to settle in. Serfs and slaves alike were used to till the fields and to make more clearings from the forest. Throughout the archipelago, the scope of barangays could be enlarged either through the expansion of agriculture by the toil of the slaves or serfs, through conquests in war and through interbarangay marriages of the nobility. The confederations of barangays was usually the result of a peace pact, a barter agreement or an alliance to fight common internal and external enemies. As evident from the forms of social organization already attained, the precolonial inhabitants of the Philippine archipelago had an internal basis for further social development. In either barangay or sultanate, there was a certain mode of

production which was bound to develop further until it would wear out and be replaced with a new one. There were definite classes whose struggle was bound to bring about social development. As a matter of fact, the class struggle within the barangay was already getting extended into interbarangay wars. The barangay was akin to the Greek city-state in many respects and the sultanate to the feudal commonwealth of other countries. The people had developed extensive agricultural fields. In the plains or in the mountains, the people had developed irrigation systems. The Ifugao rice terraces were the product of the engineering genius of the people; a marvel of 12,000 miles if strung end-to-end. There were livestock-raising, fishing and brewing of beverages. Also there were mining, the manufacture of metal implements, weapons and ornaments, lumbering, shipbuilding and weaving. The handicrafts were developing fast. Gunpowder had also come into use in warfare. As far north as Manila, when the Spaniards came, there was already a Muslim community which had cannons in its weaponry. The ruling classes made use of arms to maintain the social system, to assert their independence from other barangays or to repel foreign invaders. Their jurisprudence would still be borne out today by the so-called Code of Kalantiyaw and the Muslim laws. These were touchstones of their culture. There was a written literature which included epics, ballads, riddles and verse-sayings; various forms and instruments of music and dances; and art works that included well-designed bells, drums, gongs, shields, weapons, tools, utensils, boats, combs, smoking pipes, lime tubes and baskets. The people sculpted images from wood, bone, ivory, horn or metals. In areas where anito worship and polytheism prevailed, the images of flora and fauna were imitated, and in the areas where the Muslim faith prevailed, geometric and arabesque designs were made. Morga's Sucesos de las Islas Filipinas, a record of what the Spanish conquistadores came upon, would later be used by Dr. Jose Rizal as testimony to the achievement of the indios in precolonial times. There was interisland commerce ranging from Luzon to Mindanao and viceversa. There were extensive trade relations with neighboring countries like China, Indochina, North Borneo, Indonesia, Malaya, Japan and Thailand 1. Traders from as far as India and the Middle East vied for commerce with the precolonial inhabitants of the archipelago. As early as the 9th century, Sulu was an important trading emporium where trading ships from Cambodia, China and Indonesia converged. Arab traders brought goods from Sulu to the Chinese mainland through the port of Canton. In the 14th century, a large fleet of 60 vessels from China anchored at Manila Bay, Mindoro and Sulu. Previous to this, Chinese trading junks had been intermittently sailing into various points of the Philippine shoreline. The barter system was employed or gold and metal gongs were used as medium of exchange.

UNIT II THE SPANISH ERA IN THE PHILIPPINES

The Spaniards ruled the Philippines for 300 years under these conditions, continually harassed by Chinese pirates, by the Moros (Mohammedans from Mindanao and Sulu), by the Dutch and the English who wanted to take possession of the Islands, and finally by the frequent revolts on the part of the natives. When European traders, in search for a new route to the Spice Islands, stumbled into the Philippine archipelago in 1521, they found the people living in a comparatively high state of civilization. The natives dwelt on houses made of bamboo and palm leaves, and were properly attired at all times. They cultivated rice, which was their staple food, fished the extensive waters around them, and brewed many kinds of drinks, which they were very fond of. The womens position in society was high; tribal laws and customs recognized her equality with the men in many respects. The people practiced monogamy in general. Codes of law governed their conduct. Punishments with varying degrees of severity were meted out to culprits whose offenses were tried in public courts presided over by the chiefs .

Several languages were spoken, then, as now, although there was one common alphabet called babaying, which resembled the ancient alphabet of India. Spanish historians, writing about the early Filipinos, affirmed that there was hardly a man or woman who could not read and write. There was oral and written literature .

Such was the state of culture of the Filipinos when Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines at the head of a Spanish expedition searching for the Spice Islands in 1521. Magellan never completed the journey himself; he was killed in an encounter with natives after having claimed the Philippines for Spain. The actual work of colonization began in 1565, when Miguel Lopez de Legazpi concluded treaties of friendship with the native chiefs. Then he proceeded to establish a Spanish town on Cebu Island, to convert the people to Roman Catholicism.

Spains foremost aim in the Philippines was to spread their religion. For this purpose thousands of Catholic missionaries belonging to various orders came to the Philippines. The contribution of this mission work toward the advancement of education, culture, and architecture in general was enormous, although in later years the friars came to be considered as the opponents of the enlightenment of the people. It was also at this point when the Spanish missionaries tried to eliminate the ancient written literature of the Filipinos. Because of the destruction of ancient writings, in their eagerness to erase the previous cultural records of the Philippines, only the orally transmitted literature has survived.

Starting on a clean slate, it can be said that the missionaries encouraged the growth of literature, art, science, and industry. The religious orders established schools and colleges, founded libraries and museums, and set up printing presses. They also built hospitals, asylums, and orphanages to take care of the sick and needy (including the unwanted babies sired by friars). But Spains biggest legacy to the Philippines is Roman Catholism, which the people embraced readily from the beginning. The missionary zeal to make the country an outpost of the Catholicism in spite of the fact that (even with unsparing exploitation), the Philippines was a financial liability as a colony. Whether this is true or not, historians seem to agree that the cross, rather than the sword, conquered the Filipinos.

The colorful rituals and numerous holidays of the Catholic Church gave rise to many folk traditions. The fiesta, or religious festival, for example, quickly became the chief occasion for the folk to gather and perform songs and dances. Each town was assigned a patron saint on whose birthday the festival was held. The folk have come to associate the occasion with gay colors, brass bands, and general merrymaking. It was during these feasts, too, that the peasants indulged in such pastimes as drinking palm wine and cock-fighting.

With the rising influence of the Catholic Church in the Philippines, there began a contention for power between the religious and civil authorities, which

proved harmful to the Filipinos. Each camp accused the other of oppressing the people. In the conflict, the progress of the nation was retarded, because the Spaniards spent much time and energy in quarreling among themselves instead of governing. One chief source of abuse, the encomienda system, was not abolished until the end of the 18th century. By this system, pieces of territory, with their inhabitants and resources, were granted by the Spanish king to the colonizers as a reward for services to the Crown. The encomienderos ruled like the feudal lords of Medieval Europe, and exploited their territories to the limit. They abused, overtaxed, cheated, and practically enslaved the Filipinos. The few priests who tried to defend the people were helpless, and the elaborate laws framed to protect the subjects were openly flouted. Even after the encomienda system was abolished, corrupt Spanish officials continued to exploit the people, who still had to render forced labor and pay heavy tribute. The feudal economy remained, with land concentrated in the hands of a few individuals and the Church itself. Attempts at reform by sympathetic Spanish officials were quickly put down by influential personages who had their own interests to protect. With the growth of the countrys population, poverty was widespread among the masses; mendicancy, unknown before the coming of the Spaniards was common. The beggar by the church gate or the frequented street corner, and the blind mendicant begging from house to house became familiar sights. The Spaniards ruled the Philippines for 300 years under these conditions, continually harassed by Chinese pirates, by the Moros (Mohammedans from Mindanao and Sulu), by the Dutch and the English who wanted to take possession of the Islands, and finally by the frequent revolts on the part of the natives

Spanish Colonization (1521 - 1898) Early Spanish expeditions

Ferdinand Magellan arrived in the Philippines in 1521. The Philippine islands first came to the attention of Europeans with the Spanish expedition around the world led by Portuguese explorer Ferdinand Magellan in 1521. Magellan landed on the island of Cebu, claiming the lands for Spain and naming them Islas de San Lazaro. He set up friendly relations with some of the local chieftains and converted some of them to Roman Catholicism. However, Magellan was killed by natives, led by a local chief named Lapu-Lapu, who go up against foreign domination.

Over the next several decades, other Spanish expeditions were send off to the islands. In 1543, Ruy Lpez de Villalobos led an expedition to the islands and gave the name Las Islas Filipinas (after Philip II of Spain) to the islands of Samar and Leyte. The name would later be given to the entire archipelago .

Spanish colonization
The invasion of the Filipinos by Spain did not begin in earnest until 1564, when another expedition from New Spain, commanded by Miguel Lpez de Legaspi, arrived. Permanent Spanish settlement was not established until 1565 when an expedition led by Miguel Lpez de Legazpi, the first Governor-General of the Philippines, arrived in Cebu from New Spain. Spanish leadership was soon established over many small independent communities that previously had known no central rule. Six years later, following the defeat of the local Muslim ruler, Legazpi established a capital at Manila, a location that offered the outstanding harbor of Manila Bay, a large population, and closeness to the sufficient food supplies of the central Luzon rice lands. Manila became the center of Spanish civil, military, religious, and commercial activity in the islands. By 1571, when Lpez de Legaspi established the Spanish city of Manila on the site of a Moro town he had conquered the year before, the Spanish grip in the Philippines was secure which became their outpost in the East Indies, in spite of the opposition of the Portuguese, who desired to maintain their monopoly on East Asian trade. The Philippines was administered as a province of New Spain (Mexico) until Mexican independence (1821). Manila revolted the attack of the Chinese pirate Limahong in 1574. For centuries before the Spanish arrived the Chinese had traded with the Filipinos, but evidently none had settled permanently in the islands until after the conquest. Chinese trade and labor were of great importance in the early development of the Spanish colony, but the Chinese came to be feared and hated because of their increasing numbers, and in 1603 the Spanish murdered thousands of them (later, there were lesser massacres of the Chinese). The Spanish governor, made a viceroy in 1589, ruled with the counsel of the powerful royal audiencia. There were frequent uprisings by the Filipinos, who disliked the encomienda system. By the end of the 16th cent. Manila had become a leading commercial center of East Asia, carrying on a prosperous trade with China, India, and the East Indies. The Philippines supplied some wealth (including gold) to Spain, and the richly loaded galleons plying between the islands and New Spain were often attacked by English freebooters. There was also trouble from other quarters, and the period from 1600 to 1663 was marked by continual wars with the Dutch, who were laying the foundations of their rich empire in the East Indies, and with Moro pirates. One of the most difficult problems the Spanish faced was the defeat of the Moros. Irregular campaigns were conducted against them but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th century. As the power of the Spanish Empire diminished, the Jesuit orders became more influential in the Philippines and obtained great amounts of property. Occupation of the islands was accomplished with relatively little bloodshed,

partly because most of the population (except the Muslims) offered little armed battle initially. A significant problem the Spanish faced was the invasion of the Muslims of Mindanao and the Sulu Archipelago. The Muslims, in response to attacks on them from the Spanish and their native allies, raided areas of Luzon and the Visayas that were under Spanish colonial control. The Spanish conducted intermittent military campaigns against the Muslims, but without conclusive results until the middle of the 19th century. Church and state were inseparably linked in Spanish policy, with the state assuming responsibility for religious establishments. One of Spain's objectives in colonizing the Philippines was the conversion of Filipinos to Catholicism. The work of conversion was facilitated by the absence of other organized religions, except for Islam, which predominated in the south. The pageantry of the church had a wide plea, reinforced by the incorporation of Filipino social customs into religious observances. The eventual outcome was a new Christian majority of the main Malay lowland population, from which the Muslims of Mindanao and the upland tribal peoples of Luzon remained detached and separated. At the lower levels of administration, the Spanish built on traditional village organization by co-opting local leaders. This system of indirect rule helped create in a Filipino upper class, called the principala, who had local wealth, high status, and other privileges. This achieved an oligarchic system of local control. Among the most significant changes under Spanish rule was that the Filipino idea of public use and ownership of land was replaced with the concept of private ownership and the granting of titles on members of the principala. The Philippines was not profitable as a colony, and a long war with the Dutch in the 17th century and intermittent conflict with the Muslims nearly bankrupted the colonial treasury. Colonial income derived mainly from entrept trade: The Manila Galleons sailing from Acapulco on the west coast of Mexico brought shipments of silver bullion and minted coin that were exchanged for return cargoes of Chinese goods. There was no direct trade with Spain .

Decline of Spanish rule

Spanish rule on the Philippines was briefly interrupted in 1762, when British troops invaded and occupied the islands as a result of Spain's entry into the Seven Years' War. The Treaty of Paris in 1763 brought back Spanish rule and the British left in 1764. The brief British occupation weakened Spain's grip on power and sparked rebellions and demands for independence. In 1781, Governor-General Jos Basco y Vargas founded the Economic Society of Friends of the Country. The Philippines by this time was administered directly from Spain. Developments in and out of the country helped to bring new ideas to the Philippines. The opening of the Suez Canal in 1869 cut travel time to Spain. This prompted the rise of the ilustrados, an enlightened Filipino upper class, since many young Filipinos were able to study in Europe. Enlightened by the Propaganda Movement to the injustices of the Spanish colonial government and the "frailocracy", the ilustrados originally clamored for

adequate representation to the Spanish Cortes and later for independence. Jos Rizal, the most celebrated intellectual and essential illustrado of the era, wrote the novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, which greatly inspired the movement for independence. The Katipunan, a secret society whose primary principle was that of overthrowing Spanish rule in the Philippines, was founded by Andrs Bonifacio who became its Supremo (leader). The Philippine Revolution began in 1896. Rizal was concerned in the outbreak of the revolution and executed for treason in 1896. The Katipunan split into two groups, Magdiwang led by Andrs Bonifacio and Magdalo led by Emilio Aguinaldo. Conflict between the two revolutionary leaders ended in the execution or assassination of Bonifacio by Aguinaldo's soldiers. Aguinaldo agreed to a treaty with the Pact of Biak na Bato and Aguinaldo and his fellow revolutionaries were exiled to Hong Kong. It was the opposition to the power of the clergy that in large measure brought about the rising attitude for independence. Spanish injustices, prejudice, and economic oppressions fed the movement, which was greatly inspired by the brilliant writings of Jos Rizal. In 1896 revolution began in the province of Cavite, and after the execution of Rizal that December, it spread throughout the major islands. The Filipino leader, Emilio Aguinaldo, achieved considerable success before a peace was patched up with Spain. The peace was short-lived, however, for neither side honored its agreements, and a new revolution was made when the SpanishAmerican War broke out in 1898. The Spanish-American war started in 1898 after the USS Maine, sent to Cuba in connection with an attempt to arrange a peaceful resolution between Cuban independence ambitions and Spanish colonialism, was sunk in Havana harbor. After the U.S. naval victory led by Commodore George Dewey defeated the Spanish squadron at Manila Bay on May 1, 1898, the U.S. invited Aguinaldo to return to the Philippines, which he did on May 19, 1898, in the hope he would rally Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. By the time U.S. land forces had arrived, the Filipinos had taken control of the entire island of Luzon, except for the walled city of Intramuros Manila, which they were besieging. On June 12, 1898, Aguinaldo declared the independence of the Philippines in Kawit, Cavite, establishing the First Philippine Republic under Asia's first democratic constitution. Their dreams of independence were crushed when the Philippines were transferred from Spain to the United States in the Treaty of Paris (1898), which closed the Spanish-American War. Concurrently, a German squadron under Admiral Diedrichs arrived in Manila and declared that if the United States did not grab the Philippines as a colonial possession, Germany would. Since Spain and the U.S. ignored the Filipino representative, Felipe Agoncillo, during their negotiations in the Treaty of Paris, the Battle of Manila between Spain and the U.S. was alleged by some to be an attempt to exclude the Filipinos from the eventual occupation of Manila. Although there was substantial domestic opposition, the United States decided neither to return the Philippines to Spain, nor to allow Germany to take over the Philippines. Therefore, in addition to Guam and Puerto Rico, Spain was forced in the negotiations to hand over the Philippines to the U.S. in exchange for US$20,000,000.00, which the U.S.

later claimed to be a "gift" from Spain. The first Philippine Republic rebelled against the U.S. occupation, resulting in the Philippine-American War (18991913).

The Impact of Spanish Rule in the Philippines

An important impact of Spanish rule in the Philippines is the creation of a mestizo culture with entrenched landed interests and a highly skewed land distribution. The Spaniards made the local datus head of the barangays, who eventually acquired large landholdings. Some of the barangay heads were natives, but many important families arose at this time through the intermarriages of two types: First, the Spanish-Indio mestizo that had a higher status: it is a socially exclusive class from which the scholars and literatis of Manila emerged and today have close ties to Spain and the United States; Second, the Chinese-Indio mestizo that had a lower status: this class blended with Filipino rural cultures; it also acquired large tracts of land through money lending. From this class emerged an important economic group of Filipino-Chinese in the Philippines today. This class competed with migrant Chinese in trade but were less successful in business.

Spanish-Filipino mestizo costume, 1800s

Chinese-Filipino mestizo costume, 1800s

Spanish-Filipino mestizo costume, 1800s

The Disunited Resistance

The Propaganda Movement was a literary and cultural organization formed in 1872 by Filipino migrs who had settled in Europe. Composed of Filipino liberals

exiled in 1872 and students attending Europe's universities, the organization aimed to increase Spanish awareness of the needs of its colony, the Philippines, and to propagate a closer relationship between the colony and Spain.[1] Its prominent members included Jos Rizal, author of Noli Me Tangere (novel) and El Filibusterismo, Graciano Lpez Jaena, publisher of La Solidaridad, the movement's principal organ, Mariano Ponce, the organization's secretary[2] and Marcelo H. del Pilar. Goals Specifically, the Propagandists aims were: 1. Representation of the Philippines in the Cortes Generales, the Spanish parliament; 2. Secularization of the clergy; 3. Legalization of Spanish and Filipino equality; 4. Creation of a public school system independent of the friars; 5. Abolition of the polo (labor service) and vandala (forced sale of local products to the government); 6. Guarantee of basic freedoms of speech and association; 7. Equal opportunity for Filipinos and Spanish to enter government service; 8. Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain; 9. Secularization of Philippine parishes; 10.Recognition of human rights

The Death of Gomburza & The Propaganda Movement

In February 17, 1872, Fathers Mariano Gomez, Jose Burgos and Jocinto Zamora (Gomburza), all Filipino priest, was executed by the Spanish colonizers on charges of subversion. The charges against Fathers Gomez, Burgos and Zamora was their alleged complicity in the uprising of workers at the Cavite Naval Yard. The death of Gomburza awakened strong feelings of anger and resentment among the Filipinos. They questioned Spanish authorities and demanded reforms. The martyrdom of the three priests apparently helped to inspire the organization of the Propaganda Movement, which aimed to seek reforms and inform Spain of the abuses of its colonial government. The illustrados led the Filipinos quest for reforms. Because of their education and newly acquired wealth, they felt more confident about voicing out popular grievances. However, since the illustrados themselves were a result of

the changes that the Spanish government had been slowly implementing, the group could not really push very hard for the reforms it wanted. The illustrados did not succeeded in easing the sufferings of the Filipinos; but from this group arose another faction called the intelligentsia. The intelligentsia also wanted reforms; but they were more systematic and used a peaceful means called the Propaganda Movement.

Goals of the Propaganda Movement

Members of the Propaganda Movement were called propagandists or reformists. They worked inside and outside the Philippines. Their objectives were to seek: Recognition of the Philippines as a province of Spain Equal status for both Filipinos and Spaniards Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes Secularization of Philippine parishes. Recognition of human rights

The Propaganda Movement never asked for Philippine independence because its members believed that once Spain realized the pitiful state of the country, the Spaniards would implement the changes the Filipinos were seeking.

The Propagandists
The Filipinos in Europe were much more active in seeking reforms than those in Manila. They could be divided into three groups: The first included Filipinos who had been exiled to the Marianas Islands in 1872 after being implicated in the Cavite Mutiny. After two many years in the Marianas, they proceeded to Madrid and Barcelona because they could no longer return to the Philippines. The second group consisted of illustrados in the Philippines who had been sent to Europe for their education. The third group was composed of Filipinos who had fled their country to avoid punishment for a crime, or simply because they could not stand Spanish atrocities any longer. Still, not all Filipinos living in Spain were members of the Propaganda Movement. Jose Rizal, Graciano Lopez Jaena and Marcelo H. del Pilar were it most prominent members. Lopez Jaena was a brilliant orator who wrote such pieces as "Fray Botod," "Esperanza," and "La Hija del Fraile," which all criticized the abuses of Spanish friars in the Philippines. Del Pilar was an excellent writer and speaker who put up the newspaper Diarion Tagalog in 1882. His favorite topic was the friars. Some of his most popular writings included " Caiingat Cayo", "Dasalan at Tocsohan," and "Ang Sampung Kautusan ng mga Prayle ". "Caingat Cayo" was a pamphlet answering the criticisms received by Jose Rizals novel Noli Me Tangere. "Dasalan" was parody of the prayer books used by the Church, while " Ang

Sampung Kautusan" was a satirical take on the Ten Commandments, which highly ridiculed the Spanish friars. Jose Rizal was recognized as the great novelist of the Propaganda Movement. He was the first Filipino become famous for his written works. He wrote a poem entitled Sa Aking mga Kababata when he was only eight years old. His novels, Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo, clearly depicted the sufferings of the Filipinos and the rampant abuses committed by the friars in the colony. Because of his criticisms of the government and the friars, Rizal made a lot of enemies. He was executed at Bagumbayan (later renamed Luneta Park and now called Rizal Park) on December 30, 1896. The writings produced by the Propaganda Movement inspired Andres Bonifacio and other radicals to establish the Katipunan and set the Philippine Revolution in place. Continue to La Solidaridad & La Liga Filipina.

The Philippine Revolution (18961898), called the "Tagalog War" by the Spanish, was an armed military conflict between the people of the Philippines and the Spanish colonial authorities which resulted in the secession of the Philippine Islands from the Spanish Empire. The Philippine Revolution began in August 1896, upon the discovery of the anti-colonial secret organization Katipunan by the Spanish authorities. The Katipunan, led by Andrs Bonifacio, was a secessionist movement and shadow government spread throughout much of the islands whose goal was independence from Spain through armed revolt. In a mass gathering in Caloocan, the Katipunan leaders organized themselves into a revolutionary government and openly declared a nationwide armed revolution. Bonifacio called for a simultaneous coordinated attack on the capital Manila. This attack failed, but the surrounding provinces also rose up in revolt. In particular, rebels in Cavite led by Emilio Aguinaldo won early victories. A power struggle among the revolutionaries led to Bonifacio's execution in 1897, with command shifting to Aguinaldo who led his own revolutionary government. That year, a truce was officially reached with the Pact of Biak-na-Bato and Aguinaldo was exiled to Hong Kong, though hostilities between rebels and the Spanish government never actually ceased. In 1898, with the outbreak of the Spanish-American War, Aguinaldo unofficially allied with the United States, returned to the Philippines and resumed hostilities against the Spaniards. By June, the rebels had conquered nearly all Spanish-held ground within the Philippines with the exception of Manila. Aguinaldo thus declared independence from Spain and the First Philippine Republic was established. However, neither Spain nor the United States recognized Philippine independence. Spanish rule in the islands only officially ended with the 1898 Treaty of Paris, wherein Spain ceded the Philippines and other territories to the United States. After eruption of the 1899 Battle of Manila on February 4 between Filipino and U.S. forces, Aguinaldo immediately ordered, "[t]hat peace and friendly relations with the Americans be broken and that the latter be treated as enemies". In June 1899, the nascent First Philippine Republic formally declared war against the United States.[4][5] The Philippine-American War then ensued.

Summary The main stream of influx of revolutionary ideas came at the start of the 19th century when the country was opened for world trade. In 1809, first English firms were established in Manila followed by a royal decree in 1834 opening the city officially to world trade. Philippines was formerly only tied to Mexico from 1565 when galleon trade become the prominent means of economy. The use of galleons ended in 1815 when Mexican War of Independence broke up.[6] At this point, postFrench Revolution ideas entered the country through literature which caused the rise of enlightened Ilustrado class in the society. The 1868 Spanish Revolution brought to an end of the autocratic rule of Queen Isabella II and was replaced by a liberal government led by General Francisco Serrano. Serrano dispatched the 91st governor-general Carlos Mara de la Torre in 1869. The leadership of de la Torre has brought the idea of liberalism in the Philippines. That same year, in 1869, the Suez Canal was opened to the world after almost ten years of construction. The election of despot Amadeo of Savoy to the throne of Spain led to replacement of de la Torre in gubernatorial power in 1871. In 1872, the government of the succeeding governor-general Rafael de Izquierdo was leashed by a bloody uprising of Filipino soldiers at the Fort San Felipe arsenal in Cavite el Viejo. Seven days after the mutiny, many people were arrested and tried in courtroom. Three of these victims were secular priests: Jos Burgos, Mariano Gmez and friar Jacinto Zamora who were hanged and executed by Spanish authorities in Bagumbayan. The execution of the priests, later known in history as the GOMBURZA, became the conditional thrust to many Filipinos to announce the abuse of colonial authorities. Many Filipinos who were not executed and were arrested for possible rebellion charges were deported to many Spanish penal colonies. Some of them, however, managed to escape to Hong Kong, Yokohama, Singapore, Paris, London, Berlin, and some parts of Spain. These people met fellow Filipino students and other exiles who had escaped from penal colonies. Thrown together by common fate, they established a common organization known as the Propaganda Movement. These migrs used their writings mainly to condemn Spanish abuses and seek reforms to the colonial government. Jos Rizal's novels, Noli Me Tangere (Touch Me Not, 1887) and El Filibusterismo (The Filibuster, 1891), exposed Spanish abuses in socio-political and religious aspects. The publication of his first novel brought the infamous agrarian conflict in his hometown Calamba, Laguna in 1888 when Dominican haciendas fell into trouble of submitting government taxes. In 1892, Rizal, after his return from the Americas, established the La Liga Filipina (The Filipino League), a Filipino association organized to seek reforms from the colonial government. When the Spaniards learned that their haunted writer was in the Philippines, they arrested and deported Rizal a few days after the Liga was established.

The deportation of the Liga marked the dissolution of the organization. It was peaceful struggle to reform ended and was replaced by more aggressive one. On the night upon hearing the news that Rizal was deported to Dapitan, Liga member Andrs Bonifacio and his fellows established a secret organization named Katipunan in a house in Tondo, Manila. The Katipunan reached an overwhelming membership and attracted almost the lowly of the Filipino class. In June 1896, Bonifacio sent an emissary to Dapitan to reach Rizal's support, but the latter refused for an armed revolution. On August 19, 1896, Katipunan was discovered by a Spanish friar which started the Philippine Revolution. The revolution flared up initially into the eight provinces of Central Luzon. General Emilio Aguinaldo, a member of the Katipunan, spread an armed resistance through Southern Tagalog region where he liberated Cavite towns little by little. In 1896 and 1897, successive conventions where held at Imus and Tejeros which decided the fate of the new republic. By November, the republic was transferred in Biak-na-Bato where a new constitution was ratified. On May 1, 1898, the Battle of Manila Bay took place as part of the SpanishAmerican War. On May 24, Aguinaldo, who had returned from voluntary exile on May 19, announced in Cavite, "... I return to assume command of all the forces for the attainment of our lofty aspirations, establishing a dictatorial government which will set forth decrees under my sole responsibility, ..." On 12 June, Aguinaldo proclaimed Philippine independence On 18 June, Aguinaldo issued a decree proclaiming a Dictatorial Government headed by himself. On June 23, another decree signed by Aguinaldo was issued, replacing the Dictatorial Government with a Revolutionary Government. Elections were held by the Revolutionary Government between June and September 10, resulting in Emilio Aguinaldo being seated as President in the seating of a legislature known as the Malolos Congress. On February 2, 1899, general hostilities broke out between U.S. and Filipino forces, In a session between September 15, 1898 and November 13, 1899, the Malolos Constitution had been adopted, creating the First Philippine Republic with Aguinaldo as President. which, on June 12, 1899, promulgated a declaration of war on the U.S., beginning the Philippine-American War. Aguinaldo was captured by U.S. forces on March 23, 1901, and swore allegiance to the U.S. on April 1. On July 4, 1902, U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all people in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict, effectively ending the war

Origins

Map of the Philippines at the end of 19th century.

The Philippine Revolution was an accumulation of numbers of ideas and exposition to international community that led to the opening of nationalistic endeavors. The rise of Filipino nationalism was slow but inevitable. Abuses by the Spanish government, military and the clergy prevalent during its three centuries of occupation, and the exposition of these excesses by the ilustrados in the late 19th century paved the way for a united Filipino people. Unfortunately, the growth of nationalism was slow because of the difficulty in social and economic intercourse among the Filipinos. Thus, according to a dated letter to Father Vicente Garca of Ateneo Municipl de Manila written by the Filipino writer Jos P. Rizal: There is, then, in the Philippines,a progress or improvement which is individual, but there is no national progress. January 17, 1891 The Philippine-American War then ensued. `

Opening of Manila to world trade

Painting of a Spanish galleon during Manila-Acapulco Trade. Before the opening of Manila to foreign trade, the Spanish authorities discouraged foreign merchants from residing in the colony and engaging in business. The royal decree of February 2, 1800 prohibited foreigners from living in the Philippines. as did the royal decrees of 1807 and 1816. In 1823, GovernorGeneral Mariano Ricafort promulgated an edict prohibiting foreign merchants from engaging in retail trade and visiting the provinces for purposes of trade. It was reissued by Lardizbal in 1840. A royal decree in 1844 prohibited foreigners from traveling to the provinces under any pretext whatsoever and as late as 1857 the several anti-foreigner laws were renewed. With the wide acceptance of laissez-faire doctrine in the later part of 18th century, Spain relaxed its mercantilist policies. The British occupation of Manila in 1762-1764 made Spain realize the impossibility of isolating the colony from world intercourse and commerce. In 1789, foreign vessels were given permission to transport Asian goods to the port of Manila.] Even before 1780s, many foreign ships including Yankee clippers had visited Manila regardless anti-foreign regulations. In 1790, Governor-General Flix Berenguer de Marquina recommended to the Crown the opening of Manila to world commerce. [23] Furthermore, the bankruptcy of the Real Compaa de Filipinas (Royal Company of the Philippines) catapulted the Spanish king to open Manila in world trade. By the royal decree of September 6, 1834, the privileges of the Company were abolished and the port of Manila was thrown open to trade.
Economic surveys, port openings and admission of foreign firms

Shortly after the opening of Manila to world trade the Spanish merchants began to lose their commercial supremacy in the Philippines. In 1834, restrictions against foreign traders were relaxed when Manila became an open port. By the end of 1859, there were 15 foreign firms in Manilaseven of which are British, three are American, two French, two Swiss and one German.

In 1834, some American merchants settled in Manila and invested heavily in business. Two American business firms were established-the Russell, Sturgis & Company and the Peele, Hubbell & Company which became two of the leading business firms. At first, Americans had the edge over their British competitors in Manila, for they offered good prices for Philippine exports, such as hemp, sugar, and tobacco. American trade supremacy did not last long. In the face of stiff British competition, they gradually lost their control over Philippine business, and the decline was due to lack of support from the home government and lack of US trade bases in the Orient. In 1875, Russell, Sturgis & Company went into bankruptcy, followed by Peele, Hubbell & Company in 1887. Soon thereafter, British merchants, including James Adam Smith, Lawrence H. Bell and Robert P. Wood, dominated the financial activities in Manila. Alarmed by the domination of British and Americans in the economy of Manila, Spanish diplomat to Asia Sinibaldo de Mas was sent by Madrid in 1842 to conduct an economic survey of the Philippines and submit recommendations. After an intensive investigation of colonial affairs in the Philippines, Mas submitted his official report to the Crown. The report, " Informe sobre el estado de las Islas Filipinas en 1842", published in 1843 at Madrid. Mas recommended the following: opening of more ports to promote foreign trade, encouragement of Chinese immigration to stimulate agricultural development, and abolition of the tobacco monopoly. In response to Sinibaldo de Mas' recommendations, more ports were opened by Spain to world trade. The ports of Sual, Pangasinan, Iloilo and Zamboanga were opened in 1855. Cebu was opened in 1860, Legazpi and Tacloban in 1873.

Enlightenment

Leaders of the reform movement in Spain: Jos Rizal, Marcelo H. del Pilar and Mariano Ponce. Photo was taken in Spain in 1890.

The Ilustrados photographed gathered steps of an imperious Madrid building (ca.1890) aptly illustrate the way the Filipinos mobilized their defense against European racism through bourgeois satorial style. Before the start of Philippine Revolution, the Filipino society was merely subdivided into light social classification that was based on economic status of the people involved. There are two cases in this classification: the highest being a member of the principalia and the other is the masses. The principalia included landlords, teachers, local officials and ex-officials. The members of this class constituted the social aristocracy of a town. The Spanish people belonged to the principalia class and they were further subdivided into two classes: the peninsulares and the creoles. The peninsulares were Spanish-born Spaniards living in the Philippines, or they were living in the colony but were born in Spain. The creoles or criollo people, were Spaniards born in the colonies. Although thepeninsulares and the creoles enjoyed the same social power as they both belonged to the principalia, the peninsulares considered themselves as socially superior to the creoles. The lowest of the two classes was the masses, or Indios. This included all poor commoners, peasants and laborers. Unlike the principalia class where the members enjoyed high public offices and recommendations from the King of Spain, the masses only enjoyed a few civil rights and privileges. The highest political office that they could possibly hold is the gobernadorcillo, or being the town executive. The members of the secret society, Katipunan, that will trigger the revolution, consists mainly of the masses. Material prosperity at the start of 19th century produced an enlightened middle class in the Philippines, consisting of well-to-do farmers, teachers, lawyers, physicians, writers, and government employees. Many of them were able to buy and read books which were originally forfeited from the lowly Filipino class. They discussed political problems and thus sought government reforms, and eventually, they were able to send their children to colleges and universities in Manila and abroad, particularly, to Madrid. The material progress was due primarily to the opening of the Manila ports to world trade. From the enlightened middle class came the leading intellectuals of the country. They later called themselves as the Ilustrados, meaning erudite ones, as well as the intelligentsia branch of the society. From the Ilustrados rose the prominent members of the Propaganda Movement, who stirred the very first flames of the revolution.

Liberalism (1869-1871)
In 1868, a revolution overthrew the monarchy of Queen Isabella II of Spain and was replaced by a civil and liberal government led by Francisco Serrano. The next year, General Serrano dispatched Carlos Mara de la Torre, a member of the Spanish army, to become the 91st Governor-General of the Philippines. Filipino and Spanish liberals residing in the country welcomed him with a banquet at the Malacaang Palace on June 23, 1869. On the night of July 12, 1869, Filipino leaders, priests and students gathered and serenaded de la Torre at Malacaang to express their appreciation and gratitude for his liberal policies. The serenade was led by prominent residents of Manila, including the Civil Governor of Manila Jos Cabezas de Herrera, Jos Burgos, Maximo Paterno, Manuel Genato, Joaqun Pardo de Tavera, ngl Garchitorena, Andrs Nieto and Jacbo Zbel y Zangroni z.

Rise of Filipino Nationalism

In 1776, the first major challenge to monarchy in centuries occurred in the American Colonies. While the American Revolution succeeded, it was still an event in a relatively isolated area. In 1789, however, the French Revolution began changing the political landscape of Europe as it ended absolute monarchy in France. The power passed from king to people through representation in the parliament. People in other European countries began asking for the same representation in parliament. In the Philippines, this ideal spread in the colony through the writings of criollo writers as Luis Rodrguez Varela who called himself "Conde Filipino" (Earl of the Philippines).[33] This was the first instance that a colonist called himself a Filipino rather than a Spanish subject. With the rising economic and political stability in the Philippines, the Middle Class began demanding that the churches in the Philippines be nationalized through a process known as Secularization. In this process, the control of Philippine parishes were to be passed from the religious orders to the secular priests, particularly Philippine-born priests. The religious orders, or friars, reacted and a political struggle between the friars and secular priests commenced. The 19th century was also a new era for Europe. Church power was at a decline and friars began pouring more to the Philippines, ending hopes for the friars ever relinquishing their posts. With the opening of the Suez Canal, the voyage between Spain and the Philippines was cut short. More peninsulares (Spaniards born in the Spain) began pouring into the colony and began occupying the various government positions traditionally held by the criollo (Spaniards born in the Philippines). In the 300 years of colonial rule, the criollos have been accustomed to being semi-autonomous with the governor-general being the only Spaniard (peninsulares) in the islands. The criollos demanded representation in the Spanish Cortes where they could express their agrievances. This together with the secularization issue gave rise to the Criollo Insurgencies.

Criollo insurgencies

In the late 18th century, Criollo (or Insulares, "islanders," as they were locally called) writers began spreading the ideals of the French Revolution in the Philippines. At the same time, a royal decree ordered the secularization of Philippine churches and many parishes were turned over to Philippine-born priests. Halfway in the process, it was aborted with the return of the Jesuits to the Philippines and the religious orders retaking Philippine parishes. One instance that enraged the Insulares was the Franciscan take over of the richest parish in the islands which had been under the Philippine-born priests, that of Antipolo. In the early 19th century, Fathers Pedro Pelez and Mariano Gmez began organizing activities that demanded the return of control of Philippine parishes to Filipino seculars. Father Pelez, who was Archbishop of the Manila Cathedral, died in an earthquake while Father Gmez retired to private life. The next generation of Insular activists included Father Jos Burgos who organized the student rallies in the University of Santo Tomas. In the political front, activists like Joaqun Pardo de Tavera and Jacobo Zobel. The unrest escalated into a large insurgency when Andres Novales, a creole captain, declared the independence of the Philippines from Spain and crowned himself Emperor of the Philippines in 1823.In January 1872, the conflict of Insular uprisings came when soldiers and workers of the Cavite Arsenal of Fort San Felipe mutinied. They were led by Sergeant Ferdinand La Madrid, a Spanish mestizo. The soldiers mistook the fireworks in Quiapo for the feast of St. Sebastian as the signal for a national uprising which had long been planned. The colonial government used the incident to spread a reign of terror and liquidate subversive political and church figures. Among them were Priest Mariano Gmez, Jos Burgos, and Jacinto Zamora who were executed through the garrote on February 18, 1872. They are remembered in Philippine history as Gomburza.

Organizations La Solidaridad, La Liga Filipina and the Propaganda Movement

The Terror of 1872, its deportation of Criollos and Mestizos to the Mariana Islands and Europe created a colony of Filipino expatriates in Europe, particularly in Madrid. Filipinos in Europe founded the La Solidaridad, a newspaper that pressed for reforms in the Philippines through propaganda. As such, this movement is also known in history as the Propaganda Movement. La Solidaridad included the membership of leading Spanish liberals such as Morayta. Among the pioneering editors of the paper were Graciano Lpez Jaena, Marcelo H. del Pilar, and Jos Rizal. [34] The Propaganda Movement in Europe managed to get the Spanish legislature to pass some reforms in the islands but the colonial government did not implement them. After years of publication from 1889 to 1895, La Solidaridad had begun to run out of funds without accomplishing concrete changes in the Philippines. Jos Rizal decided to return to the Philippines and founded La Liga Filipina, the Manila chapter of the Propaganda Movement. Merely days after its founding, Rizal was arrested by colonial authorities and deported to Dapitan, and the Liga was discontinued. Ideological differences had contributed to the dissolution of Liga. Conservative upper class members favoring reform, under the leadership of Apolinario Mabini, set up the Cuerpo de Compromisarios which tried to revive La Solidaridad in Europe. Other, more radical

members belonging to the middle and lower classes, led by Andrs Bonifacio, had already set up the Katipunan alongside the revived Liga. The aims of the Propaganda Movement included the equality of Filipino and Spaniards before the law, restoration of Philippine representation in the Spanish Cortes, "Filipinization" of the Catholic parishes, and the granting of individual liberties to Filipinos such as freedom of speech, freedom of press, freedom of assembly, and freedom to petition for grievances.

Katipunan

Part of the Philippine Revolution

Flag of the Katipunan, 1892 Background Events Factions Key organizations Objects Various revolts and uprisings Magdalo Magdiwang Propaganda Movement La Liga Filipina Noli me Tangere El filibusterismo La Solidaridad Organization Andrs Bonifacio Emilio Aguinaldo Ladislao Diwa Gregoria de Jesus Teodoro Plata Deodato Arellano Valentn Daz Jos Dizon

Leaders

Members

Melchora Aquino Po Valenzuela Emilio Jacinto Antonio Luna Josephine Bracken Artemio Ricarte Daniel Tirona Jos Santiago Manuel Tinio Len Kilat Arcadio Maxilom

Andrs Bonifacio, Deodato Arellano, Ladislao Diwa, Teodoro Plata and Valentn Daz founded the Katipunan (in full, Kataas-taasang, Kagalang-galangang Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan [ "Supreme and Venerable Society of the Children of the Nation") in Manila on July 7, 1892. The organization, advocating independence through armed revolt against Spain, was influenced by Freemasonry through its rituals and organization; Bonifacio, Emilio Aguinaldo, and other leading members were also Freemasons. From Manila, the Katipunan expanded into several provinces, including Batangas, Laguna, Cavite, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Nueva Ecija, Ilocos Sur, Ilocos Norte, Pangasinan, Bicol and Mindanao. Most of the members, called Katipuneros, came from the lower and middle classes. The Katipunan had "its own laws, bureaucratic structure and elective leadership". For each province it involved, the Katipunan Supreme Council (Kataas-taasang Kapulungan, of which Bonifacio was a member and eventually head) coordinated provincial councils ( Sangguniang Bayan) which were in charge of "public administration and military affairs on the supra-municipal or quasi-provincial level" and local councils ( Panguluhang Bayan), in charge of affairs "on the district or barrio level". By 1895 Bonifacio was the supreme leader (Supremo) or supreme president (Presidente Supremo) of the Katipunan and headed its Supreme Council. Some estimates by historians of the membership of the society by 1896 range from 30,000 to 400,000; other historians argue that Katipunero numbers ranged only from a few hundred to a few thousand.

Start of the revolution

Bonifacio's Katipunan battle flag.

Cry of Pugad Lawin Monument, Quezon City.

The existence of the Katipunan eventually became known to the authorities through a member, Teodoro Patio, who revealed it to a Spanish priest, Mariano Gil. Patio was engaged in a bitter personal dispute with fellow Katipunero Apolonio de la Cruz and exposed the Katipunan in revenge. Father Gil was led to the printing press of the newspaper Diario de Manila, where a lithographic stone used to print the secret society's receipts was uncovered. A locker was seized containing a dagger and secret documents. As with the Terror of 1872, colonial authorities ensued several arrests which included some of the wealthiest ilustrados, including Jos Rizal. Despite having no involvement in the secessionist movement, many of them were executed, notably Don Francisco Roxas. Bonifacio had forged their signatures into Katipunan documents hoping that they would be forced to support the revolution. In the last days of August, 1896, Bonifacio called Katipunan members to a mass gathering in Caloocan, where they decided to start a nationwide armed revolution against Spain.The event was marked by a mass tearing of cedulas (community tax certificates) accompanied by patriotic cries. The exact date and location are disputed, but two possibilities have been officially endorsed by the Philippine government: August 26 in Balintawak and later, August 23 in Pugad Lawin. Thus the event is called the "Cry of Pugad Lawin" or "Cry of Pugad Lawin|Cry of Balintawak". However the issue is further complicated by other dates such as August 24 and 25 and other locations such as Kangkong, Bahay Toro and Pasong Tamo. Furthermore, at the time "Balintawak" referred not only to a specific place, but also a general area which included some of these proposed sites like Kangkong. Upon the discovery of the Katipunan Bonifacio sent a circular to all Katipunan councils to a meeting in Balintawak or Kangkong to discuss their situation. This is dated by historian Teodoro Agoncillo to August 19[ and by revolutionary leader Santiago lvarez to August 22. On August 21, Katipuneros were already congregating in Balintawak ] in Caloocan. Late in the evening amidst heavy rain, the rebels moved to Kangkong in Caloocan, and arrived there past midnight. As a precaution, the rebels moved to Bahay Toro or Pugad Lawin on August 23. Agoncillo places the Cry and tearing of certificates at this point the house of Juan Ramos at Pugad Lawin. Alvarez writes that they met at the house of Melchora Aquino (known as Tandang Sora, and mother of Juan Ramos) in Bahay Toro on that date. Agoncillo places Aquino's house in Pasong Tamo and the meeting there on August 24.n any case, rebels continued to congregate and by August 24, they were over a thousand strong.

Katipunan members Andres Bonifacio (left) and Emilio Jacinto (right).

On August 24, it was decided to notify the Katipunan councils of the surrounding towns that a general attack on the capital Manila was planned for August 29. Bonifacio appointed generals to lead rebel forces to Manila. Before hostilities erupted, Bonifacio also reorganized the Katipunan into an open revolutionary government, with him as President and the Supreme Council of the Katipunan as his cabinet. On the morning of August 25, the rebels came under attack by a Spanish civil guard unit, the rebels having greater numbers but the Spanish being better armed. The forces disengaged after a brief skirmish and casualties on both sides. Another skirmish took place on August 26 which sent the rebels retreating toward Balara. At noon, Bonifacio and some of his men briefly rested in Diliman. In the afternoon, civil guards sent to Caloocan to investigate attacks on Chinese merchants done by bandits who had attached themselves to the rebels came across a group of Katipuneros and briefly engaged them. The commander of the guards, a Lieutenant Ros, reported the encounter to the authorities and this report drove Governor-General Ramn Blanco to prepare for coming hostilities. From August 27 to 28, Bonifacio moved from Balara to Mt. Balabak in Hagdang Bato, Mandaluyong. There meetings were held in order to finalize their plans for the Manila attack the following day. Bonifacio issued the following general proclamation: This manifesto is for all of you. It is absolutely necessary for us to stop at the earliest possible time the nameless oppositions being perpetrated on the sons of the country who are now suffering the brutal punishment and tortures in jails, and because of this please let all the brethren know that on Saturday, the 29th of the current month, the revolution shall commence according to our agreement. For this purpose, it is necessary for all towns to rise simultaneously and attack Manila at the same time. Anybody who obstructs this sacred ideal of the people will be considered a traitor and an enemy, except if he is ill; or is not physically fit, in which case he shall be tried according to the regulations we have put in force. Mount of Liberty, 28 August 1896 - ANDRS BONIFACIO

The conventional view among Filipino historians is that Bonifacio did not carry out the planned Katipunan attack on Manila on the following day and instead attacked a powder magazine at San Juan del Monte. However, more recent studies have advanced the view that the planned attack did push through; according to this view, Bonifacio's battle at San Juan del Monte (now called the "Battle of Pinaglabanan") was only a part of a bigger whole a "battle for Manila" hitherto unrecognized as such. Hostilities in the area started on the evening of August 29, when hundreds of rebels attacked the Civil Guard garrison in Pasig, just as hundreds of other rebels personally led by Bonifacio were massing in San Juan del Monte, which they attacked hours later on the 30th. Bonifacio planned to capture the San Juan del Monte powder magazine along with a water station supplying Manila. The defending Spaniards, outnumbered, fought a delaying battle until reinforcements arrived. Once reinforced, the Spaniards drove Bonifacio's forces back with heavy casualties. Elsewhere rebels attacked Mandaluyong, Sampaloc, Sta. Ana, Pandacan, Pateros, Marikina, and Caloocan as well as Makati and Tagig.[45] Balintawak in Caloocan saw intense fighting. Rebel troops tended to gravitate towards fighting in San Juan del Monte and Sampaloc. South of Manila, a thousand-strong rebel force attacked a small force of civil guards. In Pandacan Katipuneros attacked the parish church, making the parish priest run for his life. After their defeat in San Juan del Monte, Bonifacio's troops regrouped near Marikina, San Mateo and Montalban, where they proceeded to attack these areas. They captured these areas but were driven back by Spanish counterattacks, and Bonifacio eventually ordered a retreat to Balara. On the way, Bonifacio was nearly killed shielding Emilio Jacinto from a Spanish bullet which grazed his collar.Despite his reverses, Bonifacio was not completely defeated and was still considered a threat. North of Manila, the towns of San Francisco de Malabon, Noveleta and Kawit in Cavite rose in rebellion. In Nueva Ecija rebels in San Isidro led by Mariano Llanera attacked the Spanish garrison on September 24; they were repulsed. By August 30, the revolt had spread to eight provinces. On that date, Governor-General Blanco declared a "state of war" in these provinces and placed them under martial law. These were Manila, Bulacan, Cavite, Pampanga, Tarlac, Laguna, Batangas, and Nueva Ecija.[33][45][not in citation given] They would later be represented in the eight rays of the sun in the Filipino flag. The rebels had few firearms; they were mostly armed with bolo knives and bamboo spears. The lack of guns has been given as a possible reason why the Manila attack allegedly never materialized. Also, the Katipunan leaders from Cavite had earlier expressed reservations about starting an uprising due to their lack of firearms and preparation. As a result, they did not send troops to Manila but attacked garrisons in their own locales. Some historians have argued that the Katipunan defeat in the Manila area was (partly) the Cavite rebels' fault due to their absence, as their presence would have proved crucial. In their memoirs, Cavite rebel leaders justified their absence in Manila by claiming Bonifacio failed to execute pre-arranged signals to begin the uprising such as setting balloons loose

and extinguishing the lights at the Luneta park. However, these claims have been dismissed as "historical mythology"; as reasoned by historians, if they were really waiting for signals before marching on Manila, they would have arrived "too late for the fray". Bonifacio's command for a simultaneous attack is interpreted as evidence that such signals were never arranged. Other factors for the Katipunan defeat include the capture of his battle plans by Spanish intelligence. The Spanish concentrated their forces in the Manila area while pulling out troops in other provinces (which proved beneficial for rebels in other areas, particularly Cavite). The authorities also pre-empted a mass defection of 500 native troops by transferring their regiment to Marawi, Mindanao, which later rebelled there.

Final Statement and Execution of Jos Rizal

Rizal's execution in what was then Bagumbayan. When the revolution broke out, Rizal was in Cavite, awaiting the monthly mailboat to Spain. He had volunteered, and been accepted, for medical service in the Cuban War of Independence. The mailboat left on September 3 and arrived in Barcelona, which was under martial law, on October 3, 1896. After a brief confinement at Montjuich prison, Rizal was advised by Captain-General Eulogio Despujol that he would not be going on to Cuba, but would be sent back to the Philippines instead. Upon his return he was imprisoned in Fort Santiago. While incarcerated, Rizal petitioned Governor-General Ramn Blanco for permission to make a statement on the rebellion. His petition was granted, and Rizal wrote the Manifesto Algunos Filipinos, wherein he decried the use of his name "as a war-cry among certain people who were up in arms"; ]stated that "for reforms to bear fruit, they must come from above, since those that come from below will be irregular and uncertain shocks"; and affirmed that he "condemn[s], this absurd, savage insurrection"However, the text was suppressed on the recommendation of the Judge-Advocate General.

Revolution in Cavite

Emilio Aguinaldo the first Philippine President.

By December, the Spanish authorities in Manila recognized three major centers of rebellion: Cavite (under Emilio Aguinaldo and others), Bulacan (under Mariano Llanera) and Morong (now part of Rizal, under Bonifacio). Bonifacio served as tactician for the rebel guerillas though his prestige suffered when he lost battles he personally led. Meanwhile in Cavite, Katipuneros under Emilio Aguinaldo, mayor of Cavite El Viejo (modern Kawit) and Mariano Alvarez, Bonifacio's uncle by marriage, won early victories. Aguinaldo commissioned Edilberto Evangelista, an engineer, to plan the defense and logistics of the revolution in Cavite. His first victory was in the Battle of Imus on September 1, 1896 with the aid of Jose Tagle defeating the Spanish forces under General Ernesto Aguirre. The Cavite revolutionaries, particularly Aguinaldo, won prestige in defeating Spanish troops in "set piece" battles while other rebels like Bonifacio and Llanera were engaged in guerrilla warfare. Aguinaldo, speaking for the Magdalo ruling council, issued a manifesto proclaiming a provisional and revolutionary government after his early successes despite the existence of Bonifacio's Katipunan government. The Katipunan in Cavite was divided into two councils: the Magdiwang (led by Alvarez) and the Magdalo (led by Baldomero Aguinaldo, Emilio's cousin). At first these two Katipunan councils cooperated with each other in the battlefield, as in the battles of Binakayan and Dalahican. However, rivalries between command and territory soon developed and they refused to cooperate and aid each other in battle. In order to unite the Katipunan in Cavite, the Magdiwang through Artemio Ricarte and Pio Del Pilar invited Bonifacio, who was fighting in Morong (present-day Rizal) province to mediate between the factions. Perhaps due to his kinship ties with their leader, Bonifacio was seen as partial to the Magdiwang. It was not long before the issue of leadership was debated. The Magdiwang faction recognized Bonifacio as supreme leader, being the head of the Katipunan. The Magdalo faction agitated for Emilio Aguinaldo to be the movement's head because of his personal successes in the battlefield compared to Bonifacio's record of personal defeats. Meanwhile the Spanish troops, now under the command of the new Governor-General Camilo de Polavieja, steadily gained ground.

Tejeros Convention
On December 31, an assembly was convened in Imus to settle the leadership status. The Magdalo insisted on the establishment of revolutionary government to replace the Katipunan and continue the struggle. On the other hand, the Magdiwang favored retention of the Katipunan, arguing that it was already a government in itself. The assembly dispersed without a consensus. On March 22, 1897, another meeting was held in Tejeros. It called for the election of officers for the revolutionary government in need of a united front against a pending enemy offensive against the Magdalo faction. The Magdiwang faction allied with Bonifacio prepared and hosted the election as most of the Magdalo faction were occupied by battle preparations. Bonifacio chaired the election and called for the election results to be respected. When the voting ended, Bonifacio had lost and the leadership turned over to Aguinaldo, who was away fighting in Pasong Santol. Bonifacio eventually lost in other positions to members of his Magdiwang faction. Instead, he was elected to Director of the Interior but his qualifications were questioned by a Magdalo, Daniel Tirona. Bonifacio felt insulted and would have shot Tirona had not Artemio Ricarte intervened. Invoking his position of Supremo of the Katipunan, Bonifacio declared the election null and void and stomped out in anger. Aguinaldo took his oath of office as president the next day in Santa Cruz de Malabon (present-day Tanza) in Cavite, as did the rest of the officers, except for Bonifacio. Execution of Bonifacio In Naic, Bonifacio and his officers created the Naic Military Agreement, establishing a rival government to the newly constituted government of Aguinaldo. It rejected the election at Tejeros and asserted Bonifacio as the leader of the revolution. It ordered the forced enlistment of Filipino men to Bonifacio's army. The agreement eventually called for a coup 'd etat against the established government. When a town in Cavite refused to supply provisions, Bonifacio ordered it burned. When Aguinaldo learned of the document and reports of abuse, he ordered the arrest of Bonifacio and his soldiers (without Bonifacio's knowledge). Colonel Agapito Benzon met with Bonifacio in Limbon and attacked him the next day. Bonifacio, and his brother Procopio were wounded, while their brother Ciriaco were killed. They were taken to Naic to stand trial. The Consejo de Guerra (War Council) sentenced Andrs and Procopio to death on May 10, 1897 for committing sedition and treason. Aguinaldo commuted the punishment to deportation, but withdrew his decision following pressure from Pio Del Pilar and other officers of the revolution. On May 10, Major Lazaro Makapagal, upon orders from General Mariano Noriel, executed the Bonifacio brothers at the foothills of Mount Buntis, [ near Maragondon. Andrs and Procopio were buried in a shallow grave marked only with twigs. Biak-na-Bato

The flag used by the Republic of Biak-na-Bato.

Augmented by new recruits from Spain, government troops recaptured several towns in Cavite. As argued by Apolinario Mabini and others, the succession of defeats for the rebels could also be attributed to discontent that resulted from Bonifacio's death. Mabini wrote: This tragedy smothered the enthusiasm for the revolutionary cause, and hastened the failure of the insurrection in Cavite, because many from Manila, Laguna and Batangas, who were fighting for the province (of Cavite), were demoralized and quit... In other areas, some of Bonifacio's associates like Emilio Jacinto and Macario Sakay never subjected their military commands to Aguinaldo's authority. Aguinaldo and his men retreated northward, from one town to the next, until they finally settled in Biak-na-Bato, in the town of San Miguel de Mayumo in Bulacan. Here they established what became known as the Republic of Biak-naBato, with a constitution drafted by Isabelo Artacho, and Felix Ferrer and based on the first Cuban Constitution. With the new Spanish Governor-General Fernando Primo de Rivera declaring, "I can take Biak-na-Bato. Any army can capture it. But I cannot end the rebellion" he proffered the olive branch of peace to the revolutionaries. A lawyer named Pedro Paterno volunteered as negotiator between the two sides. For four months, he traveled between Manila and Biak-na-Bato. His hard work finally bore fruit when, on December 14 to December 15, 1897, the Pact of Biak-na-Bato was signed. Made up of three documents, it called for the following agenda:

The surrender of Aguinaldo and the rest of the revolutionary corps. Amnesty for those who participated in the revolution.. Exile to Hong Kong for the revolutionary leadership. Payment by the Spanish government of $400,000 (Mexican peso) to the revolutionaries in three installments: $200,000 (Mexican peso) upon leaving the country, $100,000 (Mexican peso) upon the surrender of at least 700 firearms, and another $200,000 (Mexican peso) upon the declaration of general amnesty.

In accordance with the first clause, Aguinaldo and twenty five other top officials of the revolution were banished to Hong Kong with $400,000 (Mexican peso) in their pockets. The rest of the men got $200,000 (Mexican peso) and the third installment was never received. General amnesty was never declared because sporadic skirmishes continued.

Further information: Pact of Biak-na-Bato

The revolution continues

Not all the revolutionary generals complied with the treaty. One, General Francisco Macabulos, established a Central Executive Committee to serve as the interim government until a more suitable one was created. Armed conflicts resumed, this time coming from almost every province in the Philippines. The colonial authorities on the other hand, continued the arrest and torture of those suspected of banditry. The Pact of Biak-na-Bato did not signal an end to the revolution. Aguinaldo and his men were convinced that the Spaniards would never give the rest of the money as a condition of surrender. Furthermore, they believed that Spain reneged on her promise of amnesty. The Filipino patriots renewed their commitment for complete independence. They purchased more arms and ammunition to ready themselves for another siege.

Spanish-American War

Battle of Manila Bay. The February, 1898 explosion and sinking of a U.S. Navy warship in Havana harbor during an ongoing revolution in Cuba led in April of that year to a declaration of war against Spain by the United States. On April 25, Commodore George Dewey sailed for Manila with a fleet of seven U.S. ships. Arriving on May 1, he encountered a fleet of twelve Spanish ships commanded by Admiral Patricio Montojo. The resulting Battle of Manila Bay lasted only a few hours, with all of Montojo's fleet destroyed. Dewey called for armed reinforcements and, while waiting, contented himself with merely acting as a blockade for Manila Bay.

Discussions between Aguinaldo and U.S. officials

Cartoon titled "The Filipino's First Bath" depicted on the cover of the Judge magazine, first published on June 10, 1899. U.S. President William McKinley is shown taking a savage baby with a spear into a body of water labeled "Civilization", while on shore figures of two youths (the one on the left labeld "Cuba", the one on the right labeled "Philippines" apparently a caricature of Emilio Aguinaldo?) steal McKinley's clothing in the form of US flag design. Under cartoon title text: McKinley: "Oh you dirty boy"

Aguinaldo wrote retrospectively in September 1899 that he had met with U.S. Consuls E. Spencer Pratt and Rounceville Wildman in Singapore between 22, and 25 April, and that they persuaded him to again take up the mantle of leadership in the revolution, with Pratt communicating with Admiral Dewey by telegram, passing assurances from Dewey to Aguinaldo that the United States would at least recognize the Independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy, and adding (as Aguinaldo writes) "... that there was no necessity for entering into a formal written agreement because the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were in fact equivalent to the most solemn pledge that their verbal promises and assurance would be fulfilled to the letter and were not to be classed with Spanish promises or Spanish ideas of a mans word of honor. In conclusion the Consul said, 'The Government of North America is a very honest, just, and powerful government.'" Aguinaldo writes of meeting with Dewey after arriving in Cavite, and recalls: "I asked whether it was true that he had sent all the telegrams to the Consul at Singapore, Mr. Pratt, which that gentleman had told me he received in regard to myself. The Admiral replied in the affirmative, adding that the United States had come to the Philippines to protect the natives and free them from the yoke of Spain. He said, moreover, that America is exceedingly well off as regards territory, revenue, and resources and therefore needs no colonies, assuring me finally that there was no occasion for me to entertain any doubts whatever about the recognition of the Independence of the Philippines by the United States."A U.S. Library of Congress Country Study on the Philippines completed in 1991 reports that by late May (the exact date is not given), the United States Department of the Navy had ordered Dewey to distance himself from Aguinaldo lest he make untoward commitments to the Philippine forces. Dean Conant Worcester, in his 1914 book The Philippines: Past and Present (vol. 1 of 2), reports that on April 27, 1908, Pratt wrote the Secretary of

State explaining how he had come to meet Aguinaldo, and stating just what he had done. Pratt said: [... some text apparently elided by Worcester ...] At this interview, after learning from General Aguinaldo the state of an object sought to be obtained by the present insurrectionary movement, which, though absent from the Philippines, he was still directing, I took it upon myself, whilst explaining that I had no authority to speak for the Government, to point out the danger of continuing independent action at this stage; and, having convinced him of the expediency of cooperating with our fleet, then at Hongkong, and obtained the assurance of his willingness to proceed thither and confer with Commodore Dewey to that end, should the latter so desire, I telegraphed the Commodore the same day as follows, through our consul-general at Hongkong:-Aguinaldo, insurgent leader, here. Will come Hongkong arrange with Commodore for general cooperation insurgents Manila if desired. Telegraph. _Pratt_. ... and that that Dewey replied to Pratt's telegram as follows: Tell Aguinaldo come soon as possible. Dewey_. Worcester points out that Pratt explained to Aguinaldo that he had no authority to speak for the government; that there was no mention in the cablegrams between Pratt and Dewey of independence or indeed of any conditions on which Aguinaldo was to cooperate, and quotes a subsequent letter describing the particulars of Pratt's second and last interview with Aguinaldo, in which Pratt reiterated that he had no authority to discuss the establishment of a Philippine government as follows: No. 213. _Consulate-General of the United States._ _Singapore_, April 30, 1898. _Sir_: Referring to my dispatch No. 212, of the 28th instant, I have the honor to report that in the second and last interview I had with Gen. Emilio Aguinaldo on the eve of his departure for Hongkong, I enjoined upon him the necessity, under Commodore Dewey's direction, of exerting absolute control over his forces in the Philippines, as no excesses on their part would be tolerated by the American Government, the President having declared that the present hostilities with Spain were to be carried on in strict accord with modern principles of civilized warfare. To this General Aguinaldo fully assented, assuring me that he intended and was perfectly able, once on the field, to hold his followers, the insurgents, in check and lead them as our commander should direct.

The general stated that he hoped the United States would assume protection of the Philippines for at least long enough to allow the inhabitants to establish a government of their own, in the organization of which he would desire American advice and assistance. These questions I told him I had no authority to discuss. I have, etc., _E. Spencer Pratt_, _United States Consul-General_. Author Worcester goes on to analyze several other items bearing on the question of whether the U.S. made promises to Aguinaldo regarding Philippine independence, and concludes with the following summary: Consul-General Pratt was, or professed to be, in hearty sympathy with the ambition of the Filipino leaders to obtain independence, and would personally have profited from such a result, but he refrained from compromising his government and made no promises in its behalf. Admiral Dewey independence. never even discussed with Aguinaldo the possibility of

There is no reason to believe that any subordinate of the Admiral ever discussed independence with any Filipino, much less made any promise concerning it. Neither Consul Wildman nor Consul Williams promised it, and both were kept in ignorance of the fact that it was desired up to the last possible moment. It is not claimed that either General Anderson or General Merritt made any promise concerning it. The conclusion that no such promise was ever made by any of these men is fully justified by well-established facts Maximo M. Kalaw wrote in a 1927 dissertation titled "The development of Philippine politics": Just exactly what transpired at the meeting between Aguinaldo and Pratt has been a matter of debate. The Englishman Bray acted as interpreter. A few of the principal facts, however, seem quite clear. Aguinaldo was not made to understand that, in consideration of Filipino cooperation, the United States would extend its sovereignty over the Islands, and thus in place of the old Spanish master a new one would step in. The truth was that nobody at the time ever thought that the end of the war would result in the retention of the Philippines by the United States.

Kalaw continues in a footnote as follows: For Aguinaldo's version of this interview, see Resea Verdica Revolucion Filipna, Chapter III; It has been claimed, probably with some truth, that Aguinaldo's Resea Verdica was not written by himself, but by somRenato Constantino, The Philippines: A Past Revisited, p.e of his cabinet members, most likely Bunecamino. The principal facts, however, must have been furnished by Aguinaldo himself. It was written, it must be confessed, at the time (about September 1899) when the question of whether Dewey and Pratt had promised Aguinaldo independence, was being asked in America. A January 7, 1899 New York Times article, referring to correspondence published officially in connection with the Treaty of Paris, reports that Wildman had been warned not to make pledges or to or discuss policy with Aguinaldo, "... and he replied that he had made him no pledges.", and that Consul Pratt had been instructed "... that it was proper for him to obtain the unconditional assistance of Gen. Aguinaldo, but not to make any political pledges." In a letter of June 20, U.S. Secretary of State William Day referred at length to the report of Pratt's conference with the Filipino leaders, saying that he feared that some of Pratt's utterances had caused apprehension "lest the Consul's action may have laid the ground of future misunderstanding and complication." and that, in reply, Pratt repeated his assurance that he had used due precaution in dealing with the Philippine leaders. A February 20, 1899 New York Times article reports that a close friend of Consul Pratt had disclosed purported "inside facts" about the conversations between Pratt and Aguinaldo, including (1) that Aguinaldo had indicated willingness to accept the same terms for the Philippines as the U.S. intended giving to Cuba (though no agreement on such terms had been reached at the time of the discussions), and (2) that Pratt was aware that Aguinaldo's policy "... clearly embraced independence for the Philippines." No mention was made in the purported "inside facts" of any agreements between Pratt and Aguinaldo regarding Philippine independence. In relation to a book titled The Philippine Islands, the Times reported on August 6, 1899 that Pratt had obtained a court order enjoining publication of certain statements "... which might be regarded as showing a positive connection" between himself and Aguinaldo.The Times reported the court upholding Pratt's position that he had "no dealings of a political character" with Aguinaldo and restraining further publication of the book. A June 27, 1902 New York Times article reports Admiral Dewey testifying before the U.S. Congress that he had made no promises. The Times article reports Dewey describing his telegraphic exchange with Pratt as follows: "The day before we left Hong Kong I received a telegram from Consul General Pratt, located at Singapore, saying Aguinaldo was at Singapore and would join me at Hong Kong. I replied, 'All right, tell him to come aboard,' but attached so little importance to the message that I sailed without Aguinaldo and before he arrived." Aguinaldo returns to the Philippines

On May 7, 1898, the American dispatch-boat McCulloch arrived in Hong Kong from Manila, bringing reports of Dewey's May 1 victory in the battle of Manila Bay but with no orders regarding transportation of Aguinaldo. The McCulloch again arrived in Hong Kong on May 15, bearing orders to transport Aguinaldo to Manila. Aguinaldo departed Hong Kong aboard the McCulloch on May 17, arriving in off Cavite in Manila Bay on May 19. Public jubilance marked Aguinaldo's return. Several revolutionaries, as well as Filipino soldiers employed by the Spanish army, crossed over to Aguinaldo's command. Soon after, Imus and Bacoor in Cavite, Paraaque and Las Pias in Morong, Macabebe, and San Fernando in Pampanga, as well as Laguna, Batangas, Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Bataan, Tayabas (present-day Quezon), and the Camarines provinces, were liberated by the Filipinos. They were also able to secure the port of Dalahican in Cavite. The revolution was gaining ground.

German Involvement
During the war, Germany dispatched a fleet to Manila Bay in order to strengthen German claims on the Philippines if the United States abandons the archipelago. The German fleet of five ships and two auxiliaries, commanded by Vice Admiral Otto von Diederichs, is ostensibly in Philippine waters to protect German interests by cutting in front of US ships, refusing to salute the US flag and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish, which had been cut off from many supply sources in the country. Even before the Spanish-American war, the Germans allied themselves with Spain when it comes to the possession of the country. Spanish authorities claimed that Jose Rizal, along with other reformers, prefer German government to rule the country. German presence irritated the American blockade, most especially because the German fleet clearly outnumbers the American fleet of six small warships. Dewey, however, dealt with von Diederichs early enough to avoid any war between Germany and the United States. The German fleet soon backed down.

Denouement
The Spanish colonial government, now under Governor-General Basilio Augustn y Dvila, in order to win over the Filipinos from Aguinaldo and the Americans, established the Volunteer Militia and Consultative Assembly. Both groups were made up of Filipino recruits. However, most of them remained loyal to the revolution. The Volunteer Militia literally joined its supposed enemy, while the Assembly, chaired by Paterno, never had the chance to accomplish their goals.

The member or his son who, while not having the means shall show application and great capacity, shall be sustained; The poor shall be supported in his right against any powerful person;

The member who shall have suffered any loss shall be aided; Capital shall be loaned to the member who shall need it for an industry or agriculture; The introduction of machines and industries, new or necessary in the country, shall be favored; and Shops, stores, and establishment shall be opened where the members may be accommodated more economically than elsewhere.

Capture of Manila
The United States Navy waited for American reinforcements and, refusing to allow the Filipinos to participate in taking Manila from Spain, captured the city on August 13, 1898 in what may have been a staged battle.

Declaration of Independence
By June 1898, the island of Luzon, except for Manila and the port of Cavite, was under Philippine control. The revolutionaries were laying siege to Manila and cutting off its food and water supply. With most of the archipelago under his control, Aguinaldo decided it was time to establish a Philippine government. When Aguinaldo arrived from Hong Kong, he brought with him a copy of a plan drawn by Mariano Ponce, calling for the establishment of a revolutionary government. Upon the advice of Ambrosio Rianzares Bautista, however, an autocratic regime was established instead on May 24, with Aguinaldo as dictator. It was under this dictatorship that independence was finally proclaimed on June 12, 1898 in Aguinaldo's house in Kawit, Cavite. The first Filipino flag was unfurled and the national anthem was played for the first time. Apolinario Mabini, Aguinaldo's closest adviser, was opposed to Aguinaldo's decision towards a dictatorial rule. He instead urged for the reformation of a government that could prove its stability and competency as prerequisite. Aguinaldo refused to do so; however, Mabini was able to convince him to turn his autocratic administration into a revolutionary one. Aguinaldo established a revolutionary government on July 23.

Aftermath
Upon the recommendations of the decree that established the revolutionary government, a Congreso Revolucionario was assembled at Barasoain Church in Malolos, Bulacan. All of the delegates to the congress were from the ilustrado class. Mabini objected to the call for a constitutional assembly; when he did not succeed, he drafted a constitution of his own, and this too failed. A draft by an ilustrado lawyer Felipe Caldern y Roca was instead laid on the table and this became the framework upon which the assembly drafted the first constitution.

On November 29, the assembly, now popularly-called Malolos Congress, finished the draft. However, Aguinaldo, who always placed Mabini in high esteem and heeded most of his advice, refused to sign it when the latter objected. On January 21, 1899, after a few modifications were made to suit Mabini's arguments, the constitution was finally approved by the congreso and signed by Aguinaldo. Two days later, the Philippine Republic (also called the First Republic and Malolos Republic) was inaugurated in Malolos with Aguinaldo as president. On June 2, 1899, the Malolos Congress of the First Philippine Republic enacted and ratified a Declaration of War on the United States, which was publicly proclaimed on that same day by Pedro Paterno, President of the Assembly, and the PhilippineAmerican War ensued.

Philippine-American War

The Battle of Manila, February 1899. On 4 February 1899, general hostilities between Filipino and American forces began when an American sentry patrolling near the border between the Filipino and American lines shot a Filipino soldier, after which Filipino forces returned fire, thus igniting a second battle for the city. Aguinaldo sent a ranking member of his staff to Ellwell Otis, the U.S. military commander, with the message that the firing had been against his orders. According to Aguinaldo, Otis replied, "The fighting, having begun, must go on to the grim end."The Philippines declared war against the United States on June 2, 1899, with Pedro Paterno, President of Congress, issuing a Proclamation of War The PhilippineAmerican War ensued between 1899, and 1902. The war officially ended in 1902 with the Philippine leaders accepting, for the most part, that the Americans had won, but not until over one million Filipinos had died in the American part of the conflict and occupation (200,000 men, women and children during the war itself), over 20% of the Filipino population had been killed, and in many cases exterminated. American atrocities during the war and subsequent occupation included an episode on the island of Palawan in 1911, the commanding colonel noticed that Muslims go to great lengths to give a wide berth to avoid dogs even small ones. This odd phenomenon, though he had seen frequently, never struck the colonel to investigate before. This time though, he made inquiries, and was informed that Muslims are not allowed to touch dogs. (The Hadith, details the reasons for this. Prophet Muhammad did not realize where the horrible stinking smell was coming from, until three days later, he saw his dead puppy dog decomposing under his

bedstead. The Prophet decreed dogs were "Najis"(unclean), and from then on, Muslims are not allowed to touch dogs, especially its saliva around the mouth). The colonel then immediately ordered for as many dogs as he could get. As soon as 37 dogs were delivered, he sent his men armed with dogs into the local Muslims houses (bedrooms, kitchen, and all) in a house to house search supposedly for Muslim resistance fighters. This type of house to house searches terrified the local Muslims. The Muslim leaders immediately cooperated with the Americans by voluntarily and freely catching the resistance fighters (dead or alive) and handing them over to the Americans. Soon after, an American General, John L. Hansen Jr. who was in charge of the larger southern Philippine Island of Mindanao was amused to know of the Palawan episode and had seven captured Muslim prisoners dig their own graves. The eighth prisoner was handcuffed and made to watch the American execution process. The seven prisoners were then tied to seven posts, but without blindfolds, so that they too could see the proceedings of their own execution. In Muslim belief if a pig contaminated their bodies, they would go direct to the fires of hell permanently. The soldiers then slaughtered a live pig in front of them. The prisoners clothes and body were smeared with the pig's blood and fat. The pig was cut into seven portions and placed in each grave. At sundown, the prisoners were shot and their bodies were placed in each grave, together with the chunk of pork. The eighth prisoner was ordered to fill up the seven graves and subsequently set free. In November 1901, the Manila correspondent of the Philadelphia Ledger reported:
The present war is no bloodless, opera buffet engagement; our men have been relentless, have killed to exterminate men, women, children, prisoners and captives, active insurgents and suspected people from lads of ten up, the idea prevailing that the Filipino as such was little better than a dog... Our soldiers have pumped salt water into men to make them talk, and have taken prisoners people who held up their hands and peacefully surrendered, and an hour later, without an atom of evidence to show that they were even insurrects, stood them on a bridge and shot them down one by one, to drop into the water below and float down, as examples to those who found their bullet-loaded corpses

In Manila, a U.S. Marine named Little town Waller, a major, was accused of shooting eleven defenseless Filipinos, without trial, on the island of Samar. Other marine officers described his testimony:
The major said that General Smith instructed him to kill and burn, and said that the more he killed and burned the better pleased he would be; that it was no time to take prisoners, and that he was to make Samar a howling wilderness. Major Waller asked General Smith to define the age limit for killing, and he replied Everything over ten

In the province of Batangas, the secretary of the province estimated that of the population of 300,000, one third had been killed by combat, famine, or disease. American firepower was overwhelmingly superior to anything the Filipino rebels could put together. In the very first battle, Admiral Dewey steamed up the

Pasig River and fired 500-pound shells into the Filipino trenches. Dead Filipinos were piled so high that the Americans used their bodies for breastworks. A British witness said: This is not war; it is simply massacre and murderous butchery. SpanishAmerican War The SpanishAmerican War was a conflict in 1898 between Spain and the United States, effectively the result of American intervention in the ongoing Cuban War of Independence. American attacks on Spain's Pacific possessions led to involvement in the Philippine Revolution and ultimately to the PhilippineAmerican War. Revolts against Spanish rule had been endemic for decades in Cuba and were closely watched by Americans; there had been war scares before, as in the Virginias Affair in 1873. By 189798, American public opinion grew angrier at reports of Spanish atrocities in Cuba. After the mysterious sinking of the American battleship Maine in Havana harbor, political pressures from the Democratic Party pushed the administration of Republican President William McKinley into a war he had wished to avoid. Compromise proved impossible, resulting in the United States sending an ultimatum to Spain demanding it immediately surrender control of Cuba, which the Spanish rejected. First Madrid, then Washington, formally declared war. Although the main issue was Cuban independence, the ten-week war was fought in both the Caribbean and the Pacific. American naval power proved decisive, allowing U.S. expeditionary forces to disembark in Cuba against a Spanish garrison already reeling from nationwide insurgent attacks and wasted by yellow fever. Cuban, Philippine, and American forces obtained the surrender of Santiago de Cuba and Manila owing to their numerical superiority in most of the battles and despite the good performance of some Spanish infantry units and spirited defenses in places like San Juan Hill.[11] With two obsolete Spanish squadrons sunk in Santiago de Cuba and Manila Bay and a third, more modern fleet recalled home to protect the Spanish coasts, Madrid sued for peace. The result was the 1898 Treaty of Paris, negotiated on terms favorable to the U.S., which allowed temporary American control of Cuba and, following their purchase from Spain, indefinite colonial authority over Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines. The defeat and collapse of the Spanish Empire was a profound shock to Spain's national psyche, and provoked a thoroughgoing philosophical and artistic reevaluation of Spanish society known as the Generation of '98.The victor gained several island possessions spanning the globe and a rancorous new debate over the wisdom of expansionism.

UNIT III THE AMERICAN COLONIAL ERA

The rule of the United States over the Philippines had two phases The first phase was from 1898 to 1935, during which time Washington defined its colonial mission as one of tutelage and preparing the Philippines for

eventual independence. Political organizations developed quickly, and the popularly elected Philippine Assembly (lower house) and the U.S.-appointed Philippine Commission (upper house) served as a bicameral legislature. The ilustrados formed the Federalista Party, but their statehood platform had limited appeal. In 1905 the party was renamed the National Progressive Party and took up a platform of independence. The Nacionalista Party was formed in 1907 and dominated Filipino politics until after World War II. Its leaders were not ilustrados. Despite their immediate independence platform, the party leaders participated in a collaborative leadership with the United States. A major development emerging in the post-World War I period was resistance to elite control of the land by tenant farmers, who were supported by the Socialist Party and the Communist Party of the Philippines. Tenant strikes and occasional violence occurred as the Great Depression wore on and cash-crop prices collapsed. The second period of United States rulefrom 1936 to 1946was characterized by the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines and occupation by Japan during World War II. Legislation passed by the U.S. Congress in 1934 provided for a 10-year period of transition to independence. The countrys first constitution was framed in 1934 and overwhelmingly approved by plebiscite in 1935, and Manuel Quezon was elected president of the commonwealth. Quezon later died in exile in 1944 and was succeeded by Vice President Sergio Osmea. Japan attacked the Philippines on December 8, 1941, and occupied Manila on January 2, 1942. Tokyo set up an ostensibly independent republic, which was opposed by underground and guerrilla activity that eventually reached large-scale proportions. A major element of the resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Huks (short for Hukbalahap, or Peoples Anti-Japanese Army). Allied forces invaded the Philippines in October 1944, and the Japanese surrendered on September 2, 1945. World War II was demoralizing for the Philippines, and the islands suffered from rampant inflation and shortages of food and other goods. Various trade and security issues with the United States also remained to be settled before Independence Day. The Allied leaders wanted to purge officials who collaborated with the Japanese during the war and to deny them the right to vote in the first postwar elections. Commonwealth President Osmea, however, countered that each case should be tried on its own merits. The successful Liberal Party presidential candidate, Manual Roxas, was among those collaborationists. Independence from the United States came on July 4, 1946, and Roxas was sworn in as the first president. The economy remained highly dependent on U.S. markets, and the United States also continued to maintain control of 23 military installations. A bilateral treaty was signed in March 1947 by which the United States continued to provide military aid, training, and matriel. The PhilippineAmerican War, also known as the Philippine War of Independence or the Philippine Insurrection (18991902), was an armed conflict between the United States and Filipino revolutionaries. The conflict arose from the struggle of the First Philippine Republic to gain independence following annexation by the United States. The war was part of a

series of conflicts in the Philippine struggle for independence, preceded by the Philippine Revolution and the SpanishAmerican War. Fighting erupted between U.S. and Filipino revolutionary forces on February 4, 1899, and quickly escalated into the 1899 Battle of Manila. On June 2, 1899, the First Philippine Republic officially declared war against the United States. The war officially ended on July 4, 1902. [16] However, members of the Katipunan society continued to battle the American forces. Among them was General Macario Sacay, a veteran Katipunan member who assumed the presidency of the proclaimed Tagalog Republic, formed in 1902 after the capture of President Aguinaldo. Other groups, including the Moro people and Pulahanes, continued hostilities until their defeat at the Battle of Bud Bagsak on June 15, 1913. The war and occupation by the United States would change the cultural landscape of the islands, as the Opposipeople dealt with an estimated 34,000 1,000,000 casualties, disestablishment of the Catholic Church as the Philippine state religion (as the United States allowed freedom of religion), and the introduction of the English language as the primary language of governmentand most businesses. In 1916, the United States promised some self-government, a limited form of which came in 1935. In 1946, following World War II, the United States gave the territory independence through the Treaty of Manila.

Historical background Spain's colonial retrenchment

The combined traumas of the Peninsular War, the loss of most of its colonies in the Americas in the early 19th century Spanish American wars of independence, and two disastrous Carlist wars effected a new interpretation of Spains remaining empire. Liberal Spanish elites like Antonio Cnovas del Castillo and Emilio Castelar tried to redefine "empire" to dovetail with Spain's emerging nationalism. As Cnovas made clear in an address to the University of Madrid in 1882, the Spanish nation was a cultural and linguistic concept that tied Spains colonies to the metropole despite the oceans that separated them. Cnovas argued that Spain was markedly different from rival empires like Britain and France. Unlike these empires, spreading civilization was Spains unique contribution to the New World. This popular reimagining of the Spanish Empire bestowed special significance on Cuba as an integral part of the Spanish nation. The focus on preserving the empire would have disastrous consequences for Spains sense of national identity in the aftermath of the war.

American interest in Caribbean

In 1823, U.S. President James Monroe enunciated the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the United States would not tolerate further efforts by European governments to colonize land or interfere with states in the Americas; however,

Spain's colony in Cuba was exempted. Before the Civil War Southern interests attempted to have the U.S. purchase Cuba and make it new slave territory. The proposal failed, and national attention shifted to the Civil War. The U.S. became interested in a canal either in Nicaragua, or in Panama, where the Panama Canal was built, and realized the need for naval protection. Captain Alfred Thayer Mahan was an especially influential theorist; his ideas were much admired by Theodore Roosevelt, as the U.S. rapidly built a powerful fleet in the 1890s. Roosevelt served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy in 189798 was an aggressive supporter of a war with Spain over Cuba. Meanwhile the Cuba Libre movement, led by Cuban intellectual Jos Mart, had established offices in Florida and New York to buy and smuggle weapons. It mounted a large propaganda campaign to generate sympathy that would lead to official pressure on Spain. Protestant churches and Democratic farmers were supportive, but business interests called on Washington to ignore them. Although Cuba attracted American attention, little note was made of the Philippines, Guam, or Puerto Rico. Historians see little popular demand for an empire, but note that Britain, France, Germany and Japan had expanded their overseas empires dramatically, in Africa, Asia and the Pacific.

The path to war Cuban struggle for independence

The first serious bid for Cuban independence, the Ten Years War, erupted in 1868 and was suppressed by the Spanish colonial authorities a decade later. Neither the brutal fighting nor the reforms in the Pact of Zanjn (February 1878) quelled the desire of some revolutionaries for independence. One such revolutionary, Jos Mart, continued to promote Cuban financial and political autonomy even in exile. In early 1895, after years of organizing, Mart launched a three-pronged invasion of the island. The plan called for one group from Santo Domingo led by Mximo Gmez, one group from Costa Rica led by Antonio Maceo Grajales, and another from the United States (preemptively thwarted by U.S. officials in Florida) to land in different places on the island and provoke a nationalist revolution. While their call for revolution, the grito de Bare, was successful, the expected revolution was not the grand show of force Mart had expected. With a quick victory effectively lost, the revolutionaries settled in to fight a protracted guerrilla campaign. Antonio Cnovas del Castillo, the architect of Spains Restoration constitution and the prime minister at the time, ordered General Arsenio Martnez-Campos, a distinguished veteran of the war against the previous uprising in Cuba, to quell the revolt. Camposs reluctance to accept his new assignment and his method of

containing the revolt to the province of Oriente earned him ridicule in the Spanish press. The mounting political pressure thus forced Cnovas to replace General Campos with General Valeriano Weyler y Nicolau, a soldier who had proved he could quash rebellions in the colonies and the Spanish metropole. Weyler deprived the insurgency of weaponry, supplies, and assistance by ordering the residents of some Cuban districts to move to reconcentration camps near the military headquarters. Although this strategy was brutally effective at slowing the spread of rebellion, it stirred indignation in the United States. McKinley remarked that this was not civilized warfare" but "extermination.

Spanish attitude

A Catalan satirical drawing published in La Campana de Grcia (1896), criticizing U.S. behavior regarding Cuba.

The Spanish government regarded Cuba as a province of Spain rather than a colony, and depended on it for prestige and trade, and as a training ground for the army. Prime minister Cnovas del Castillo announced that the Spanish nation is disposed to sacrifice to the last peseta of its treasure and to the last drop of blood of the last Spaniard before consenting that anyone snatch from it even one piece of its territory.[ He had long dominated and stabilized Spanish politics. He was assassinated in 1897, leaving a Spanish political system that was not stable and could not risk a blow to its prestige.

U.S. Response
The eruption of the Cuban revolt, Weylers measures, and the popular fury these events whipped up proved to be a boon to the newspaper industry in New York City, where Joseph Pulitzer of the New York World and William Randolph Hearst of the New York Journal recognized the potential for great headlines and stories that would sell copies. Both papers covered Spains actions and Weylers tactics in a way that confirmed the popular disparaging attitude toward Spain in America. In the minds, schoolbooks, and scholarship of the mostly Protestant U.S. public, the Catholic Spanish Empire was a backward, immoral union built on the backs of enslaved natives and funded with stolen gold.

The U.S. had important economic interests that were being harmed by the prolonged conflict and deepening uncertainty about the future of Cuba. Shipping firms that relied heavily on trade with Cuba suffered huge losses as the conflict continued unresolved. These firms pressed Congress and McKinley to seek an end to the revolt. Other U.S. business concerns, specifically those who had invested in Cuban sugar, looked to the Spanish to restore order. Stability, not war, was the goal of both interests. How stability would be achieved would depend largely on the ability of Spain and the U.S. to work out their issues diplomatically. President McKinley, well aware of the political complexity surrounding the conflict, wanted to end the revolt peacefully. Threatening to consider recognizing Cubas belligerent status, and thus allowing the legal rearming of Cuban insurgents by U.S. firms, he sent Stewart L. Woodford to Madrid to negotiate an end to the conflict. With Prxedes Sagasta, an open advocate of Cuban autonomy, now Prime Minister of Spain (the more hard-line Cnovas del Castillo had been assassinated before Woodford arrived), negotiations went smoothly. Cuban autonomy was set to begin on January 1, 1898.

USS Maine

The sunken USS Maine in Havana harbor.

Eleven days after the Cuban autonomous government took power, a small riot erupted in Havana. The riot was thought to be ignited by Spanish officers who were offended by the persistent newspaper criticism of General Valeriano Weylers policies.McKinley sent the USS Maine to Havana to ensure the safety of American citizens and interests. The need for the U.S. to send Maine to Havana had been expected for months, but the Spanish government was notified just 18 hours before its arrival, which was contrary to diplomatic convention. Preparations for the possible conflict started in October 1897, when President McKinley arranged for Maine to be deployed to Key West, Florida, as a part of a larger, global deployment of U.S. naval power to attack simultaneously on several fronts if the war was not avoided. As Maine left Florida, a large part of the North Atlantic Squadron was moved to Key West and the Gulf of Mexico. Others were also moved just off the shore of Lisbon, and still others were moved to Hong Kong.

At 9:40 pm on February 15, 1898, Maine sank in Havana harbor after suffering a massive explosion. While McKinley preached patience, the news of the explosion and the death of 266 sailors stirred popular American opinion into demanding a swift belligerent response. McKinley asked Congress to appropriate $50 million for defense, and Congress unanimously obliged. Most American leaders took the position that the cause of the explosion was unknown, but public attention was now riveted on the situation and Spain could not find a diplomatic solution to avoid war. It appealed to the European powers, all of whom advised Spain to back down and avoid war. The U.S. Navys investigation, made public on March 28, concluded that the ships powder magazines were ignited when an external explosion was set off under the ships hull. This report poured fuel on popular indignation in the U.S., making the war inevitable. Spains investigation came to the opposite conclusion: the explosion originated within the ship. Other investigations in later years came to various contradictory conclusions, but had no bearing on the coming of the war. In 1974, Admiral Hyman George Rickover had his staff look at the documents and decided there was an internal explosion. A study commissioned by National Geographic magazine in 1999, using AME computer modeling, stated that the explosion could have been caused by a mine, but no definitive evidence was found.

Declaring war

United States Army officer Colonel Charles A. Wikoff was the most senior U.S. military officer killed in the SpanishAmerican War.

After the Maine was destroyed, newspaper publishers Hearst and Pulitzer decided that the Spanish were to blame, and they publicized this theory as fact in their New York City papers using sensationalistic and astonishing accounts of "atrocities" committed by the Spanish in Cuba. Their press exaggerated what was happening and how the Spanish were treating the Cuban prisoners. The stories were based on truth but written with incendiary language causing emotional and often heated responses among readers. A common myth states, to the opinion of his illustrator Frederic Remington, that conditions in Cuba were not bad enough to warrant hostilities, Hearst responded: "You furnish the pictures and I'll furnish the war." This new "yellow journalism" was, however, uncommon outside New York City, and historians no longer consider it the major force shaping the national mood.

Public opinion nationwide did demand immediate action, overwhelming the efforts of President McKinley, Speaker of the House Thomas Brackett Reed, and the business community to find a negotiated solution. A speech delivered by Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont on March 17, 1898 thoroughly analyzed the situation, concluding that war was the only answer. The speech helped provide one final push for the United States to declare war. Many in the business and religious communities, which had, until then, opposed war, switched sides, leaving McKinley and Speaker Reed almost alone in their resistance to a war. On April 11, McKinley ended his resistance and asked Congress for authority to send American troops to Cuba to end the civil war there, knowing that Congress would force a war. On April 19, while Congress was considering joint resolutions supporting Cuban independence, Senator Henry M. Teller of Colorado proposed the Teller Amendment to ensure that the U.S. would not establish permanent control over Cuba after the war. The amendment, disclaiming any intention to annex Cuba, passed the Senate 42 to 35; the House concurred the same day, 311 to 6. The amended resolution demanded Spanish withdrawal and authorized the President to use as much military force as he thought necessary to help Cuba gain independence from Spain. President McKinley signed the joint resolution on April 20, 1898, and the ultimatum was sent to Spain. In response, Spain broke off diplomatic relations with the United States on April 21. On the same day, the U.S. Navy began a blockade of Cuba. Spain declared war on April 23. On April 25, Congress declared that a state of war between the U.S. and Spain had existed since April 21, the day the blockade of Cuba had begun. The Navy was ready, but the Army was not well-prepared for the war and made radical changes in plans and quickly purchased supplies. In the spring of 1898, the strength of the Regular U.S. Army was just 28,000 men. The Army wanted 50,000 new men but received over 220,000, through volunteers and the mobilization of state National Guard units.

Pacific Theater Philippines

The Pacific theatre of the SpanishAmerican War.

In the 300 years of Spanish rule, the country developed from a small overseas colony governed from the Viceroyalty of New Spain to a land with modern elements in the cities. The Spanish-speaking middle classes of the 19th century

were mostly educated in the liberal ideas coming from Europe. Among these Ilustrados was the Filipino national hero Jos Rizal, who demanded larger reforms from the Spanish authorities. This movement eventually led to the Philippine Revolution against Spanish colonial rule. The revolution had been in a state of truce since the signing of the Pact of Biak-na-Bato in 1897, with revolutionary leaders having accepted exile outside of the country.

The Battle of Manila Bay.

The first battle between American and Spanish forces was at Manila Bay where, on May 1, Commodore George Dewey, commanding the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron aboard USS Olympia, in a matter of hours defeated a Spanish squadron under Admiral Patricio Montojo. Dewey managed this with only nine wounded. With the German seizure of Tsingtao in 1897, Dewey's squadron had become the only naval force in the Far East without a local base of its own, and was beset with coal and ammunition problems. Despite these problems, the Asiatic Squadron not only destroyed the Spanish fleet but also captured the harbor of Manila. Following Dewey's victory, Manila Bay was filled with the warships of Britain, Germany, France and Japan.The German fleet of eight ships, ostensibly in Philippine waters to protect German interests, acted provocatively cutting in front of American ships, refusing to salute the United States flag (according to customs of naval courtesy), taking soundings of the harbor, and landing supplies for the besieged Spanish. The Germans, with interests of their own, were eager to take advantage of whatever opportunities the conflict in the islands might afford. The Americans called the bluff of the Germans, threatening conflict if the aggression continued, and the Germans backed down.At the time, the Germans expected the confrontation in the Philippines to end in an American defeat, with the revolutionaries capturing Manila and leaving the Philippines ripe for German picking. Commodore Dewey transported Emilio Aguinaldo, a Filipino leader who had led rebellion against Spanish rule in the Philippines in 1896, to the Philippines from exile in Hong Kong to rally more Filipinos against the Spanish colonial government. By June, U.S. and Filipino forces had taken control of most of the islands, except for the walled city of Intramuros. On June 12, Aguinaldo proclaimed the independence of the Philippines.

On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a cease-fire had been signed between Spain and the U.S. on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish. This battle marked the end of FilipinoAmerican collaboration, as the American action of preventing Filipino forces from entering the captured city of Manila was deeply resented by the Filipinos. This later led to the PhilippineAmerican War, which would prove to be more deadly and costly than the SpanishAmerican War. The U.S. had sent a force of some 11,000 ground troops to the Philippines. Armed conflict broke out between U.S. forces and the Filipinos when U.S. troops began to take the place of the Spanish in control of the country after the end of the war, resulting in the PhilippineAmerican War. On August 14, 1899, the Schurman Commission recommended that the U.S. retain control of the Philippines, possibly granting independence in the future.

AMERICAN RULE
On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission (the Schurman Commission), a five-person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of Cornell University, and including Admiral Dewey and General Otis, to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations. In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it. Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools. The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws. A judicial system was established, including a Supreme Court, and a legal code was drawn up to replace antiquated Spanish ordinances. A civil service was organized. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors. In July 1901 the Philippine Constabulary was organized as an archipelago-wide police force to control brigandage and deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement. After military rule was terminated on July 4, 1901, the Philippine Constabulary gradually took over from United States army units the responsibility for suppressing guerrilla and bandit activities. From the very beginning, United States presidents and their representatives in the islands defined their colonial mission as tutelage: preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. Except for a small group of "retentionists," the issue was not whether the Philippines would be granted self-rule, but when and under what conditions. Thus political development in the islands was rapid and particularly

impressive in light of the complete lack of representative institutions under the Spanish. The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 stipulated that, with the achievement of peace, a legislature would be established composed of a lower house, the Philippine Assembly, which would be popularly elected, and an upper house consisting of the Philippine Commission, which was to be appointed by the president of the United States. The two houses would share legislative powers, although the upper house alone would pass laws relating to the Moros and other non-Christian peoples. The act also provided for extending the United States Bill of Rights to Filipinos and sending two Filipino resident commissioners to Washington to attend sessions of the United States Congress. In July 1907, the first elections for the assembly were held, and it opened its first session on October 16, 1907. Political parties were organized, and, although open advocacy of independence had been banned during the insurgency years, criticism of government policies in the local newspapers was tolerated. Taft, the Philippines' first civilian governor, outlined a comprehensive development plan that he described as "the Philippines for the Filipinos . . . that every measure, whether in the form of a law or an executive order, before its adoption, should be weighed in the light of this question: Does it make for the welfare of the Filipino people, or does it not?" Its main features included not only broadening representative institutions but also expanding a system of free public elementary education and designing economic policies to promote the islands' development. Filipinos widely interpreted Taft's pronouncements as a promise of independence. The 1902 Philippine Organic Act disestablished the Catholic Church as the state religion. The United States government, in an effort to resolve the status of the friars, negotiated with the Vatican. The church agreed to sell the friars' estates and promised gradual substitution of Filipino and other non-Spanish priests for the friars. It refused, however, to withdraw the religious orders from the islands immediately, partly to avoid offending Spain. In 1904 the administration bought for US$7.2 million the major part of the friars' holdings, amounting to some 166,000 hectares, of which one-half was in the vicinity of Manila. The land was eventually resold to Filipinos, some of them tenants but the majority of them estate owners.

Commonwealth of the Philippines

Commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon with United States President Franklin D. Roosevelt in Washington, D.C.

The Great Depression in the early thirties hastened the progress of the Philippines towards independence. In the United States it was mainly the sugar industry and labor unions that had a stake in loosening the U.S. ties to the Philippines since they could not compete with the Philippine cheap sugar (and other commodities) which could freely enter the U.S. market. Therefore, they agitated in favor of granting independence to the Philippines so that its cheap products and labor could be shut out of the United States. In 1933, the United States Congress passed the Hare-Hawes-Cutting Act as a Philippine Independence Act over President Herbert Hoover's veto. Though the bill had been drafted with the aid of a commission from the Philippines, it was opposed by Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon, partially because of provisions leaving the United States in control of naval bases. Under his influence, the Philippine legislature rejected the bill. The following year, a revised act known as the Tydings-McDuffie Act was finally passed. The act provided for the establishment of the Commonwealth of the Philippines with a ten-year period of peaceful transition to full independence. The commonwealth would have its own constitution and be self-governing, though foreign policy would be the responsibility of the United States, and certain legislation required approval of the United States president. The Act stipulated that the date of independence would be on the 4th July following the tenth anniversary of the establishment of the Commonwealth. A Constitutional Convention was convened in Manila on July 30, 1934. On February 8, 1935, the 1935 Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines was approved by the convention by a vote of 177 to 1. The constitution was approved by President Franklin D. Roosevelt on March 23, 1935 and ratified by popular vote on May 14, 1935. On 17 September 1935, presidential elections were held. Candidates included former president Emilio Aguinaldo, the Iglesia Filipina Independiente leader Gregorio Aglipay, and others. Manuel L. Quezon and Sergio Osmea of the Nacionalista Party were proclaimed the winners, winning the seats of president and vice-president, respectively.

UNIT IV THE PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION Background

PHILIPPINE REVOLUTION On July 7, 1892, Andrs Bonifacio, a warehouseman and clerk from Manila, established the Katipunan, a revolutionary organization which aimed to gain independence from Spanish colonial rule by armed revolt. [17] The Katipunan spread throughout the provinces, and the Philippine Revolution of 1896 was led by its members, called Katipuneros.[1][18] Fighters in Cavite province won early victories. One of the most influential and popular Cavite leaders was Emilio Aguinaldo, mayor of Cavite El Viejo (modern-day Kawit), who gained control of much of eastern Cavite. Eventually Aguinaldo and his faction gained control of the leadership of the movement. In 1897, Aguinaldo was elected president of an insurgent government while the outmaneuvered Bonifacio was executed for treason. Aguinaldo is officially considered the first president of the Philippines.

Aguinaldo's exile and return

Emilio Aguinaldo in the field By December 1897 the struggle had come to a stalemate. In August 1897 armistice negotiations were opened between Aguinaldo and the current Spanish governor-general, Fernando Primo de Rivera. By mid-December an agreement was reached in which the governor would pay Aguinaldo a sum described in the agreement as "$800,000 (Mexican)" in three installments if Aguinaldo would go into exile. Aguinaldo then established himself in Hong Kong. Before leaving, Aguinaldo denounced the Revolution, exhorted Filipino combatants to disarm and declared those who continued hostilities to be bandits. However, some Filipino revolutionaries did continue armed struggle against the Spanish colonial government. Aguinaldo wrote retrospectively in 1899 that he had met with U.S. Consuls E. Spencer Pratt and Rounceville Wildman in Singapore in 1898 between April 22 and 25 and that they persuaded him to again take up the mantle of leadership in the revolution, with Pratt communicating with Admiral George Dewey (the U.S. Navy's Asiatic Squadron commander) by telegram, passing assurances from Dewey to Aguinaldo that the United States would at least recognize the independence of the Philippines under the protection of the United States Navy, and adding that there was no necessity for entering into a formal written agreement because the word of the Admiral and of the United States Consul were in fact equivalent to the most solemn pledge that their verbal promises and assurance would be fulfilled to the letter and were not to be classed with Spanish promises or Spanish ideas of a mans word of honor. Aguinaldo reports agreeing to return to the Philippines, traveling from Singapore to Hong Kong aboard the steamship Malacca, onwards from Hong Kong on American dispatch-boat McCulloch, and arriving in Cavite on May 19. The New York Times wrote on August 6, 1899 that Pratt had obtained a court order enjoining the publication of certain statements "... which might be regarded as showing a positive connection" between himself and Aguinaldo. The Times reports the court ruling to uphold Mr. Pratt's position that he had "no dealings of a political character" with Aguinaldo and the book publisher withdrew from publication statements to the contrary. In Camiguin, Aguinaldo reports meeting with Admiral Dewey, and recalls: "I asked whether it was true that he had sent all the telegrams to the Consul at Singapore, Mr. Pratt, which that gentleman had told me he received in regard to myself. The Admiral replied in the affirmative, adding that the United States had come to the Philippines to protect the natives and free them from the yoke of Spain. He said, moreover, that America is exceedingly well off as regards territory, revenue, and resources and therefore needs no colonies, assuring me finally that there was no occasion for me to entertain any doubts whatever about the recognition of the Independence of the Philippines by the United States. " By late May Dewey had been ordered by the U.S. Department of the Navy to distance himself from Aguinaldo lest he make untoward commitments to the Philippine forces.

A late 19th century photograph of Filipino Katipuneros.

In a matter of months after Aguinaldo's return, Filipino revolutionary forces conquered nearly all of Spanish-held ground within the Philippines. With the exception of Manila, which was completely surrounded by revolutionary forces some 12,000 strong; the Filipinos now controlled the Philippines. Aguinaldo also turned over 15,000 Spanish prisoners to the Americans, offering them valuable intelligence. On June 12 Aguinaldo declared independence at his house in Cavite El Viejo. On August 13, with American commanders unaware that a peace protocol had been signed between Spain and the United States on the previous day, American forces captured the city of Manila from the Spanish. Governor-General Fermin Jaudenes had made a secret agreement with Dewey and General Wesley Merritt. Jaudenes specifically requested to surrender only to the Americans, not to the Filipino rebels. To save face, he proposed a mock battle with the Americans preceding the Spanish surrender; the Filipinos would not be allowed to enter the city. Dewey and Merritt agreed to this, and no one else in either camp knew about the agreement. On the eve of the mock battle, General Thomas M. Anderson telegraphed Aguinaldo, Do not let your troops enter Manila without the permission of the American commander. On this side of the Pasig River you will be under fire.

1899 political cartoon by Winsor McCay. Uncle Sam (representing the United States), gets entangled with rope around a tree labelled "Imperialism" while trying to subdue a

bucking colt or mule labeled "Philippines" while a figure representing Spain walks off over the horizon carrying a bag labeled "$20,000,000".

At the beginning of the war allies against Spain in all but name; now Spanish and Americans were in a partnership that excluded the Filipino insurgents. Fighting between American and Filipino troops almost broke out as the former moved in to dislodge the latter from strategic positions around Manila on the eve of the attack. Aguinaldo had been told bluntly by the Americans that his army could not participate and would be fired upon if it crossed into the city. The insurgents were infuriated at being denied triumphant entry into their own capital, but Aguinaldo bided his time. Relations continued to deteriorate, however, as it became clear to Filipinos that the Americans were in the islands to stay. The June 12 declaration of Philippine independence had not been recognized by either the United States or Spain, and the Spanish government ceded the Philippines to the United States in the 1898 Treaty of Paris, which was signed on December 10, 1898, in consideration for an indemnity for Spanish expenses and assets lost. On January 1, 1899, Aguinaldo was declared President of the Philippinesthe only president of what would be later called the First Philippine Republic. He later organized a Congress at Malolos, Bulacan to draft a constitution Admiral Dewey later argued that he had promised nothing regarding the future:
"From my observation of Aguinaldo and his advisers I decided that it would be unwise to cooperate with him or his adherents in an official manner... In short, my policy was to avoid any entangling alliance with the insurgents, while I appreciated that, pending the arrival of our troops, they might be of service."

War against the United States Conflict origins

Filipino soldiers outside Manila in 1899

Filipino historian Teodoro Agoncillo writes of "American Apostasy", saying that it was the Americans who first approached Aguinaldo in Hong Kong and Singapore to persuade him to cooperate with Dewey in wresting power from the Spanish. Conceding that Dewey may not have promised Aguinaldo American recognition and Philippine independence (Dewey had no authority to make such

promises), he writes that Dewey and Aguinaldo had an informal alliance to fight a common enemy, that Dewey breached that alliance by making secret arrangements for a Spanish surrender to American forces, and that he treated Aguinaldo badly after the surrender was secured. Agoncillo concludes that the American attitude towards Aguinaldo "... showed that they came to the Philippines not as a friend, but as an enemy masking as a friend."

American soldiers guard a bridge ca. 1898

On December 21, 1898, President McKinley issued a Proclamation of Benevolent assimilation. General Otis delayed its publication until January 4, 1899, then publishing an amended version edited so as not to convey the meanings of the terms "sovereignty", "protection", and "right of cessation" which were present in the unabridged version. However, General Marcus Miller, then in Iloilo and unaware that an altered version had been published by Otis, passed a copy of the unabridged proclamation to a Filipino official there. The unaltered version then found its way to Aguinaldo who, on January 5, issued a counter-proclamation: "My government cannot remain indifferent in view of such a violent and aggressive seizure of a portion of its territory by a nation which arrogated to itself the title of champion of oppressed nations. Thus it is that my government is disposed to open hostilities if the American troops attempt to take forcible possession of the Visayan islands. I denounce these acts before the world, in order that the conscience of mankind may pronounce its infallible verdict as to who are true oppressors of nations and the tormentors of mankind. " In a revised proclamation issued the same day, Aguinaldo protested "most solemnly against his intrusion of the United States Government on the sovereignty of these islands." Otis regarded these two proclamations as tantamount to war, alerting his troops and strengthening observation posts. On the other hand, Aguinaldo's proclamations energized the masses with a vigorous determination to fight what was perceived as an ally turned enemy. On the evening of February 4, two American sentries, one of which was Pvt. Robert William Greyson, on guard duty at Manila's San Juan del Monte bridge fired the shots which began the 1899 Battle of Manila. The following day, General Arthur MacArthur, without investigating the cause of the firing, ordered his troops to advance against Filipino troops, beginning a full-scale armed clash.

First Philippine Commission

Wounded American soldiers at Santa Mesa, Manila in 1899.

On January 20, 1899, President McKinley had appointed Dr. Jacob Gould Schurman to chair a commission, with Dean C. Worcester, Charles H. Denby, Admiral Dewey, and General Otis as members, to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations. Fighting had erupted between U.S. and Filipino forces in February, and the non-military commission members found General Otis looking on the commission as an infringement upon his authority when they arrived in March. In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it. Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian control over Manila (Otis would have veto power over the citys government), creation of civilian government as rapidly as possible, especially in areas already declared pacified (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including the establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a system of free public elementary schools. On November 2, 1900 Dr. Schurman signed the following statement:
"Should our power by any fatality be withdrawn, the commission believe that the government of the Philippines would speedily lapse into anarchy, which would excuse, if it did not necessitate, the intervention of other powers and the eventual division of the islands among them. Only through American occupation, therefore, is the idea of a free, selfgoverning, and united Philippine commonwealth at all conceivable. And the indispensable need from the Filipino point of view of maintaining American sovereignty over the archipelago is recognized by all intelligent Filipinos and even by those insurgents who desire an American protectorate. The latter, it is true, would take the revenues and leave us the responsibilities. Nevertheless, they recognize the indubitable fact that the Filipinos cannot stand alone. Thus the welfare of the Filipinos coincides with the dictates of national honour in forbidding our abandonment of the archipelago. We cannot from any point of view escape the responsibilities of government which our sovereignty entails; and the commission is strongly persuaded that the performance of our national duty will prove the greatest blessing to the peoples of the Philippine Islands. [...]"

Second Philippine Commission

The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. Between September 1900 and August 1902 it issued 499 laws. A judicial system was established, including a Supreme Court, and a legal code was drawn up to replace antiquated Spanish ordinances. A civil service was organized. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors.

American War Strategy American Tactics

The American military strategy in the Philippines shifted from a conventional footing against Spain to a suppression footing against the insurrection. Tactics were changed toward control of key areas with internment and segregation of the civilian population in "zones of protection" from the guerrilla population. Due to unsanitary conditions, many of the interned died from dysentery. Support for American imperial actions in the Philippines was justified by those in the U.S. government and media who supported the conflict through the use of moralistic oration. Stuart Creighton Miller writes "Americans altruistically went to war with Spain to liberate the Cubans, Puerto Ricans, and Filipinos from their tyrannical yoke. If they lingered on too long in the Philippines, it was to protect the Filipinos from European predators waiting in the wings for an American withdrawal and to tutor them in American-style democracy."
General Otis's Actions

General Otis gained a significant amount of notoriety for his actions in the Philippines. Although multiple orders were given to Otis from Washington to avoid military conflict, he did very little to circumvent the breakout of war. Notably, shortly after fighting began he turned down a proposal from Emilio Aguinaldo to end the fighting, stating fighting, having begun, must go on to the grim end. Otis refused to accept anything but unconditional surrender from the Philippine Army. He often made major military decisions on his own, without first consulting leadership in Washington at all. He acted aggressively in dealing with the Filipinos under the impression that their resistance would collapse quickly; even after this proved false, he continued to insist that the insurgency had been defeated, and that the remaining casualties were caused by isolated bands of outlaws. Otis also played a large role in suppressing information about American military tactics from the media. When letters describing American atrocities reached the American media, the War Department became involved and demanded that General Otis investigate their authenticity. Each press clipping was forwarded to the original writers commanding officer, who would then convince or force the soldier to write a retraction of the original statements.

Meanwhile, Otis claimed that Filipino insurgents tortured American prisoners in fiendish fashion. During the closing months of 1899 Emilio Aguinaldo attempted to counter General Otiss account by suggesting that neutral partiesforeign journalists or representatives of the International Red Crossinspect his military operations. Otis refused, but Emilio Aguinaldo managed to smuggle four reporters two English, one Canadian, and one Japaneseinto the Philippines. The correspondents returned to Manila to report that American captives were treated more like guests than prisoners, were fed the best that the country affords, and everything is done to gain their favor. The story went on to say that American prisoners were offered commissions in the Filipino army and that three had accepted. The four reporters were expelled from the Philippines as soon as their stories were printed. Naval Lieutenant J.C. Gilmore, whose release was forced by American cavalry pursuing Aguinaldo into the mountains, insisted that he had received considerable treatment and that he was no more starved than were his captors. Otis responded to these two articles by ordering the capture of the two authors, and that they be investigated, therefore questioning their loyalty. When F.A. Blake of the International Red Cross arrived at Emilio Aguinaldos request, Otis kept him confined to Manila, where Otiss staff explained all of the Filipinos' violations of civilized warfare. Blake managed to slip away from an escort and venture into the field. Blake never made it past American lines, but even within American lines he saw burned out villages and horribly mutilated bodies, with stomachs slit open and occasionally decapitated. Blake waited to return to San Francisco, where he told one reporter that American soldiers are determined to kill every Filipino in sight.

Philippine war strategy

ManilaFilipino attack on the barracks of Co. C, 13th Minnesota Volunteers, during the Tondo Fire.

Estimates of the Filipino forces vary between 100,000 to 1,000,000, with tens of thousands of auxiliaries. Lack of weapons and ammunition was a significant

impediment to the Filipinos, so most of the forces were only armed with bolo knife, bows and arrows, and spears. The goal, or end-state, sought by the First Philippine Republic was a sovereign, independent, socially stable Philippines led by the ilustrado (intellectual) oligarchy. Local chieftains, landowners, and businessmen were the principales who controlled local politics. The war was strongest when illustrados, principales, and peasants were unified in opposition to annexation. The peasants, who provided the bulk of guerrilla manpower, had interests different from their illustrado leaders and the principales of their villages Coupled with the ethnic and geographic fragmentation, unity was a daunting task. The challenge for Aguinaldo and his generals was to sustain unified Filipino public opposition; this was the revolutionaries' strategic center of gravity. The Filipino operational center of gravity was the ability to sustain its force of 100,000 irregulars in the field. The Filipino general Francisco Macabulos described the Filipinos' war aim as, not to vanquish the U.S. Army but to inflict on them constant losses. They sought to initially use conventional tactics and an increasing toll of U.S. casualties to contribute to McKinley's defeat in the 1900 presidential election. Their hope was that as President the avowedly anti-imperialist William Jennings Bryan would withdraw from the Philippines. They pursued this short-term goal with guerrilla tactics better suited to a protracted struggle. While targeting McKinley motivated the revolutionaries in the short term, his victory demoralized them and convinced many undecided Filipinos that the United States would not depart precipitately.

Guerrilla war phase

For most of 1899, the revolutionary leadership had viewed guerrilla warfare strategically only as a tactical option of final recourse, not as a means of operation which better suited their disadvantaged situation. On November 13, 1900, Emilio Aguinaldo decreed that guerrilla war would henceforth be the strategy. This made American occupation of the Philippine archipelago all the more difficult over the next few years. In fact, during just the first four months of the guerrilla war, the Americans had nearly 500 casualties. The Philippine Army began staging bloody ambushes and raids, such as the guerrilla victories at Paye, Catubig, Makahambus, Pulang Lupa, Balangiga and Mabitac. At first, it even seemed as if the Filipinos would fight the Americans to a stalemate and force them to withdraw. This was even considered by President McKinley at the beginning of the phase. The shift to guerrilla warfare drove the US Army to a "total-war" doctrine. Civilians were given identification and forced into concentration camps with a publicly announced deadline after which all persons found outside of camps without identification would be shot on sight. Thousands of civilians died in these camps due to poor conditions. Decline and fall of the First Philippine Republic

A group of Filipino combatants are photographed just as they lay down their weapons prior to their surrender.

The Philippine Army continued suffering defeats from the better armed United States Army during the conventional warfare phase, forcing Aguinaldo to continually change his base of operations, which he did for nearly the length of the entire war. On March 23, 1901 General Frederick Funston and his troops captured Aguinaldo in Palanan, Isabela, with the help of some Filipinos (called the Macabebe Scouts after their home locale) who had joined the Americans' side. The Americans pretended to be captives of the Scouts, who were dressed in Philippine Army uniforms. Once Funston and his "captors" entered Aguinaldo's camp, they immediately fell upon the guards and quickly overwhelmed them and the weary Aguinaldo. On April 1, 1901, at the Malacaang Palace in Manila, Aguinaldo swore an oath accepting the authority of the United States over the Philippines and pledging his allegiance to the American government. On April 19, he issued a Proclamation of Formal Surrender to the United States, telling his followers to lay down their weapons and give up the fight. Let the stream of blood cease to flow; let there be an end to tears and desolation, Aguinaldo said. The lesson which the war holds out and the significance of which I realized only recently, leads me to the firm conviction that the complete termination of hostilities and a lasting peace are not only desirable but also absolutely essential for the well-being of the Philippines. The capture of Aguinaldo dealt a severe blow to the Filipino cause, but not as much as the Americans had hoped. General Miguel Malvar took over the leadership of the Filipino government, or what remained of it.He originally had taken a defensive stance against the Americans, but now launched all-out offensive against the American-held towns in the Batangas region. General Vincente Lukban in Samar, and other army officers, continued the war in their respective areas. In response General J. Franklin Bell adopted tactics to counter Malvar's guerrilla strategy. Forcing civilians to live in concentration camps, Use of water cure interrogation, and his scorched earth campaigns took a heavy toll on the Filipino revolutionaries.

The 24th U.S. Infantry at drill, Camp Walker, Philippine Islands 1902

Bell also relentlessly pursued Malvar and his men, breaking ranks, dropping morale, and forcing the surrender of many of the Filipino soldiers. Finally, Malvar surrendered, along with his sick wife and children and some of his officers, on April 13, 1902. By the end of the month nearly 3,000 of Malvar's men had also surrendered. With the surrender of Malvar, the Filipino war effort began to dwindle even further.

Official end to the war

The Philippine Organic Act, approved on July 1, 1902, ratified McKinley's previous executive order which established the Philippine Commission, and stipulated that a legislature would be established composed of a popularly elected lower house, the Philippine Assembly, and an upper house consisting of the Philippine Commission. The act also provided for extending the United States Bill of Rights to Filipinos. On July 2. the U.S. Secretary of War telegraphed that since the insurrection against the U.S. had ended and provincial civil governments had been established, the office of military governor was terminated. On July 4, Theodore Roosevelt, who had succeeded to the U.S. Presidency after the assassination of President McKinley on September 5, 1901, proclaimed a full and complete pardon and amnesty to all people in the Philippine archipelago who had participated in the conflict.

Irreconcilables
Historian Renato Constantino has suggested that the war unofficially continued for nearly a decade since remnants of the Katipunan and other resistance groups, collectively known as Irreconcilables, remained active fighting the United States Military or Philippine Constabulary.After the close of the war, however, Governor General Taft preferred to rely on the Philippine Constabulary and to treat the Irreconcibiles as a law enforcement concern rather than a military concern requiring the involvement of the American army. He was, in fact, criticized for this. On September 25, 1903 in Bicol, Simeon Ola of Guinobatan, Albay surrendered in place of Malvar, becoming arguably the last Filipino general to surrender.[75] In 1902 Macario Sakay a veteran Katipunan member formed another

Tagalog Republic, called Katagalugan after Bonifacio's, in southern Luzon. The republic ended in 1906 when Sakay and his top followers were arrested and executed the following year by the American authorities as bandits, after they had accepted an amnesty offer.

Pulajanes

Captain Cornelius C. Smith, a Medal of Honor recipient, with members of the 14th U.S. Cavalry in 1904.

Quasi-religious armed groups also fought Americans in assorted provinces. These groups included the pulajanes, so called because of their red garments; the colorum, from a corruption of the Latin in saecula saeculorum part of the Glory Be to the Father prayer; and Dios-Dios, literally "God-God". They were mostly composed of farmers and other poor people, led by messianic leaders such as Dionisio Seguela, a.k.a. Papa Isio ("Isio the Pope"), and subscribed to a blend of Roman Catholic and folk belief. For example, they believed amulets, called agimat or anting-anting, would make them bulletproof. These movements were all dismissed by the American government as bandits, fanatics or cattle rustlers.The last of these groups were defeated or had surrendered by 1913. Moro Rebellion The American government had a peace treaty with the Sultanate of Sulu at the outbreak of the war with Aguinaldo that was supposed to prevent war in Moro territory. However, after the resistance in the north was crippled, the United States began to colonize Moro land, which provoked the Moro Rebellion. Beginning with the Taraca, which occurred on April 4, 1904, American forces battled Datu Ampuanagus, who surrendered after losing 200 members of his people. [1][78] Numerous battles would occur after that up until the end of the conflict on June 15, 1913. During the conflict, the battles of Bud Dajo and Bud Bagsak were among the most notable since casualties included women and children.

Political atmosphere American opposition

Some Americans, notably William Jennings Bryan, Mark Twain, Andrew Carnegie, Ernest Crosby, and other members of the American Anti-Imperialist League, strongly

objected to the annexation of the Philippines. Anti-imperialist movements claimed that the United States had become a colonial power, by replacing Spain as the colonial power in the Philippines. Other anti-imperialists opposed annexation on racist grounds. Among these was Senator Benjamin Tillman of South Carolina, who feared that annexation of the Philippines would lead to an influx of non-white immigrants into the United States. As news of atrocities committed in subduing the Philippines arrived in the United States, support for the war flagged. Mark Twain famously opposed the war by using his influence in the press. He said the war betrayed the ideals of American democracy by not allowing the Filipino people to choose their own destiny.
There is the case of the Philippines. I have tried hard, and yet I cannot for the life of me comprehend how we got into that mess. Perhaps we could not have avoided itperhaps it was inevitable that we should come to be fighting the natives of those islandsbut I cannot understand it, and have never been able to get at the bottom of the origin of our antagonism to the natives. I thought we should act as their protectornot try to get them under our heel. We were to relieve them from Spanish tyranny to enable them to set up a government of their own, and we were to stand by and see that it got a fair trial. It was not to be a government according to our ideas, but a government that represented the feeling of the majority of the Filipinos, a government according to Filipino ideas. That would have been a worthy mission for the United States. But nowwhy, we have got into a mess, a quagmire from which each fresh step renders the difficulty of extrication immensely greater. I'm sure I wish I could see what we were getting out of it, and all it means to us as a nation.

In a diary passage removed by Twain's first biographical editor Thomas Bigelow Paine, Twain refers to American troops as our uniformed assassins and describes their killing of six hundred helpless and weaponless savages in the Philippines as a long and happy picnic with nothing to do but sit in comfort and fire the Golden Rule into those people down there and imagine letters to write home to the admiring families, and pile glory upon glory.

Filipino collaboration
Some of Aguinaldo's associates supported America, even before hostilities began. Pedro Paterno, Aguinaldo's prime minister and the author of the 1897 armistice treaty with Spain, advocated the incorporation of the Philippines into the United States in 1898. Other associates sympathetic to the U.S. were Trinidad Pardo de Tavera and Benito Legarda, prominent members of Congress; Gregorio Araneta, Aguinaldo's Secretary of Justice; and Felipe Buencamino, Aguinaldo's Secretary of Foreign Affairs. Buencamino is recorded to have said in 1902: "I am an American and all the money in the Philippines, the air, the light, and the sun I consider American." Many such people subsequently held posts in the colonial government.
U.S. Army Captain Matthew Arlington Batson formed the Macabebe Scouts[81] as a native guerrilla force to fight the insurgency.

Atrocities American atrocities

Enraged by a guerrilla massacre of U.S. troops on the Island of Samar, General Jacob H. Smith retaliated by carrying out an indiscriminate attack upon its inhabitants. [82] His order "KILL EVERY ONE OVER TEN" became a caption in the New York Journal cartoon on May 5, 1902. The Old Glory draped an American shield on which a vulture replaced the bald eagle. The bottom caption exclaimed, "Criminals Because They Were Born Ten Years Before We Took the Philippines". Published in the New York Journal-American, May 5, 1902. Smith was eventually court-martialed by the American military and forced to retire.

The number of Filipino casualties was at the time, and still is, debated and politicized. It is estimated that some 34,000 Filipino soldiers lost their lives and that as many as 200,000 civilians may have died directly or indirectly as a result of the war, most due to a major cholera epidemic that broke out near its end. In 1908 Manuel Arellano Remondo, in General Geography of the Philippine Islands, wrote: The population decreased due to the wars, in the five-year period from 1895 to 1900, since, at the start of the first insurrection, the population was estimated at 9,000,000, and at present (1908), the inhabitants of the Archipelago do not exceed 8,000,000 in number. In light of the massive casualties suffered by the civilian population, Filipino historian E. San Juan, Jr., alleges that the death of 1.4 million Filipinos constitutes an act of genocide on the part of the United States. Atrocities were committed on both sides. United States attacks into the countryside often included scorched earth campaigns in which entire villages were burned and destroyed, the use of torture (water cure[87]) and the concentration of civilians into "protected zones". In November 1901, the Manila correspondent of the Philadelphia Ledger reported: The present war is no bloodless, opera bouffe engagement; our men have been relentless, have killed to exterminate men, women, children, prisoners and captives, active insurgents and suspected people from lads of ten up, the idea prevailing that the Filipino as such was little better than a dog...."

American soldiers' letters and response

Throughout the entire war American soldiers would write home about the horrors and atrocities which the United States committed in the Philippines. In these letters they would criticize General Otis and the U.S. military; when these letters reached anti-imperialist editors they became national news and forced the War Department to look into their truthfulness. Two of the letters went as follows:

1. A New York-born soldier: The town of Titatia [sic] was surrendered to us a few days ago, and two companies occupy the same. Last night one of our boys was found shot and his stomach cut open. Immediately orders were received from General Wheaton to burn the town and kill every native in sight; which was done to a finish. About 1,000 men, women and children were reported killed. I am probably growing hardhearted, for I am in my glory when I can sight my gun on some dark skin and pull the trigger (Benevolent Assimilation, p. 88). 2. Corporal Sam Gillis: We make everyone get into his house by seven p.m., and we only tell a man once. If he refuses we shoot him. We killed over 300 natives the first night. They tried to set the town on fire. If they fire a shot from the house we burn the house down and every house near it, and shoot the natives, so they are pretty quiet in town now.

However, General Otis investigation of the content of these letters consisted of sending a copy of them to the authors superior and having him force the soldier/author to write a retraction. Then, when a soldier refused to do so, as Private Charles Brenner of the Kansas regiment did, he was, remarkably, court-martialed. In the case of Private Brenner, the charge was for writing and conniving at the publication of an article which...contains willful [sic] falsehoods concerning himself and a false charge against Captain Bishop. This is not to say that all American soldiers letters home explained the atrocities committed by the U.S. so as to bring about the American publics and General Otis displeasure. Many portrayed U.S. actions as the result of Filipino insurgent provocation and thus entirely justified. One such letter home was written by Private Hermann Dittner and was titled the trouble with the nigs. It went as follows:
It then became apparent that a fight was imminent. So on February 3 we posted our sentry at the same old place. The insurgents kicked but without avail. Our colonel was down there and an insurgent called him a s n -b h. Of course this made Stotsenburg mad and he gave orders to arrest the lieutenant as soon as they could catch him.

Concentration camps
Filipino villagers were forced into concentration camps called reconcentrados which were surrounded by free-fire zones, or in other words dead zones. Furthermore, these camps were overcrowded and filled with disease, causing the death rate to be extremely high. Conditions in these reconcentrados are generally acknowledged to have been inhumane. Between January and April 1902, 8,350 prisoners of approximately 298,000 died. Some camps incurred death rates as high as 20 percent. "One camp was two miles by one mile (3.2 by 1.6 km) in area and 'home' to some 8,000 Filipinos. Men were rounded up for questioning, tortured, and summarily executed." In Batangas Province, where General Franklin Bell was responsible for setting up a concentration camp, a correspondent described the operation as relentless. General Bell ordered that by December 25, 1901, the entire population of both Batangas Province and Laguna Province had to gather into small areas within the poblacion of their respective towns. Barrio families had to bring everything they could carry because anything left behindincluding houses, gardens, carts, poultry and animalswas to be burned by the U.S. Army. Anyone found outside the

concentration camps was shot. General Bell insisted that he had built these camps to "protect friendly natives from the insurgents, assure them an adequate food supply" while teaching them "proper sanitary standards." The commandant of one of the camps referred to them as the "suburbs of Hell."

Filipino atrocities
U.S. Army General Otis stated that Filipino insurgents tortured American prisoners in fiendish fashion. According to Otis, many were buried alive or were placed up to their necks in ant hills. He said others had their genitals removed and stuffed into their mouths and were then executed by suffocation or bleeding to death. It was also reported that Spanish priests were horribly mutilated before their congregations, and natives who refused to support Emilio Aguinaldo were slaughtered by the thousands. American newspaper headlines announced the Murder and Rapine by the Fiendish Filipinos. General Fighting Joe Wheeler insisted that it was the Filipinos who had mutilated their own dead, murdered women and children, and burned down villages, solely to discredit American soldiers. In January 1899, the New York World published a story about an American soldier, Private William Lapeer, who had allegedly been deliberately infected with leprosy. The veracity of the story, however, has been questioned, and the opinion expressed that the name Lapeer itself is probably a pun. Other events dubbed atrocities included those attributed by the Americans to General Vicente Lukban, allegedly the Filipino commander who masterminded the Balangiga massacre in Samar province, a surprise Filipino attack that killed almost fifty American soldiers. Media reports stated that many of the bodies were mutilated. The attack itself triggered American reprisals in Samar, ordered by General Jacob Hurd Smith, who reportedly ordered his men to kill everyone over ten years old. To his credit, Major Littleton Waller countermanded it to his own men. Smith was court-martialed for this order and found guilty in 1902, which ended his career in the U.S. Army. Waller was acquitted of killing eleven Filipino guides. Sergeant Hallock testified in the Lodge Committee that natives were given the water cure, ...in order to secure information of the murder of Private O'Herne of Company I, who had been not only killed, but roasted and otherwise tortured before death ensued. On the Filipino side, information regarding atrocities comes from the eyewitnesses and the participants themselves. In his History of the Filipino People Teodoro Agoncillo writes that the Filipino troops could match and even exceed American brutality on some prisoners of war. Kicking, slapping, and spitting at faces were common. In some cases, ears and noses were cut off and salt applied to the wounds. In other cases, captives were buried alive. These atrocities occurred regardless of Aguinaldo's orders and circulars concerning the good treatment of prisoners. Worcester recounts two specific Filipino atrocities as follows:

"A detachment, marching through Leyte, found an American who had disappeared a short time before crucified, head down. His abdominal wall had been carefully opened so that his intestines might hang down in his face.

Another American prisoner, found on the same trip, had been buried in the ground with only his head projecting. His mouth had been propped open with a stick, a trail of sugar laid to it through the forest, and a handful thrown into it. "Millions of ants had done the rest."

Consequences

Coffins of fallen Americans in c. 1906

Cultural impact
The Roman Catholic Church was disestablished and a considerable amount of church land was purchased and redistributed. The land amounted to 170,917 hectares (422,350 acres), for which the Church asked $12,086,438.11 in March 1903.The purchase was completed on December 22, 1903 at a sale price of $7,239,784.66. The land redistribution program was stipulated in at least three laws: the Philippine Organic Act, the Public Lands Act and the Friar Lands Act. Section 10 of the Public Land Act limited purchases to a maximum of 16 hectares for an individual or 1024 hectares for a corporation or like association. Land was also offered for lease to landless farmers, at prices ranging from fifty centavos to one peso and fifty centavos per hectare per annum. Section 28 of the Public Lands Act stipulated that lease contracts may run for a maximum period of 25 years, renewable for another 25 years. U.S. President McKinley, in his instructions to the First Philippine Commission in 1898, ordered the use of the Philippine languages as well as English for instructional purposes. The American administrators, finding the local languages to be too numerous and too difficult to learn and to write teaching materials in, ended up with a monolingual system in English with no attention paid to the other Philippine languages except for the token statement concerning the necessity of using them eventually for the system. In 1901 at least five hundred teachers (365 males and 165 females) arrived from the U.S. aboard the USS Thomas. The name Thomasite was adopted for these teachers, who firmly established education as one of America's major contributions

to the Philippines. Among the assignments given were Albay, Catanduanes, Camarines Norte, Camarines Sur, Sorsogon, and Masbate. Twenty-seven of the original Thomasites either died of tropical diseases or were murdered by Filipino rebels during their first 20 months of residence. Despite the hardships, the Thomasites persisted, teaching and building learning institutions that prepared students for their chosen professions or trades. They opened the Philippine Normal School (now Philippine Normal University) and the Philippine School of Arts and Trades (PSAT) in 1901 and reopened the Philippine Nautical School, established in 1839 by the Board of Commerce of Manila under Spain. By the end of 1904, primary courses were mostly taught by Filipinos under American supervision.

Philippine Independence
On January 20, 1899, President McKinley appointed the First Philippine Commission (the Schurman Commission), a five-person group headed by Dr. Jacob Schurman, president of Cornell University, to investigate conditions in the islands and make recommendations. In the report that they issued to the president the following year, the commissioners acknowledged Filipino aspirations for independence; they declared, however, that the Philippines was not ready for it. Specific recommendations included the establishment of civilian government as rapidly as possible (the American chief executive in the islands at that time was the military governor), including establishment of a bicameral legislature, autonomous governments on the provincial and municipal levels, and a new system of free public elementary schools.[109] The Second Philippine Commission (the Taft Commission), appointed by McKinley on March 16, 1900, and headed by William Howard Taft, was granted legislative as well as limited executive powers. Between September 1900 and August 1902, it issued 499 laws. A judicial system was established, including a Supreme Court, and a legal code was drawn up to replace Spanish ordinances. A civil service was organized. The 1901 municipal code provided for popularly elected presidents, vice presidents, and councilors to serve on municipal boards. The municipal board members were responsible for collecting taxes, maintaining municipal properties, and undertaking necessary construction projects; they also elected provincial governors. In July 1901 the Philippine Constabulary was organized as an archipelago-wide police force to control brigandage and deal with the remnants of the insurgent movement. After military rule was terminated on July 4, 1901, the Philippine Constabulary gradually took over from United States army units the responsibility for suppressing guerrilla and bandit activities. From the very beginning, United States presidents and their representatives in the islands defined their colonial mission as tutelage: preparing the Philippines for eventual independence. Except for a small group of "retentionists," the issue was not whether the Philippines would be granted self-rule, but when and under what conditions. Thus political development in the islands was rapid and particularly impressive in light of the complete lack of representative institutions under the Spanish. The Philippine Organic Act of July 1902 stipulated that, with the achievement of peace, a legislature would be established composed of a lower house, the Philippine Assembly, which would be popularly elected, and an upper

house consisting of the Philippine Commission, which was to be appointed by the president of the United States. The Jones Act, passed by the U.S. Congress in 1916 to serve as the new organic law in the Philippines, promised eventual independence and instituted an elected Philippine senate. The TydingsMcDuffie Act (officially the Philippine Independence Act; Public Law 73-127) approved on March 24, 1934 provided for self-government of the Philippines and for Filipino independence (from the United States) after a period of ten years. World War II intervened, bringing the Japanese occupation between 1941 and 1945. In 1946, the Treaty of Manila (1946) between the governments of the U.S. and the Republic of the Philippines provided for the recognition of the independence of the Republic of the Philippines and the relinquishment of American sovereignty over the Philippine Islands. CAUSES OF CONFLICT: The basic causes of the Philippine-American War can be found in the U.S. government's quest for an overseas empire and the desire of the Filipino people for freedom. In other words, this war was a clash between the forces of imperialism and nationalism. After centuries as a Spanish colony, a revolution led in part by Emilio Aguinaldo broke out in 1896 in the Philippine Islands. After fighting a savage guerilla war for two and a half years, the Filipinos suddenly found themselves in a seemingly advantageous position as allies of the United States. In 1898, Spain fought a losing war with the United States in which her colonies of Cuba, Puerto Rico, and Guam were overrun with relative ease by the U.S. Army and her Atlantic Fleet devastated outside of Santiago, Cuba. Similarly, Spain's Pacific Fleet was wiped out in the Battle of Manila Bay, and American troops landed on the outskirts of the capitol city. Following the surrender of the Spanish colonial government in the Philippines to American military forces in August,1898, tensions developed between U.S. and Filipino forces near Manila. The American government decided to keep the Philippines as a colony, thereby denying independence to the Filipino people. Aguinaldo and his army of nearly 80,000 veteran troops realized that their "allies" in the Spanish War would soon become foes. DESCRIPTION OF CONFLICT: As early 1899, U.S. and Filipino forces faced off as a tense situation became worse. American forces held the capitol of Manila, while Aguinaldo's army occupied a trench-line surrounding the city. On the evening of February 4, 1899, Private William Grayson of the Nebraska Volunteers fired the first shot in what would turn out to be a very bloody war. Grayson shot at a group of Filipinos approaching his position, provoking an armed response. Shooting soon spread up and down the tenmile U.S.-Filipino lines, causing hundreds of casualties. Upon the outbreak of hostilities, U.S. troops, supported by shelling from Admiral Dewey's fleet, quickly overwhelmed the Filipino positions while inflicting thousands of casualties. Within

days, American forces spread outward from Manila, using superior firepower, mobile artillery and command of the sea to full effect. By November of 1899, Aguinaldo and his forces had been pushed further and further into central Luzon (the main Philippine island) and he realized he could not fight the Americans with conventional military units. At this point, he ordered his followers to turn to guerilla tactics to combat the American army. From this point on, the war became a savage, no-holds-barred guerilla conflict made up of ambushes, massacres and retribution. Both sides engaged in wanton violence and slaughter. Villages were destroyed, civilians murdered, prisoners tortured and mutilated along with a host of other atrocities. Many American officers and noncoms had served in the Indian Wars, and thus applied the old belief that "the only good Indian was a dead Indian" to their relations with the Filipinos. This attitude of course was reciprocated by the native forces. Emilio Aguinaldo was captured in March, 1902, and organized opposition from his followers soon faded. Despite the official end to hostilities proclaimed on July 4, 1902, individual tribes in Luzon and the Muslim Moros of the southern islands launched further uprisings for another decade or so. CONSEQUENCES OF CONFLICT:
1. Independence for the Philippines was delayed until 1946. 2. The United States acquired an overseas colony which served as a base for U.S. business and military interests in the Asia/Pacific region. 3. Following the conclusion of major hostilities, the U.S. did it's best to "Americanize" the Philippines. Through successful civilian administration, the Islands were modernized and the nation prepared for eventual independence. The Philippines became an independent nation on July 4, 1946.

CASUALTY FIGURES:
U.S.-- 4,234 dead and 2,818 wounded. Philippines-- 20,000 military dead and 200,000 civilian dead. (approximate numbers). Some historians place the numbers of civilian dead at 500,000 or higher.

UNIQUE FACTS OR TRENDS:

1. This was the first major land campaign fought by the U.S. outside of the Western Hemisphere. 2. The Philippine-American War can be considered America's first "Imperialistic" conflict.

SOURCES:
1. In Our Image: America's Empire In The Philippines. 1989, by Stanley Karnow. pp. 75-195.

2. The Wars of America. 1981, by Robert Leckie. pp. 563-574.

The Commonwealth Government was inaugurated on the morning of November 15, 1935, in ceremonies held on the steps of the Legislative Building in Manila. The event was attended by a crowd of around 300,000 people. Under the Tydings-McDuffie Act this meant that the date of full independence for the Philippines was set for 4 July 1946, a timetable which was followed after the passage of almost eleven very eventful years.

UNIT V THE PHILIPPINES IN THE WORLD WAR II

Philippines during World War II

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia The Commonwealth of the Philippines was invaded by the Empire of Japan in December 1941 shortly after Japan's declaration of war upon the United States of America, which controlled the Philippines at the time and possessed important military bases there. The combined American-Filipino army was defeated by April 1942, but guerrilla resistance against the Japanese continued throughout the war. Uncaptured Filipino army units, a communist insurgency and supporting American agents all played a role in the resistance. Due to the huge number of islands, the Japanese did not occupy them all. Japanese control over the countryside and smaller towns was often tenuous at best. Allied forces liberated the islands from Japanese control in 1944, in a naval invasion.

World War II and Japanese occupation

As many as 10,000 people died in the Bataan Death March.

Japan launched a surprise attack on the Clark Air Base in Pampanga on December 8, 1941, just ten hours after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Aerial bombardment was followed by landings of ground troops on Luzon. The defending Philippine and United States troops were under the command of General Douglas MacArthur. Under the pressure of superior numbers, the defending forces withdrew to the Bataan Peninsula and to the island of Corregidor at the entrance to Manila Bay. On January 2, 1942, General MacArthur declared the capital city, Manila, an open city to prevent its destruction The Philippine defense continued until the final surrender of United States-Philippine forces on the Bataan Peninsula in April 1942 and on Corregidor in May of the same year. Most of the 80,000 prisoners of war

captured by the Japanese at Bataan were forced to undertake the infamous Bataan Death March to a prison camp 105 kilometers to the north. It is estimated that about 10,000 Filipinos and 1,200 Americans died before reaching their destination. President Quezon and Osmea had accompanied the troops to Corregidor and later left for the United States, where they set up a government in exile. MacArthur was ordered to Australia, where he started to plan for a return to the Philippines. The Japanese military authorities immediately began organizing a new government structure in the Philippines and established the Philippine Executive Commission. They initially organized a Council of State, through which they directed civil affairs until October 1943, when they declared the Philippines an independent republic. The Japanese-sponsored republic headed by President Jos P. Laurel proved to be unpopular. Japanese occupation of the Philippines was opposed by large-scale underground and guerrilla activity. The Philippine Army, as well as remnants of the U.S. Army Forces Far East, continued to fight the Japanese in a guerrilla war and was considered an auxiliary unit of the United States Army. Their effectiveness was such that by the end of the war, Japan controlled only twelve of the forty-eight provinces. One element of resistance in the Central Luzon area was furnished by the Hukbalahap, which armed some 30,000 people and extended their control over much of Luzon. The occupation of the Philippines by Japan ended at the war's conclusion. The American army had been fighting the Philippines Campaign since October 1944, when MacArthur's Sixth United States Army landed on Leyte. Landings in other parts of the country had followed, and the Allies, with the Philippine Commonwealth troops, pushed toward Manila. However, fighting continued until Japan's formal surrender on 2 September 1945. The Philippines suffered great loss of life and tremendous physical destruction, especially during the Battle of Manila. An estimated 1 million Filipinos had been killed, a large portion during the final months of the war, and Manila had been extensively damaged.

Background
In September 1940, Germany, Italy, and Japan had allied under the Tripartite Pact. The US banned the shipment of aviation gasoline to Japan in July 1940, and by 1941 shipments of scrap iron, steel, gasoline and other materials had practically ceased. Meanwhile American economic support to China began to increase. Japan and the USSR signed a neutrality pact in April 1941 and Japan increased pressure on the French and Dutch colonies in Southeast Asia to cooperate in economic matters. Japanese forces occupied the naval and air bases of southern Indochina on 22 July 1941. The Philippines was almost completely surrounded.

General George C. Marshall, US Army Chief of Staff, stated, "Adequate reinforcements for the Philippines, at this time, would have left the United States in a position of great peril, should there be a break in the defense of Great Britain."[1] A campaign for independence from the US which had been ongoing since 1919 resulted on January 17, 1933 in the passage by the US Congress of the Hare-HawesCutting Act over the veto of President Herbert Hoover.[2] The law promised Philippine independence after 10 years, but reserved several military and naval bases for the United States, as well as imposing tariffs and quotas on Philippine exports. Philippine Senate President Manuel L. Quezon caused the legislature to reject the bill. Subsequently, the Tydings-McDuffie Act, which eliminated provisions for US military reservations and substituted a provision for "ultimate settlement", became US law on March 24, 1934 and was accepted by the Philippine legislature on May 1.[3] The impact of this on the future defense of the Philippines with the establishment was to prove disastrous. During the 10 year transition period, the Philippine Constabulary was vested with an ever increasing responsibility for defending the borders of the Philippines. [citation needed] The forces of the US Army settled at around 10,000 men.[citation needed] The US army had, however, already spent millions constructing Forts, and air strips throughout Luzon. This included the harbor defenses in Manila Bay, at Fort Mills on Corregidor Island and at Grande Island in Subic Bay. There were also bases at Nichols Air Station, now Villamor Airbase, Nielson Air Base (now Makati CityAyala and Buendia Avenues lay over the original landing strips), at Fort William McKinley (now Fort Andres Bonifacio and the American Cemetery), Camp Murphy (now Camp Aguinaldo and Camp Crame) in Quezon City, Camp O'Donnell in Tarlac and a series of airbases and army installations in Pampanga including Fort Stotsenburg, Clark Air Base, as well as Camp Wallace in La Union, the Naval Station in Sangley Point, Cavite City, Camp Keithley in Lanao, Camp Eldridge in Los Baos, Laguna and Camp Henry T. Allen in Baguio City. Other fields in Tugegarao, Aparri, Isabela, Nueva Ecija, Legaspi, Bataan, and Del Monte in Davao were also built using US funds prior to and during the first years of the 1935 provisional Commonwealth.

The Philippine Commonwealth Army

Philippine Commonwealth Army personnel in Davao

The date for Philippine Independence and US Military withdrawal was approaching, resulting in a reduction in funds from the US Military to directly support the expansion of the Philippine Army. Twelve Million US dollars were provided to the

Commonwealth for the establishment of the Philippine Army in 1936. In the early years of the Commonwealth, the Philippine Army was composed of an Active Duty and a Reserve Component. The Active Duty component was the Philippine Constabulary, which was a para-military organization. After the outbreak of the war, this was referred to as the First Philippine Division. Many of the officers of the Philippine Army and Philippine Army Air Corps came from the members of the Philippine Constabulary and Air Constabulary.

Far Eastern Command

On July 25, 1941, US Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson requested that US President Franklin D. Roosevelt issue orders calling the military forces of the Commonwealth into active service for the United States. Stimson explained, "All practical steps should be taken to increase the defensive strength of the Philippine Islands." The following day President Roosevelt froze all Japanese assets within the United States and issued orders to absorb the forces of the Philippine Army. That same day the War Department created the US Army Forces in the Far East (USAFFE) command, with jurisdiction over the Philippine Department and the military forces of the Commonwealth. At the same time General Douglas MacArthur was recalled to active duty and designated the commander of USAFFE.

Naval Forces
At the outbreak of war the United States Navy's Asiatic Fleet was stationed at Cavite Naval Base in Manila Bay. Also stationed there was the Offshore Patrol.

Mobilization and Reinforcement

MacArthur ordered the mobilization of the Philippine Army beginning on September 1. Elements of 10 Filipino reserve divisions were to be called into the service of the United States Army by December 15. Battalions were not organized by the time of the Japanese invasion in December. However, a force of a hundred thousand or more Filipinos was raised.

200th Coastal Artillery, New Mexico Army National Guard on Luzon

On August 14 Brigadier General Leonard T. Gerow argued that the Philippine Department could not resist a Japanese attack. He thus recommended that the Philippines be reinforced with anti-aircraft artillery, modern aircraft and tanks. On August 16, MacArthur was informed that by September 5 he could expect the 200th Coast Artillery Regiment (AA), the 192nd and 194th Tank Battalions and a company of the 17th Ordnance Battalion. On September 5 Marshall asked MacArthur if he wanted a National Guard Division, probably the 41st. MacArthur replied that he did not need any additional divisions. He also stated, "Equipment and supplies are essential. If these steps are taken, I am confident that no such backing, the development of a completely adequate defense force will be rapid." During September and October, in addition to the above-mentioned reinforcements, MacArthur received the 192nd Tank Battalion and 75 self-propelled 75 mm guns. MacArthur strove to reorganize the Philippine Division from a square into a triangular formation. This plan involved shipping in an American infantry regiment and or complementing Stotsenburg and allow USAFFE control of 2 American combat teams. These plans also involved the formation of four tactical commands, each of corps strength, along with various additional support units. By November the War Department had approved additional reinforcements of 1,312 officers, 25 nurses and 18,047 men. The 34th Infantry Regiment was scheduled to ship out from San Francisco on December 8, 1941. By December 5 fifty-five ships were en-route from San Francisco carrying 100,000 ship-tons of cargo to the Philippines. On board were the personnel and equipment of the 26th Field Artillery Brigade, including the 147th Field Artillery, 75 mm, Truck Drawn, Regiment of the South Dakota National Guard; the 148th Field Artillery, 75 mm, Truck Drawn, Regiment of the Idaho National Guard and the 2d Battalion of the 131st Field Artillery, 75 mm, Truck Drawn, Regiment of the Texas National Guard. These units were diverted to Hawaii and assigned to its defenses.

GEN MacArthur at the induction of the Philippine Army Air Corps

When the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor took place, there were several air elements en-route. This included 52 A-24 Banshee dive bombers of the 27th Bombardment Group (L), eighteen P-40s of the 35th Pursuit Group, 340 tons of bombs and 9,000 drums of aviation fuel. There were also two light field ground echelons of the 7th Bombardment Group (H), which arrived in the Philippines and

were relocated to Mariveles after the evacuation of Manila. The air echelon squadrons of the 7th were en-route to the Philippines and arrived in Pearl Harbor on the morning of Dec 7 1941. They consisted of 9th, 463rd, 492nd, and 493d Heavy Bombardment Squadrons. The air ecehlon was diverted back to the US and then routed to Java through Australia.

Material and Training Deficiencies

The Philippine Army received clothing that was of poor quality. Their rubber shoes would wear out within 2 weeks. There were shortages of nearly every kind of equipment such as blankets, mosquito bars, shelter halves, entrenching tools, gas masks, and helmets. During August, MacArthur had requested 84,500 Garand rifles, 330 .30-caliber machine guns, 326 .50-caliber machine-guns, 450 37mm guns, 217 81 mm mortars, 288 75 mm guns, and over 8,000 vehicles. On September 18, he was informed that, because of lend-lease commitments, he would not receive most of these items. As a result, the Philippine Army was forced to continue using Enfield and Springfield rifles. The shipment of supplies depended upon the US Navy's limited cargo capacity. In September, the Navy announced its intentions to convert three transports into escort carriers, but this was not done after MacArthur observed that the loss of three transports would delay his reinforcements by more than two months. The army then approved requests for 105 mm howitzers, 75 mm pack howitzers, 75 mm guns, .30-caliber machine guns, 37 mm guns, ten 250 ft station hospitals, one hundred and eighty sets of regimental infirmary equipment, jeeps, ambulances, trucks and sedans. By November, there were 1,100,000 tons of equipment, intended for the Philippines, piled up in US ports. Most of this never reached its destination. Meanwhile, the Navy did manage to transport 1,000,000 gallons of gasoline to the island. Much of this fuel would be stored on the Bataan Peninsula. In 1941, many Filipino units went into battle without ever having fired their weapons. Many of the troops had also never even seen an artillery piece fired. The 31st Infantry Division (PA) signal officer was unable to establish radio communication with other units in the same camp. The commander of the Philippine 31st Infantry Division, Colonel Bluemel stated, "The enlisted men are proficient in only two things, one, when an officer appears, to yell 'attention' in a loud voice, jump up, and salute; two, to demand 3 meals per day." Training and coordination were further complicated by language barriers. Enlisted Filipinos often spoke one language (such as Bikol or a Visayan language), their officers would speak another (such as Tagalog) and the Americans would speak English. There were some first sergeants and company clerks who could neither read nor write.

The Japanese decide to attack

Advancing Japanese troops moving toward Manila.

The Japanese viewed all the lands of Asia to be the rightful property of the Imperial Japanese Government and the Emperor. The land invasion of Korea, China and parts of Russia, which had begun at the turn of the 20th century, had been taking an upswing. The Japanese had been kept from realizing their goal of unifying or dominating the Asian lands by the presence of foreign military forces in the Philippines (United States), Hong Kong, Malaysia (United Kingdom) and the Dutch East Indies. Japan had hoped that they could strike fast and hold off reinforcements long enough to broker a peace accord from a position of strength such as they had done during the Russo Japanese War. Central to the Japanese goals was the taking of all Asian lands. To be successful US, UK, and Dutch forces were to be attacked simultaneously to prevent their ability to reinforce and aid their Asian possessions. Pivotal to the Japanese decision to attack was a tremendous need for crude oil as a result of economic sanctions imposed by the United States, the United Kingdom and the Netherlands which was weakening the Japanese economy. The Japanese leaders were faced with a choice: end the war in China and their plans for Asian conquest, so as to end the sanctions, or declare war on three large military forces. The current war against Britain, and Holland, and the strain of providing aid by the United States to these countries was seen as an opportunity by the Japanese to extend their "rightful" place as a ruler in Asia. The Japanese government decided to seize resources under the control of Britain, the United States and the Netherlands. Japan had already placed over ten divisions in Formosa (Taiwan). Japanese military planners argued that the British (and the USSR should they decide to declare war), would be unable to effectively respond to a Japanese attack, given the threat posed by the Third Reich.

List of conflicts

Japanese occupation of the Philippines (19411945) Battle of Balete Pass Battle of Bataan Battle of Bataan (1945) Battle of Bessang Pass Battle of Corregidor

Battle of Corregidor (1945) Battle of Dalton Pass Battle of Kirang Pass Battle of Leyte Battle of Leyte Gulf Battle of Luzon Battle of Manila (1945) Battle of Maguindanao Battle of Mindanao Battle of Mindoro Battle of the Philippines (194142) Battle of Ormoc Bay Battle of the Visayas Invasion of Lingayen Gulf Invasion of Palawan Philippines campaign (194445) Raid at Los Baos Raid at Cabanatuan Raid at Capas San Ildefonso Massacre

Invasion of the Philippine Islands

7 Dec 1941 - 5 May 1942
Contributor: C. Peter Chen

At the start of WW2, the Philippine Islands were United States territory as per the 1898 Treaty of Paris. The archipelago was home to 19 million people, and was at a strategic location between Japan and the South Pacific. Because of the importance, the retired Army General Douglas MacArthur, currently serving as a Field Marshal in the Filipino military, was called back into service by President Franklin Roosevelt, and was given resources to mobilize Philippine defenses in case of a Japanese attack. MacArthur was given US$10,000,000 and 100 B-17 Flying Fortress Bombers. MacArthur deployed most of his defenses on the northern island

of Luzon and southern island of Mindanao, forming what he called "key or base point of the US defense line". In the American capital of Washington DC, Henry Stimson and George Marshall believed that a strong presence of American air power in the Philippine Islands would discourage Japanese aggression. On 15 Nov 1941, George Marshall proudly said in a press conference that "the greatest concentration of heavy bomber strength anywhere in the world" were gathered at the Philippine Islands, ready to not only counterattack any attacks on the islands but also to strike at the Japanese home islands and set the "paper" cities of Japan on fire. When a reporter noted that the B-17 bombers lacked the range necessary for a round trip between Clark Field in Philippine Islands and the Japanese capital of Tokyo, Marshall indicated air fields at Vladivostok would be shared by the friendly Soviet government. Marshall would grossly overestimate Soviet Union's friendliness. MacArthur anticipated Japanese aggression as early as late Nov 1941 when Japanese aircraft were seen over northern Luzon. In early Dec, Japanese bomber formations were observed flying within 20 miles of Lingayen Gulf beaches and returning to Taiwan, presumably making trial runs in preparation for the attack. As a precaution, orders were given to move the 27th Bombardment Group B-17 bombers southward to Mindanao, out of range of the Japanese bombers. This move was delayed, however, as the pilots were invited to a big party held in the honor of Major General Lewis Bereton, an event to be held what was to become the night before the Japanese attack, at the hotel in Manila that was also MacArthur's residence. When the party ended at 0200 hours Manila time, it was 0800 hours at Pearl Harbor, Territory of Hawaii when the first Japanese aircraft dropped their torpedoes. As it was too dark for coordinated offensive operations for the Japanese, the Americans and the Filipinos had precious hours to prepare preemptive air strikes and strengthen ground defenses (furthermore, at dawn, an unexpected heavy fog over Taiwan would further hamper Japanese air operations). As it would turn out, this opportunity was forfeited. While Bereton did his best in getting his aircraft in the air to prepare for MacArthur's approval to attack the invasion fleet or the Japanese bases on Taiwan, MacArthur never gave the order. By 1100 hours, American aircraft began to land to refuel, and it was not until then, at about 1120 hours, that MacArthur gave his approval, but then it was too late. At 1235 hours, Japanese Army fighters reached the airfield at Iba on the western coast of Luzon, destroying a flight of P-40 fighters in the process of landing. A short time later, the Del Carmen airfield to the southeast was also attacked, with its outdated P-35A fighters forming little resistance against the more modern Japanese fighters. These attacks would repeat themselves, within days destroying MacArthur's air force. On 10 Dec, with air superiority achieved, General Masaharu Homma ordered the invasion to set forth. Starting on 20 Dec, the Japanese Army landed on Mindanao and then Luzon, quickly capturing airfields and other key strategic positions. In Washington on 14 Dec, Chief of Staff Marshall, who had not seen the Philippine Islands since he was a first lieutenant in Manila in 1915, summoned Brigadier General Dwight Eisenhower to assess the situation. Eisenhower told Marshall, essentially, to abandon the archipelago for the time being:

General, it will be a long time before major reinforcements can go to the Philippines, longer than the garrison can hold out with any dirblet assistance, if the enemy commits major forces to their reduction. Our base must be in Australia, and we must start at once to expand it and to secure our communications to it.

Three airstrips at Luzon were taken very quickly, while the Lingayen Gulf region fell on 22 Dec. between 22 and 28 Dec, an additional 43,110 Japanese troops arrived via the beaches at Lingayen Gulf despite poor weather and rough seas. As an open city Manila fell quickly, giving Japan the use of the naval bases at Manila Bay. The troops who landed at Mindanao marched toward Davao, which was captured on 20 Dec. A seaplane base was immediately set up at Davao to provide local air superiority, and then the work to establish Davao as the staging point for the next invasions further south began; the Japanese landing force at Mindanao only consisted of 57,000 men, but it had little difficulty fighting American and Filipino forces. On 24 Dec, 7,000 troops from Japanese 16th Division landed at Mauban, Atimonan, and Siain on the shores of Lamon Bay at eastern Luzon island. The Filipino 1st Regular Division opposed the Lamon Bay landings fiercely and slowed the Japanese advance, but ultimately would not be able to hold the line. While Japanese troops advanced across Luzon, President Manuel Quezon of the Philippines requested President Roosevelt to grant the Philippine Islands their independence so that he could announce Philippine neutrality. Quezon's 8 Feb message said that:
after nine weeks of fighting not even a small amount of aid has reached us from the United States. Help and assistance have been sent to other belligerent nations,... but seemingly no attempt has been made to transport anything here.... [T]he United States has practically doomed the Philippines to almost total extinction to secure a breathing space.

Despite the harsh truth told from his Filipino counterpart, Franklin Roosevelt refused the request for independence and neutrality. Partly, Roosevelt turned down the request knowing the Japanese would not acknowledge such a late statement of neutrality. However, he did grant MacArthur the permission to surrender Filipino troops (but not Americans). Immediately following capturing key cities, naval bases, and airstrips, nine ships with 4,000 troops departed from the main Philippine Islands for Jolo of the Sulu archipelago on 22 Dec. Jolo would fall on Christmas Day, 25 Dec, providing a forward base for supporting the attacks on Borneo. Another seaplane base was also set up at Jolo to form local air superiority. It was surprising that with MacArthur predicting the attack to take place (though he thought the attacks would come later, in spring of 1942) down to the accurate prediction of Japanese landing sites, MacArthur was unable to react properly to the Japanese attacks. MacArthur was said to be in shock, unable to give commands to his staff officers. When he finally got himself together, he ordered troops to resist the Japanese at the landing sites, which Lieutenant Harold

Johnson (later chairman of Joint Chiefs of Staff) called a "tragic error". Johnson believed that, in hindsight, instead of putting the inexperienced Filipino soldiers at the beaches only to be routed by the Japanese, they could have had been transporting food and other supplies to Corregidor where they would be badly needed later on. Some historians believed that the stockpiling of supplies on Bataan should had been done even earlier, for the retreat to the Bataan Peninsula had been in the design of the "Rainbow 5" plan all along. There were discrepancies in regards to the orders given to the bombers present in the Philippine Islands. According to Brereton, he requested immediate bombing missions to attack Taiwan to discourage further Japanese air strikes, and blamed Sutherand, MacArthur's Chief of Staff, for not giving the authorization to do so. According to Sutherland, however, he did authorize the bombers to launch, but it was Brereton who delayed the action as he had little intelligence on Taiwan and did not know where to strike. With Japanese forces bearing down on Manila, MacArthur ordered his North Luzon Force to fight a delay-action campaign, confronting the Japanese advance troops and slowly retrograding as they destroyed key bridges. The US 26th Cavalry Regiment, also known as the Philippine Scouts, performed admirably as rearguards. The unit was, for the most part, led by American officers but manned by Filipino troops. Fighting on horseback, they disrupted Japanese advances by attacking swiftly and surprisingly, and withdraw with speed before the Japanese counterattacked. On 16 Jan, troops of the Philippine Scouts performed the last cavalry charge in American military history. Troop F under the command of Lieutenant Ramsey was given the order to secure the village of Morong. They were surprised to discover that the Japanese were entering the village from the other side when the American-Filipino force arrived. Without thinking, Ramsey ordered his troops to charge forward. Stumping horses and point-blank shooting drove off the larger Japanese force, and they held the ground for some time before falling back toward Bataan. Meanwhile, the South Luzon Force marched toward the Bataan Peninsula with the goal to unite the two forces together for a stand-off at the island of Corregidor. "Again and again, these tactics would be repeated. Stand and fight, slip back and dynamite", MacArthur would note after the war in his memoirs, describing the delay-action retrograde maneuver performed by the North Luzon Force to provide time for South Luzon Force to march northward. MacArthur's hard-drinking General Jonathan Wainwright performed the maneuvers perfectly, succeeding in delaying the advancing Japanese troops under the command of Homma. After MacArthur's troops retreated across the Bataan to Corregidor, under Washington's orders he left for Australia on 22 Feb 1942. He mistook Washington's intention (and Washington allowed him to misinterpret the messages) that when he reached Australia he would be greeted by a major American army, and he would be able to lead this army and return to the Philippines right away. There was no army; in fact, Australia did not even have enough defenses to protect itself. Upon arrival at Australia, he made the following note to journalists:
The President of the United States ordered me to break through the Japanese lines and proceed from Corregidor to Australia for the purpose, as I understand it, of organizing the

American offensive against Japan, a primary object of which is the relief of the Philippines. I came through and I shall return.

Though rather casually noted, "I shall return" became the powerful symbol which was the spiritual center of Filipino resistance. "It was scraped in the sands of the beaches, it was daubed on the walls of the barrios, it was stamped on the mail, it was whispered in the cloisters of the church", recalled MacArthur. "It became the battle cry of a great underground swell that no Japanese bayonet could still." On Bataan, the American soldiers felt they were abandoned by their own government to fight a war on their own. "We are the battling bastards of Bataan," they mocked, "no papa, no mama, no Uncle Sam." Nevertheless, they fought valiantly. "They asked no quarter and they gave none.... They were filthy, and they were lousy, and they stank. And I loved them", noted MacArthur. The US and Filipino troops fought on fiercely, forcing Homma to pause his offensive on 8 Feb 1942 and request for additional reinforcements, which was approved two days later, and troops of the Japanese 4th Division from Shanghai, China slowly trickled in. The fresh troops, helped the dwindling US-Filipino morale, began to have an effect. From mid-Mar, Japanese artillery and aircraft began to bombard Corregidor daily. On 9 Apr, General Edward King of the US II Corps surrendered all troops on the Bataan Peninsula. Japanese atrocities started even before all of the Philippine Islands were taken. United States Marine officer Lieutenant Michael Dobervich, a prisoner of war in the Philippine Islands, remembered his treatment.
We drove along through the very congested road (Dobervich was forced to drive a captured US truck). We saw the beginning of the looting, bayoneting, face slapping.... It was hard to take. The stragglers were either bayoneted or shot.... Americans from general to private had to salute every and any Jap or suffer a blow with the rifle or a slap.... I arrived at camp on 11 April 1942.... [We had to] stand for sixteen hours in the terrific heat.... I saw several soldiers come back from a working party that were dead.... I had ten of my men die in my presence coming back from working parties, too sick and beyond recovery.... At this particular burial they piled about thirty bodies into one large pit.... Before the covering started, one of the dead bodies began to move; it was a feeble effort... to raise its head. The Jap guard ordered this Marine of mine to strike the head with a shovel. He hesitated and that enraged the guard so that the bayonet was thrust at him, so he was forced to obey.

As Lieutenant Dobervich would put it, "words cannot describe the conditions (of the camp)". Dobervich's experience was part of the Bataan Death March, a sixty mile march forced upon captured Filipino and American soldiers. 2,330 Americans and somewhere between 7,000 and 10,000 Filipinos died during the march up the peninsula, and thousands more in the camps such as the one Dobervich was kept in. At 1030 hours on 6 May, Wainwright surrendered at Corregidor. The last US troops in the Philippine Islands surrendered on Mindanao on 12 May, and organized resistance in the islands would soon wane.

Sources: Clayton Chun, The Fall of the Philippines, 1941-42 Douglas MacArthur, Reminiscences William Manchester, American Caesar Gordon Rottman, World War II US Cavalry Units: Pacific Theater Dan van der Vat, The Pacific Campaign Wikipedia World War II Plus 55

Invasion of the Philippine Islands Timeline

16 1941 Aug Douglas MacArthur received word from his superiors in Washington DC, United States that the Philippine Islands would start receiving reinforcements, shipped from the US no later than 5 Sep 1941. This included the 200th Coastal Artillery Regiment, a tank battalion, and an ordnance battalion. Sep Admiral Thomas Hart proposed to move his naval forces in the Philippine Islands south to combine with the British allies to better counter the more powerful Japanese Navy should it attack. He would change his mind on this plan before the start of the Pacific War. Oct Admiral Thomas Hart, having changed his mind on moving the US fleet at the Philippine Islands south to combine with the British allies, decided to base his main force in Manila Bay. Nov US Chief of Naval Operations Admiral Harold Stark warned commanders of Pacific and Asiatic Fleets that attacks on Malaya, Philippine Islands, and Dutch East Indies were now a possibility. US Army Chief of Staff General George Marshall sent a similar message to commanders of US Army Hawaii and Philippine Departments. Dec Japanese aircraft conducted reconnaissance flights over the coasts of Luzon, Philippine Islands. Dec 27 Japanese troop transports departed from Taiwan, sailing for the Philippine Islands; 400 Japanese pilots stationed at Taiwan were briefed of the attacks to be commenced on the next day. Elsewhere, a Japanese invasion fleet boarded and scuttled a Norwegian freighter. Dec Japanese Navy 11th Air Fleet land-based aircraft from Taiwan attacked US Army airfields on Luzon island, Philippine Islands as well as shipping in Manila Bay; at the latter location, American freighter Capillo was abandoned after receiving heavy damage. Japanese Army aircraft joined in on the attack on this date also, striking Baguio and Tuguegarao at 0930 hours. North of Luzon, a Japanese force landed on Batan Island and established an air base. Dec Japanese aircraft commenced the bombing of Manila, Luzon, Philippine

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Islands; among the first targets in the capital city region was the US Army airbase Nichols Field. Dec Cavite Navy Yard in the Philippine Islands was heavily damaged by Japanese aircraft; destroyers Peary and Pillsbury, submarines Seadragon and Sealion, and submarine tender Otus were damaged; ferry Santa Rita was sunk; minesweeper Bittern was destroyed by fire; about 60% of US Navy Asiatic Fleet's torpedoes were destroyed at Cavite. A PBY Catalina aircraft, fleeing from the attack on Cavite Navy Yard, was attacked by three Zero fighters; gunner Chief Boatswain Payne shot down one of the Zero fighters, thus scoring the US Navy's first verifiable air-to-air kill of a Japanese aircraft in the Pacific War. Elsewhere, Japanese aircraft attacked Manila Bay area, damaging American freighter Sagoland. Finally, Japanese troops of the 2nd Taiwan Regiment of the 48th Division landed on Camiguin Island and at Gonzaga, Vigan, and Aparri on Luzon Island. Dec Japanese troops landed at Legaspi, Luzon, Philippine Islands.

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Dec Japanese Navy 11th Air Fleet aircraft attacked the US Navy base at Olongapo in Luzon, Philippine Islands. At Legaspi, Japanese troops captured an airfield and moved north. Dec Japanese Navy aircraft again struck the US Navy base at Olongapo at Subic Bay at Luzon, Philippine Islands. Various other bases and airfields in the Manila Bay area were attacked as well. Dec In the Philippine Islands, three US B-17 bombers took off from the Del Monte airfield on Mindanao to attack the Japanese beachhead at Legaspi, Luzon. Dec The US B-17 bombers at the Del Monte airfield on Mindanao, Philippine Islands were ordered to fly to Australia on the following day. Dec US B-17 bombers at Del Monte airfield on Mindanao in the Philippine Islands departed for Australia. Dec American passenger ship Corregidor departed Manila, Philippine Islands with about 1,200 civilians on board; a short distance later, while still in Manila Bay, she struck a mine previously laid by Japanese submarine I124 and sank, killing many. To the north, 24 transports with 7,000 Japanese troops aboard departed from the Ryukyu Islands, heading for Lamon Bay at eastern Luzon island. Dec Japanese troops captured Naga, Luzon, Philippine Islands. To the north, the invasion convoy for the Lingayen Gulf assault departed from Taiwan

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and the Pescadores islands. 19 1941 20 1941 Dec Japanese aircraft attacked Olongapo, Luzon, Philippine Islands.

Dec Japanese troops landed near Davao, Mindanao, Philippine Islands, seizing the nearby airfield. At Cavite in southern Luzon, Lieutenant Colonel J. P. Adams received orders to evacuate his Marines from the area. Dec US submarines based in Manila in the Philippine Islands withdrew to Surabaya, Java. Dec 45,000 troops of Japanese 48th Division and 90 tanks landed at Lingayen, Luzon, Philippine Islands at 0200 hours. From the capital city of Manila, Douglas MacArthur sent a radio message to his superior George Marshall in Washington DC, United States, noting that he had decided to announce Manila to be an open city to reserve the strength of his forces and to spare the lives of the civilians. In southern Philippine Islands, 9 American B-17 bombers from Darwin, Australia attacked Japanese ships in Davao Gulf, Mindanao and then landed at Del Monte, Mindanao. Dec In the Philippine Islands, as Japanese 48th Division marched south toward Manila, US Army General Douglas MacArthur began withdrawing to Bataan, declaring Manila an open city. On the same day, USAAF B-17 bombers attacked Japanese ships at Lingayen Gulf and Davao in the Philippine Islands, while P-35 and P-40 fighters strafed landing ships in San Miguel Bay, Luzon, damaging destroyer Nagatsuki. On Mindanao, the 9 US B-17 bombers originally from Australia refueled and took off to attack Japanese ships in Davao Gulf and Lingayen Gulf, damaging Japanese destroyer Kuroshio. Dec 7,000 troops of Japanese 16th Division landed at Lamon Bay, Luzon, Philippine Islands and marched toward Manila, which was only 50 miles away to the northwest. Near Ligayen Gulf on the western side of Luzon, the 26th Filipino Cavalry initially held up the Japanese invaders near Binalonian, but were forced to withdraw after suffering heavy losses; meanwhile, the Japanese landed an additional 10,000 men at Lingayen Gulf. In Manila, General Douglas MacArthur met with various leaders to organize the retreat into the Bataan peninsula per WPO-3; the 4th Marine Regiment was ordered to Mariveles at the peninsula's tip before going to Corregidor island. Dec Japanese troops landed at Jolo, Philippine Islands and captured the island after wiping out the garrison of 300 Filipino militia and

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policemen. Meanwhile, US Navy moved the headquarters of the Asiatic Fleet from Manila, Philippine Islands to Java. US Marines destroyed docks, fuel tanks, and ammunition dumps at Cavite Naval Shipyard. 26 1941 Dec Despite that the Philippine capital of Manila was already declared an open city on 23 Dec 1941, Japanese bombing continued without interruption. Shortly after, US Navy Admiral Hart of the Asiatic Fleet departed Manila by submarine USS Shark for Soerabaja, Java. In Manila Bay, USS Peary was damaged by Japanese aircraft. Philippine naval defense vessels moved to the island of Corregidor at the mouth of Manila Bay, and 411 US Marines originally based at Cavite moved to Corregidor Island. Dec Japanese air units bombed Manila, Philippine Islands while 6 US PBY Catalina aircraft attacked Japanese warships at Jolo (4 would be shot down). On land, Allied forces withdrew to the Santa-Ignacia-GeronaGuimba-San Jose line 30 miles south of Lingayen Gulf, Luzon. Dec On Luzon island, Philippine Islands, the US 4th Marine Regiment completed its move from the Bataan Peninsula to Corregidor Island except for the radar detachment. Meanwhile, also on Luzon, north of the capital of Manila, the Allied defenses fell back to the TarlacCabanatuan line. Over Manila, Japanese aircraft appeared again, sinking four freighters in Manila Bay. To the south, Japanese 16th Division captured Luisiana, with forward units reaching as far as Los Baos on the southern shore of Laguna de Bay. Dec 40 land-based bombers of the Japanese Navy 5th Air Group attacked Corregidor in the Philippine Islands for the first time. On Luzon island, Japanese Lingayen Force captured Cabanatuan, but American and Filipino forces held on to Tarlac to the west. Dec Japanese Lingayen Force captured Tarlac on Luzon, Philippine Islands; American and Filipino forces fell back to the Bamban-Sibul Springs Line, the final defensive line north of Manila. South of Manila, the Japanese 16th Division reached the Laguna De Bay lake. Dec Japanese Lingayen Force captured Sibul Springs, Luzon, Philippine Islands, breaching part of the final defensive line north of Manila. South of the city, Japanese tanks of Sonoda Force reached Baliuag.

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1 Jan 1942 American and Filipino forces south of Manila, Luzon, Philippine Islands abandoned their positions and joined the defenses north of the city, which would fall back across the Calumpit bridges by the end of the day. Meanwhile, the Japanese sent a message to the mayor of Manila

announcing that the Japanese forces would arrive on the following day. 2 Jan 1942 In the Philippine Islands, Japanese troops captured Manila, the Cavite naval base, and Clark Field air base. 3 Jan 1942 US and Filipino troops fell back to the Guagua-Porac defensive line, 15 miles from the Bataan peninsula on Luzon, Philippine Islands. 4 Jan 1942 Following a heavy bombardment, Japanese Lingayen Force penetrated the US-Filipino Guagua-Porac defensive line at Luzon, Philippine Islands and captured the town of Guagua and the Del Carmen airfield. On the same day, American B-17 Flying Fortress bombers from Australia attacked Japanese shipping at Malalag Bay, Davao, Mindanao, damaging cruiser Myoko. 5 Jan 1942 US and Filipino troops in the Philippine Islands were put on half rations. 7 Jan 1942 Japanese troops made probing attacks at the opening of the Bataan peninsula at Luzon, Philippine Islands. Meanwhile, General MacArthur organized his forces into two corps and a rear area service command. 9 Jan 1942 At 1500 hours, the main offensive against Bataan defences at the Philippine Islands began, spearheaded by 6,500 men of the newly arrived and inexperienced 65th Infantry Brigade (which replaced the veteran Japanese 48th Division); the first attacks at the Abucay-Mauban defensive line were repelled by US-Filipino troops. Meanwhile, US Marines from Batteries A and C of 3rd Battalion, 4th Marine Regiment who remained on Bataan under naval control were integrated into a naval battalion for ground combat. 10 1942 12 1942 15 1942 16 1942 Jan US-Filipino troops held the Abucay-Mauban defensive line on the Bataan peninsula on Luzon, Philippine Islands. Jan Japanese troops continued to attack the Abucay-Mauban line on Bataan Peninsula, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Jan Philippine 51st Division withdrew from the the Salian River valley on the eastern side of the Abucay-Mauban defensive line on Bataan Peninsula, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Jan Japanese and Filipino-American forces both raced to capture Morong on Bataan Peninsula, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Both sides reached the town around the same time, but the Allies had detected the Japanese first. Taking the opportunity for a surprise attack, more than 20 American cavalry troops charged on their horses, dispersing Japanese troops. It was the last combat charge of horse-mounted American

cavalry troops. 21 1942 22 1942 Jan Japanese troops penetrated the west side of the Abucay-Mauban defensive line at Mount Natib on Luzon, Philippine Islands and began to cut off supplies to US-Filipino troops on the line. Jan In the Philippine Islands, an attempted Japanese landing from fishing boats on the west coast of the Bataan Peninsula was wiped out; the Japanese 20th Infantry Regiment would continue to try to gain a foothold. Meanwhile, Douglas MacArthur ordered the Abucay-Mauban defensive line abandoned as the Japanese had penetrated its western end; the troops fell back about 5 miles to the new line from Bagac to Orion. Jan The 2nd Battalion of the Japanese 20th Infantry Regiment continued to make landing attempts at Quinauan Point, and Longoskawayan Point, Bataan on Luzon of Philippine Islands, increasing the strength of the small beachhead. After sundown, US and Filipino troops began withdrawing from the Abucay-Mauban defensive line to the new OrionBagac defensive line. Jan US and Filipino troops continued to withdraw from the Abucay-Mauban defensive line on Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands toward the OrionBagac defensive line. Jan US and Filipino troops completed the phased withdraw from the Abucay-Mauban defensive line at Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, which was done over three nights. Jan Additional Japanese troops were landed at Point Quinauan in southwestern Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Elements of the US 4th Marine Regiment attacked the Japanese beachhead at Longoskawayan Point. Jan Mortars and machine guns of the US 4th Marine Regiment were assigned to the 57th Philippine Scout Regiment at Longoskawayan Point, Bataan on Luzon, Philippine Islands, where the combined USFilipino effort would soon wipe out the Japanese landing attempt. Jan The 20th Battalion of the Japanese 16th Division penetrated the USFilipino Orion-Bagac defensive line at several locations at Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands; the reserve 45th Philippine Scout Division was quickly dispatched to halt the Japanese advance. Meanwhile, troops of the Philippine Scouts continued to assault the Japanese beachheads at Longoskawayan Point and Quinauan Point in southern Bataan.

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1 Feb 1942 PT boats and P-40 aircraft repulsed the Japanese landing attempt on

southwest Bataan at the Philippine Islands. 2 Feb 1942 An assault was mounted by US troops, supported by tanks, against the Japanese beachheads at Quinauan Point, Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands; it achieved little. To the north, on the Orion-Bagac defensive line, a US-Filipino attack wiped out a small pocket of trapped Japanese attackers. 3 Feb 1942 US submarine Trout delivered 3,500 rounds of 3 inch anti-aircraft ammunition to Corregidor, Philippine Islands. Upon departure, the submarine evacuated 20 tons of Philippine gold and silver. 4 Feb 1942 US tanks once again attacked the Japanese beachheads at Quinauan Point, Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands, nearly successfully in wiping out several positions. 6 Feb 1942 Japanese artillery shelled Corregidor from Cavite at Luzon, Philippine Islands. Meanwhile, Filipino troops continued to assert pressure on the nearly-eliminated Japanese beachheads at Quinauan Point, Bataan, Luzon. 8 Feb 1942 American troops attacked and wiped out a Japanese infiltration force at Quinauan Point, Bataan on the Philippine island of Luzon; 600 Japanese troops were killed while the US-Filipino forces suffered 500 casualties. Meanwhile, General Masaharu Homma called off the first offensive against Bataan and fell back to more defensible positions while waiting for reinforcements. 10 1942 Feb US forces continued the attempt to eliminate the 500 Japanese troops trapped in the "Big Pocket" at Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands. In Tokyo, Japan, the Imperial General Headquarters approved the transfer of the Japanese 4th Division from Shanghai, China to the Philippine Islands to reinforce Masaharu Homma's forces, but it would take weeks for the troops to arrive due to logistical issues. Feb The 200 Japanese troops trapped in a beachhead in southern Bataan, Luzon, Philippine Islands mounted what would be their final counterattack. Feb All Japanese troops at the Longoskawayan Point and Quinauan Point beachheads at Luzon, Philippine Islands were wiped out. Feb A detachment of the submarine tender USS Canopus, sailors from the Cavite Naval Ammunition Depot, and the majority of the general duty men in the area were transferred to the 4th Marine Regiment based on Corregidor, Philippine Islands.

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Feb A Japanese force landed on northeastern Mindoro in the Philippine Islands. Mar Japanese troops landed on Mindanao, the southern-most of the Philippine Islands. Mar US Army General MacArthur departed Philippine Islands by B-17 bomber for Australia. Mar At Bataan Peninsula at Luzon, Philippine Islands, US and Filipino troops were put on quarter rations (1000 calories) as the food supplies dwindled. The supply of quinine, a medicine for malaria, had also depleted. Mar Japanese aircraft bombed US positions at Bataan and Corregidor, Luzon, Philippine Islands. Mar Japanese Navy aircraft began daily bombings of Corregidor in the Philippine Islands. Mar Japanese aircraft bombed Corregidor, Philippine Islands, knocking out power for freezers containing 24,000 pounds of carabao meat. Mar With freezers failing after a Japanese aerial attack on the previous day, US and Filipino troops attempted to transport the contents, 24,000 pounds of frozen carabao meat, from Corregidor Island to Bataan Peninsula in the Philippine Islands for immediate consumption. Japanese air attacks would prevent this transport, and the meat would soon spoil. Mar Japanese bombers attacked American field hospital No. 1 at Bataan, Philippine Islands at 0730 hours despite the large red crosses painted on the building's roof, killing 15. In the evening, Japanese radio broadcast an apology for this attack.

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3 Apr 1942 After a heavy artillery and aerial bombardment from 0900 to 1500 hours, Japanese troops launched an attack on the Bataan Peninsula in Philippine Islands, penetrating the lines held by the Filipino 41st Infantry Division. 4 Apr 1942 Douglas MacArthur, now relocated to Australia per Franklin Roosevelt's orders, radioed Jonathan Wainwright, saying that "under no conditions should Bataan be surrendered; any action is preferable to capitulation". Meanwhile, at Bataan in the Philippine Islands, Japanese troops moved toward Mount Samat, threatening to take this dominant position. 5 Apr 1942 Japanese troops defeated the Philippine 21st Division at Mount Samat on the Bataan Peninsula, Philippine Islands. Inside the Allied lines,

General Jonathan Wainwright doubled rations for front line troops despite being short in food in order to give the troops strength. 6 Apr 1942 Japanese aircraft continued to attack American and Filipino targets at Bataan, Philippine Islands. 7 Apr 1942 A Japanese dive bomber destroyed an ammunition truck near American field hospital No. 1 at Bataan, Philippine Islands at 1000 hours. Shortly after, Japanese aircraft returned to attack the hospital, which had large red crosses painted on the roof, killing 89 and wounding 101; a significant portion of the drug supplies were destroyed in this attack. On the front lines, Japanese assaulted positions held by US and Filipino troops of the US II Corps along the San Vicente River, penetrating the line by noon, forcing the Allies to fall back to the line at the Mamala River in the afternoon, which would also abandoned by 2100 hours for the Alangan River further to the south. 8 Apr 1942 Japanese bombers and fighters attacked US II Corps positions digging in along the Alangan River at Bataan, Philippine Islands at 1100 hours, but these positions successfully repulsed the first Japanese assault shortly after; the Japanese would return with tank support, however, overrunning the line. The US Commander of the Luzon Force ordered all munition dumps at Mariveles Habor at Bataan destroyed, and medical staff began withdrawing to Corregidor island. 9 Apr 1942 75,000 US and Filipino troops, remainder of the US II Corps under General Edward King on the Bataan peninsula at Luzon, Philippine Islands, surrendered to the Japanese at 1230 hours; it was the largest American surrender in history. Before doing so, they destroyed fuel dumps, ammunition stores, submarine tender USS Canopus, tug USS Napa, and floating drydock USS Dewey. 10 1942 Apr The Japanese, overwhelmed with 76,000 captives at Bataan on the main Philippine island of Luzon, decided to march the prisoners 25 miles to Balanga for further transport. Without food, water, or medical supplies and facing brutal treatment by the Japanese, the prisoners of war would die in large numbers, and this march would soon be named the Bataan Death March. Just off Luzon, minesweeper USS Finch, damaged by Japanese air attacks on the previous day, was scuttled by her crew. Elsewhere in the Philippine Islands, 12,000 Japanese troops landed on Cebu on three invasion beaches; the 6,500 defenders at Cebu City evacuated the capital and moved inland; Australia-based B17 bombers attacked the invasion force to little effect. Apr US Army Brigadier General Ralph Royce led 10 B-25 bombers and 3 B17 bombers from Darwin, Australia to Mindanao, Philippine Islands; they

11 1942

were to be used for bombing Japanese forward positions. On the Bataan peninsula on the island of Luzon, 350 Filipino prisoners of war were killed by the Japanese north of Mount Samat during the Bataan Death March. 12 1942 Apr The Japanese artillery bombardment of Corregidor island in the Philippine Islands began. Meanwhile, many US and Filipino prisoners of war continued to die while being marched northward during the Bataan Death March from starvation, dehydration, disease, and murders. To the south, on the island of Cebu, US and Filipino troops scuttled torpedo boat PT-35 and withdrew deeper into the mountains. Apr US and Filipino prisoners of war began to be marched from Balanga for Orani in Bataan, Philippine Islands. To the south, Japanese artillery continued the bombardment of Corregidor island. Apr US and Filipino prisoners of war began to arrive at Orani in Bataan, Philippine Islands from Balanga, where facilities were totally inadequate for the large numbers of prisoners that would ultimately arrive at this location; to combat the issue, the Japanese marched a group of prisoners to Lubao further north and were imprisoned in an abandoned warehouse (en route, many died from heat, starvation, dehydration, and murders by Japanese guards). To the south, Japanese artillery continued the bombardment of Corregidor island. Apr A tunnel near the James and Morrison coastal gun batteries at Corregidor island, Philippine Islands collapsed from Japanese artillery bombardment, killing 70. To the north, the Japanese continued to transfer US and Filipino prisoners of war from Balanga to Orani and Lubao on the Bataan Peninsula, while the first arrivals at Orani and Lubao were now being marched north for San Fernando; en route, the prisoners continued to die from heat, dehydration, disease, and murders. At the southern island of Mindanao, motor torpedo boat PT-41 was scuttled by her own crew to prevent capture. Apr Japanese troops landed on Panay and Negros in the Philippine Islands before dawn. On Panay, lloilo City, Capiz, and the copper mines near San Jose were captured without resistance, but they found lloilo City in ruins, sabotaged by the retreating Filipino troops. Apr Two column of Japanese troops converged at Dumarao on Panay, Philippine Islands, completing the conquest of the eastern side of the island. Apr The 1st Battalion of the 63rd Infantry Regiment of the 61st Philippine Division under Captain Julian Chaves pushed back Japanese troops at

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Mount Dila-Dila on Panay, Philippine Islands. 19 1942 20 1942 Apr US and Filipino prisoners of war were loaded onto cramped freight trains from San Fernando to Camp O'Donnell at Capas, Tarlac, Philippine Islands; many died en route. Apr A Type 96 240mm howitzer was brought to the Bataan Peninsula on Luzon, Philippine Islands by the Japanese for the purpose of bombarding the island of Corregidor. On the same day, on the island of Panay, Japanese Army troops declared the island secure. Apr American submarine USS Sailfish departed with ammunition for the American troops at Corregidor in the Philippine Islands; the island garrison would surrender before this mission was completed. Apr The final US-Filipino stronghold on the island of Luzon in the Philippine Islands, Corregidor, while already under daily bombardment for the past two weeks, began to be subjected to night-time bombardments as well. At 2200 hours, two 240-millimeter shells hit the opening of a tunnel leading into the underground command center, killing 15. Apr Japanese troops landed at Cotabato, Mindanao, Philippine Islands. To the north at the island of Luzon, minesweeper USS Finch was damaged by Japanese air attacks. A large scale artillery and aerial bombardment was conducted at the island of Corregidor at the tip of Bataan Peninsula, Luzon. Apr Two PBY Catalina aircraft from Mindanao evacuated 50 personnel (including 20 nurses) from Corregidor, Philippine Islands as the island was again subjected to a large scale artillery and aerial bombardment. May In the Philippine Islands, Corregidor was subjected to heavy artillery and aerial bombardments, while Japanese troops defeated the Filipino 61st Infantry Regiment on the southern island of Mindanao. May The powder magazine of gun battery Geary on Corregidor in the Philippine Islands was hit by Japanese artillery at 1627 hours, detonating 1,600 62-pound powder bags; 56 were killed and hundreds were wounded. To the east, in Manila Bay, river gunboat USS Mindanao was scuttled to prevent capture. May The Japanese continued to bombard Corregidor in the Philippine Islands by artillery and aircraft. May The Japanese bombardment of Corregidor, Philippine Islands heightened to soften the defenses for invasion scheduled on the next day. On the beaches of nearby Bataan Peninsula, 2,000 Japanese troops

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began boarding 15 barges. 5 1942 6 1942 May After a final bombardment with 16,000 shells, 2,000 Japanese troops landed on the eastern coast of Corregidor, Philippine Islands at about 2345 hours, delivered by 15 barges. May Before dawn, US and Filipino defenders in the East Sector of Corregidor, Philippine Islands fought against the Japanese amphibious assault launched just prior to midnight, killing 1,200 men of the 2,000-strong first wave of attack. At 0930 hours, the Japanese began to gain a beachhead and began landing tanks to support the invasion. The US 4th Marine Regiment reserve companies and the US 4th Marine Battalion (reserve) launched an unsuccessful counterattack. Acknowledging the hopelessness of the situation, Major General Jonathan Wainwright ordered his troops to surrender at 1030 hours. To prevent capture, US Marines Colonel S. L. Howard ordered all regimental and national colors of the 4th Marine Regiment burned to prevent capture, while other US and Filipino personnel scuttled gunboats and destroyed ammunition stores. May The Japanese troops completed the occupation of all the forts on Corregidor, Philippine Islands. Meanwhile, from the capital of Manila, Jonathan Wainwright announced the surrender over the radio, under supervision of a Japanese censor. May Troops of the Japanese Kawamura Detachment wiped out American and Filipino troops under Brigadier General William Sharp near Dalig on Mindanao, Philippine Islands. May US Army General William Sharp received orders from General Jonathan Wainwright to surrender all US and Filipino troops on Mindanao, Philippine Islands, which he complied. May The last US troops in the Philippine Islands surrendered on Mindanao.

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May Japanese troops occupied Leyte and Samar in the Philippine Islands unopposed.

9 Jun 1942 All organized resistance against the Japanese invasion ceased in the Philippine Islands.

Japanese Occupation of the Philippines

On December 8, 1941, Japan invaded the Philippines. Clark Air Base in Pampanga was first attacked and also Nichols Field outside Manila was attacked, then on December 22, The Japanese

forces landed at the Lingayen Gulf and continued on to Manila. General Douglas MacArthur declared Manila an open city on the advice of commonwealth President Manuel L. Quezon to avoid its destruction. Manila was occupied by the Japanese on January 2, 1942. MacArthur retreated with his troops to Bataan while the commonwealth government withdrew to Corregidor island before proceeding to the United States. The joint American and Filipino soldiers in Bataan finally surrendered on April 9, 1942. MacArthur escaped to Corregidor then proceeded to Australia. The 76,000 captured soldiers were forced to embark on the infamous "Death March" to a prison camp more than 100 kilometers north. An estimated 10,000 prisoners died due to thirst, hunger and exhaustion.

The Huks
In the midst of fear and chaos, some farmers of Pampanga banded together and created local brigades for their protection. Luis Taruc, Juan Feleo, Castro Alejandrino, and other leaders of organized farmers held a meeting in February 1942 in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. In that meeting, they agreed to fight the Japanese as a unified guerrilla army. Another meeting was held the following month, where in representatives from Tarlac, Pampanga and Nueva Ecija threshed out various details regarding their organization, which they agreed to call " Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa mga Hapon" or HUKBALAHAP. Taruc was chosen to be the Leader of the group, with Alejandrino as his right hand man. The members were simply known as Huks!

The Philippine Executive Commission

In accordance the instructions of President Manuel Quezon to Jorge Vargas, the Filipino officials in Manila were told to enter into agreements and compromises with the Japanese to mitigate the sufferings of the people under the iron-clad rule of the Japanese. On January 23, 1942 the Philippine Executive Commission was established, with Vargas as chairman. the following was appointed as department heads: Benigno Aquino, Sr., interior; Antonio de las Alas, finance; Jose P. Laurel, justice; Claro M. Recto, education, health, and public welfare; and Quintin Paredes, public works and communication; Jose Yulo was named Chief Justice of the Supreme court. The following month, an election was held for members of The Preparatory Commission for Philippine Independence (PCPI). The purpose of PCPI is to draw up a constitution for a free Philippines. Jose Laurel became its head. Against the will of the PCPI delegates the new Constitution was finalized on July 10, 1943. Two months later it was ratified by the KALIBAPI, which was the only political party allowed to exist at that time. KALIBAPI is the acronym for "Kapisanan sa Paglilingkod sa Bagong Pilipinas". The new constitution, which noticeably lacked a bill of rights contained 12 articles lifted from the 1935 constitution that fitted the wishes of the Japanese. It was meant

to be in effect only temporarily, while the Philippines still in chaos. After the war, a new constitution would again be drafted for the new Philippine Republic.

The Second Republic

On September 20 1943, the KALIBAPI- under the leadership of its director general, Benigno Aquino Sr. held a party convention to elect 54 members of the National Assembly. The Assembly was actually made up of 108 members; but half of this number was composed of incumbent governors and city mayors. Jose P. Laurel was elected as president of the second republic (the first republic was Aguinldo's Malolos Republic) and both Benigno Aquino Sr. & Ramon Avancena as a vice-presidents. The new republic was inaugurated on October 14 1943 on the front steps of the legislative building in Manila. The Philippine flag was hoisted as the national anthem was played. Meanwhile, the Japanese started using propaganda to gain the trust and confidence of Filipinos who refused to cooperate with them. They hung giant posters and distribute their materials that contains such slogans as "the Philippines belong to the Filipinos." they also used newspapers, movies, and others to publicize the same idea. Promoting Japanese propaganda was one of the main objectives of the KALIBAPI, but still Japanese failed to gain the trust of the Filipinos.

Gen. Douglas MacArthur Returns

From Australia, Allied forces slowly advanced toward the Philippines, bombing several Japanese strongholds until they regained control of areas previously occupied by the enemy. The bombings began on September 21 1944, and barely a month later, on October 20, 1944, the Americans landed triumphantly in Leyte. Once a shore, General Douglas MacArthur said; "I have Returned." Sergio Osmea was Part of MacArthurs group. He had taken over Manuel L. Quezon as president after the latter past way at Saranac Lake, New York on August 1944. From October 23 to October 26, 1944 the Americans engaged Japanese forces in the Battle of Leyte Gulf. Consider as the biggest naval battle in World History, this historic encounter almost destroyed the entire Japanese fleet and rendered in incapable of further attack. The US victory in the battle of Leyte Gulf is said to have signaled the beginning of Philippine liberation from the Japanese. By mid-December, the American soldiers had reached Mindoro. The Japanese, meanwhile, secured other area where their thought other American units would land. Nevertheless, US liberation forces successfully docked at Lingayen Gulf on January 9, 1945. The news alarmed the Japanese. Lt. Gen. Tomoyuki Yamashita, supreme commander of the Japanese troops in Manila, mobilize his kamikazes (Japanese suicide pilots); but they failed to stop Americans. The Japanese also deployed MAKAPILI units to defend Manila but neither succeeds. On December 8, 1944, President Laurel and his cabinet moved to Baguio upon orders of Yamashita, who is also known as the tiger of Malaya. The Japanese forces retreated to Yamashita line a jungle battlefront stretching along the Sierra Madre Mountains from Antipolo, Rizal to Appari Cagayan.

The Japanese in Manila would not give up easily. In fact, it took 3 weeks of intense fighting before they finally surrendered on February 23. Gen. MacArthur continued to liberate other parts of the country. And finally proclaim general freedom from the Japanese on July 4, 1945. Continue to Philippine Independence from the Americans

Impact of Japanese Occupation in the Philippines Considering Effects of World War II on Post-Colonial Philippines

Philippines Flag - WikiCommons

The Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia profoundly affected the region's nations, one such area being the form of society in an independent Philippines after 1946.

The Japanese occupation of Southeast Asia, which only ended in 1945, was overall a catalyst to the nationalistic movements among regions nations as well as their eventual independence. Although the Philippines achievement of independence in 1946 after the war seems to reinforce this view, it could also be said that the Japanese invasion instead hampered the achievement of independence.

Pre-War Movement Towards Independence

In contrast to other Southeast Asian nations, the nationalistic desire was already present in the Philippines, most prominently through the actions of national hero Jos Rizal. In fact, the Philippines were the first country to declare independence, doing so in 1898 with the end of Spanish colonialism, though that was quashed by the subsequent colonialism by the United States. Another plus point for the Philippines is that unlike the colonizers in other countries, the Americans were more open to the idea of Philippines eventual independence, even with their implementation of direct rule. Policies such as the Jones Act in 1916 or the Tydings-McDuffie Act in 1935 all pointed to a Philippines that was already about to achieve independence.

The Japanese Invasion Derailed Philippines Independence

As such, the Japanese invasion, accompanied by destruction and loss of life and property, especially in Manila could be said to have crippled the Philippines progress to independence. Economic poverty would continue to be a feature of

Japanese rule over the years, such as the use of the Japanese currency, derisively termed as Mickey Mouse money.

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Political upheavals also divided the country as a divide emerged between those who chose to cooperate with the Japanese, and those who eventually became guerillas. One such group was the Hukbalahap, whose violence was a reaction both to Japanese rule and their discontent with the previous class structure. Corruption and violence prevailed, as respect for law and order disappeared. The sense of nationhood was put aside in the individual pursuit for family survival among the Filipinos.

The Japanese Invasion Altered Independent Philippines

Despite the above, the Philippines declaration of independence and subsequent rule by its own rulers still did occur much earlier than other countries such as Vietnam. In that light, the effect of Japanese occupation did really have a crippling effect on the nationa's development. An alternative and less negative perspective worth considering would be to see the Japanese invasion as altering rather than solely hampering the Philippines once they had achieved independence.

Increased perception of Philippines as a Southeast Asian nation

Previously, the Philippines had been fairly isolated from the rest of the Southeast Asian nations, yet the common experience of the war would move itself closer to the rest of the region, both in political relationships and in cultural perceptions. This is seen especially in how the Philippines was one of ASEANs founding members during the association's establishment in 1967.

Changed relationship with America

The Philippines also had to grapple with its relationship with the United States, in many ways which perhaps would not occur without the Japanese occupation. This included the relative lack of aid supplied to the Philippines(the Americans were more focused on pumping money into rebuilding Japan), as well as economic concessions which favored America, such as the rigid currency link of the peso and dollar, which was viewed as unfair. America also wanted the continued usage of their military bases as the cold war progressed. This was viewed as an infringement of sovereignty, not only in a territorial sense, but also as military personnel were not subject to Philippine law, but rather that of their own military law.

A More Aggressive Filipino Society

The violence during the war years contributed to a society more prepared to use aggressiveness. This was especially seen in Huk guerilla war which continued after World War II and was only curbed by Ramon Magsaysay, the president from 1953 to 1955. These changes to the country would have a profound effect in political developments as well as the Filipinos way of lives over time, through the post-war years, the period of Ferdinand Marcos presidency, and beyond.

LIBERATION OF THE PHILIPPINES

After a month at San Pedro Navy Yard for repairs, the overhaul of the BRAINE was complete. In August she departed for Puget Sound to escort the USS SOUTH DAKOTA to Pearl Harbor. In mid-September the BRAINE was part of TG 33.3 and departed Pearl Harbor via Eniwetok to the Admiralty Islands in preparation for the invasion of the Philippine Islands. As the BRAINE crossed the Equator for the second time Neptunus Rex once again visited the ship with great fanfare for the initiation of the Pollywogs, including the Captain, into his underwater domain. Upon arrival at Manus Island in the Admiralty Islands, the BRAINE loaded with stores and ammunition in preparation for the largest invasion to date - the return of General MacArthur to Philippines - the invasion of Leyte Island. On 20 - 21 October 1944, the BRAINE provided intensive fire support for the ground troops as they landed and repelled several air attacks. The BRAINE was close by as General MacArthur waded ashore and delivered his famous, I Have Returned speech. For the next month the ship provided escort for the re-supply echelons from Admiralty and New Guinea. During one trip a submarine contact was detected and several depth charges were dropped with the results unknown. On 1 December 1944, the USS BRAINE was detached from DesRon 45 and ordered to join DesRon 23, the famed Little Beavers with which she served until the end of the War. On 15 December 1944, the BRAINE was part of the screen and bombardment group for the invasion of Mindoro and had her first experience with kamikaze planes. She was attacked by four planes. The first plane dropped a bomb that landed 100 feet off the starboard quarter. The plane was shot down and three other aerial attackers were driven off. As the Pacific War progressed the convoys became larger. In early January the BRAINE was ordered to be part of the large convoy enroute to the invasion of Luzon at Lingayen Gulf. On the moonless night of 7 January 1945, off the entrance to Manila Bay, the radar detected a probing by a Japanese destroyer. The protecting escort fired starshells to illuminate the enemy and sank it with devastating fire. The Japanese ship was one of the destroyers of the Hatsuharu class. This was the last engagement between surface ships of World War II. In support of the invasion the BRAINE drove off several air attacks. The ship was grounded on an uncharted shoal and returned to Leyte for repairs in a floating dry-dock, then continued to act as escort for the re-supply echelons.

In mid-February the BRAINE again escorted troop ships and provided close-in fire support for the paratrooper landings on the island of Corregidor. The ship encountered an enemy minefield and destroyed several mines by gunfire. In midMarch the BRAINE escorted troop carriers and provided fire support for the landings at Zambiango on the island of Mindanoa in the southern Philippines. Meanwhile the invasion at Okinawa was in progress. Destroyers were assigned to picket duty abut forty miles out to act as an early warning radar system. The picket ships were under constant kamikaze attack. As messages were decoded about the action, the names of familiar sister destroyers were listed as casualties. They were either sunk or damaged. In April, fifteen new crew members reported on board the BRAINE. On 13 May LT. Jack B. Lahrmer, USNR reported on board as Executive Officer. Two days later, the BRAINE with DesRon 23 was ordered to Okinawa

UNIT VI THE MODERN DAY PHILIPPINES Independent Philippines and the Third Republic (19461975) THIRD PHILIPPINE REPUBLIC
Philippines was a shattered nation at the end of the Second World War. It was plagued with postwar problems: ravaged land, cities and towns in ruins, destroyed

factories, schools, farms, roads and bridges, and a seemingly unending grief among the survivors of war. Out of this grim scenario, the Third Republic was born.

THE ROXAS ADMINISTRATION (1916-48)

Manuel A. Roxas, President from 1946 until 1948.

Elections were held in April 1946, with Manuel Roxas becoming the first president of the independent Republic of the Philippines. The United States ceded its sovereignty over the Philippines on July 4, 1946, as scheduled. [87][124] However, the Philippine economy remained highly dependent on United States markets more dependent, according to United States high commissioner Paul McNutt, than any single U.S. state was dependent on the rest of the country. [125] The Philippine Trade Act, passed as a precondition for receiving war rehabilitation grants from the United States,[126] exacerbated the dependency with provisions further tying the economies of the two countries. A military assistance pact was signed in 1947 granting the United States a 99-year lease on designated military bases in the country. When Manuel A. Roxas was sworn in as the first president of the Third Philippine Republic, he knew the task he was about to take was tremendous and hard. He was facing a ruined economy and society. The first job then was to rehabilitate Philippines.

Postwar Problems of the Roxas Administration

1. Economic rehabilitation and financial poverty of the government. Production was almost at a halt in the early months of the liberation due to lack of capital to finance the rehabilitation of destroyed machinery and equipment. Shipping and railways were out of operation resulting to very limited production and marketing of consumer goods.

The new Republic began to function on an annual deficit of over P200, 000, 000. For its operational expenses, it had to borrow from the United States and depend on U.S. monetary aid. 2. Cultural rehabilitation The war paralyzed the educational system. About 80% of school buildings, laboratories and furniture were destroyed. Books, works of arts, and other valuable documents were burned. Churches and temples were burned or badly damaged. It would take more than a hundred million pesos to reconstruct these buildings. The was has caused so much misery to many people and the peoples moral and spiritual fiber have been debased by the war. Feeling of insecurity, threat of starvation, and the struggle for survival during the war distorted the peoples moral values. 3. Peace and Order Criminalsgangs and lootersroamed the streets of Manila and other cities staging hold-ups, kidnapping, and robberies. In rural areas, especially in Central Luzon and in Southern Tagalog, the Hukbalahap (the guerrillas of WW II) and brigands terrorized the towns and barrios.

The Task of Rehabilitation

Roxas started rehabilitating the nation with a pro-American and antiCommunist foreign policy. With U.S. aid and U.S. economic policies intended to extend American control via the amending of the 1935 Constitution, Roxas was left with no choice but to go with the governments rehabilitation programs amidst criticism and the threat of insurgency. Pursuant to Roxas pro-American foreign policy, the following treaties and policies were signed: 1. Treaty of General Relations (1946) U.S. would withdraw and surrender all rights of possession, supervision, jurisdiction, control or sovereignty over the Philippines. 2. Military Bases Agreement and Military Assistance Agreement (1947) 3. War Surplus Property Agreement (1946)

Bell Trade Relations Act and Tydings Rehabilitation Act

Even before the granting of Philippine independence, the Americans had already thought of controlling Philippine economy by pushing for the amendment of the Constitution, so they could be given rights in exploiting and developing the countrys land and mineral resources.

The Bell Trade Relations Act provided for the free-trade relations between the U.S. and Philippines until 1954, until which exported and imported Philippine and American goods would be taxed with tariffs. The Tydings Rehabilitation Act provided for the outlay of $620, 000, 000 to be given to the victims of war with the condition that the Constitution be amended in order to give parity rights to the Americans. The parity rights gave the Americans the right to dispose, exploit, develop and utilize all agricultural, timber, and mineral lands of the Philippines, together with the operation of public utilities and the exploitation of the waters, minerals, coal, petroleum, and mineral resources of the Philippines. Although, the Roxas Administration gained a good record, such achievement was marred by (1) the failure to curb graft and corruption; and (2) the failure to check the communistic Hukbaklahap Movement. The Huks did not surrender their arms and did not take advantage of the guerilla amnesty Roxas has offered them.

THE QUIRINO ADMINISTRATION (1948-53)

Elpidio Quirino, president from 1948 until 1953.

The Roxas administration granted general amnesty to those who had collaborated with the Japanese in World War II, except for those who had committed violent crimes. Roxas died suddenly of a heart attack in April 1948, and the vice president, Elpidio Quirino, was elevated to the presidency. He ran for president in his own right in 1949, defeating Jose P. Laurel and winning a four-year term. World War II had left the Philippines demoralized and severely damaged. The task of reconstruction was complicated by the activities of the Communistsupported Hukbalahap guerrillas (known as "Huks"), who had evolved into a violent resistance force against the new Philippine government. Government policy towards the Huks alternated between gestures of negotiation and harsh suppression. Secretary of Defense Ramon Magsaysay initiated a campaign to defeat the insurgents militarily and at the same time win popular support for the government. The Huk movement had waned in the early 1950s, finally ending with the unconditional surrender of Huk leader Luis Taruc in May 1954.

The unexpected death of Roxas, left Quirino with the tasks (1) to continue reconstructing the economy of the nation; (2) to restore the faith and confidence of the people in the government; and (3) to restore peace and order. Quirino started his governmental objectives by creating the following: 1. PACSA (Presidents Action Committee on Social Amelioration). This was aimed to mitigate the sufferings of indigent families. 2. ACCFA (Agricultural Credit Cooperatives Financing Administration). This was aimed to help the farmers market their products and save them from loan sharks 3. Rural banks. These were created to facilitate credit in rural areas and provide low-interest loans for farmers

THE HUKS AND QUIRINOS AMNESTY PROGRAM

To restore peace and order, Quirino sent his brother Judge Antonio Quirino to talk with Luis Taruc, the Huk leader, in order to know what the Huks wanted. The negotiations were kept secret. And on June 21, 1948, Quirino issued amnesty for the Huks. Thus, the Huks agreed to lay down their arms, within 50 days to register their guns. Taruc entered Manila and was mobbed by admirers, congressmen and senators who happily posed with him in pictures taken by media men. He resumed his seat as Congressman. But later, on August 14, Taruc left Manila and had a meeting with other Huk leaders. Then, a sudden clash between Military Police and Huks erupted. The amnesty failed. In a desperate attempt to end hostilities, Quirino appointed Ramon Magsaysay, a congressman of Zambales, Secretary of National Defense. Thus, with Magsaysays leadership the government forces were able to crush the rebels and captured the brain behind the Huk Politburo, Atty. Jose Lava. The arrest and imprisonment of the members of the Huk Politburo demoralized the Huk rank and file. With the suppression of the Huks, peace and order was gradually restored. But Quirinos administration was still haunted by graft and corruption. Even in 1949, when Qurino won the presidential election by besting Dr. Jose P. Laurel and Senate President Jose Avelino, political observers claimed that this election was the dirtiest and bloodiest election in Philippine political annals.

THE MAGSAYSAY ADMINISTRATION (1953-57)

President and Mrs. Magsaysay with Eleanor Roosevelt at the Malacaang Palace.

Supported by the United States, Magsaysay was elected president in 1953 on a populist platform. He promised sweeping economic reform, and made progress in land reform by promoting the resettlement of poor people in the Catholic north into traditionally Muslim areas. Though this relieved population pressure in the north, it heightened religious hostilities. Nevertheless, he was extremely popular with the common people, and his death in an airplane crash in March 1957 dealt a serious blow to national morale. As Quirinos Secretary of National Defense, Magsaysay won the admiration of the masses by crushing the Huks. Upon resigning his post, he ran as president in the 1953 election, which he overwhelmingly won over the re-electionist Elpidio Quirino. Magaysay s success is claimed to be as the handiwork of the Americans. The U.S. was no longer happy with Qurino because he was looked upon as an opportunist of the first orderwhose political reliability cannot be counted upon very strongly. Magsaysay was lauded in the American press for his anti-Huk campaign and the Philippine Armed Forces also helped Magsaysays propaganda effort succeed. His simple life and honest way of life, his humanity and his success as a Huk fighter made him the idol of the masses. He is conferred by writers asMan of the Masses. Some of his achievements were: 1. He improved the condition of the barrios by uplifting the barrio folks to a better life. He constructed barrio roads and bridges, barrio artesian wells and irrigation systems. 2. He prohibited the slaughtering of carabaos. 3. He minimized extravagant receptions ad nsocial parties in Mlalacaang and imposed a higher moral standard for public officials. 4. As a nationalist, he popularized the use of the barong tagalog in official and social functions.

During Magsaysays term, the SEATO (Southeast Asia Treaty Organization) was established in Manila on September 8, 1954 to counter the growth communism in the region. Then in December, 1954, the Laurel-Langley Agreement was signed in Washington, D.C. This agreement provided for the gradual abolition of free trade between U.S. and Philippines from January 1, 1956 to July 3, 1974. On May 9, 1956, the Reparation Agreement with Japan was finally signed in Manila. It provided that Japan would pay reparations for the destruction committed by the Japanese forces in the Philippines during World War II for twenty-five years. Pres. Magsaysay died in a plane crash in Cebu on March 17, 1957.

THE GARCIA ADMINISTRATION (1957-61)

Carlos P. Garcia, president of the Philippines from 1957 until 1961.

Carlos P. Garcia succeeded to the presidency after Magsaysay's death, and was elected to a four-year term in the election of November that same year. His administration emphasized the nationalist theme of "Filipino first", arguing that the Filipino people should be given the chances to improve the country's economy. Garcia successfully negotiated for the United States' relinquishment of large military land reservations. However, his administration lost popularity on issues of government corruption as his term advanced. Carlos P. Garcia was inaugurated president on December 30, 1957. He carried on the good policies of Magsaysay and implemented his own programs. Among his achievements were: 1. Strengthening of democracy in the Philippines. Respect for human rights, including freedom of speech, of the press, of religion, etc. was recognized and free elections were maintained.

2. Revival of Filipino culture. He encouraged the world tours of Bayanihan Folk Damce Troups and other Filipino folk dance groups. He sponsored awards for Filipino scientists, artists, musicians, and writer. 3. Adoption of the Filipino First Policy to promote greater Filipino participation in business.

THE MACAPAGAL ADMINISTRATION (1961-65)

Diosdado Macapagal, president of the Philippines from 1961 until 1965.

In Presidential Election that held on November 14, 1963, Vice President Diosdado Macapagal won as a president by defeating re-electionist President Carlos P. Garcia and Emmanuel Pelaez as a Vice President. President Macapagal was the President of the Philippines that change the independence day of the Philippines from July 4 to June 12. Land Reform Code The Agricultural Land Reform Code (RA 3844) was a major Philippine land reform law enacted in 1963 under President Diosdado Macapagal
The code declared that it was State policy 1. To establish owner-cultivatorship and the economic family-size farm as the basis of Philippine agriculture and, as a consequence, divert landlord capital in agriculture to industrial development; 2. To achieve a dignified existence for the small farmers free from pernicious institutional restraints and practices; 3. To create a truly viable social and economic structure in agriculture conducive to greater productivity and higher farm incomes; 4. To apply all labor laws equally and without discrimination to both industrial and agricultural wage earners;

5. To provide a more vigorous and systematic land resettlement program and public land distribution; and 6. To make the small farmers more independent, self-reliant and responsible citizens, and a source of genuine strength in our democratic society.

and, in pursuance of those policies, established the following

1. An agricultural leasehold system to replace all existing share tenancy systems in agriculture; 2. A declaration of rights for agricultural labor; 3. An authority for the acquisition and equitable distribution of agricultural land; 4. An institution to finance the acquisition and distribution of agricultural land; 5. A machinery to extend credit and similar assistance to agriculture; 6. A machinery to provide marketing, management, and other technical services to agriculture; 7. A unified administration for formulating and implementing projects of land reform; 8. An expanded program of land capability survey, classification, and registration; and 9. A judicial system to decide issues arising under this Code and other related laws and regulations.

MAPHILINDO Maphilindo was a proposed Philippines, and Indonesia. It was Commonwealth government in the Eduardo L. Martelino in his 1959 book nonpolitical confederation of Malaya, the based on concepts developed during the Philippines by Wenceslao Vinzons and by Someday, Malaysia".

In July 1963, President Diosdado Macapagal of the Philippines convened a summit meeting in Manila. Maphilindo was proposed as a realization of Jose Rizal's dream of bringing together the Malay peoples. However, this was perceived as a tactic on the parts of Jakarta and Manila to delay or prevent the formation of the Federation of Malaysia. The plan failed when Indonesian President Sukarno adopted his plan of Konfrontasi with Malaysia. Diosdado Macapagal was inaugurated president on December 30, 1961. He loved to call himself the Poor Boy from Lubao but he did not attract the same affection and admiration that Magsaysay got from the masses. Among his achievements were: 1. Upon his recommendation, the Philippine Congress enacted the Agricultural Land Reform Code. This code provided for the purchase of private farmlands and distributing them in small lots to the landless tenants on easy terms of payment. This program received strong opposition from the rich landlords.

2. Propagation of Filipino Language. Filipino was used in passports, school diplomas, traffic signs and stamps. Names of typhoons were also Filipinized. 3. The date of Philippine Independence Day was changed from July 4 to June 12. 4. Official filing of the claim of the Philippines over Sabah (North Borneo) even if Britain and Malaysia opposed it.

THE MARCOS ADMINISTRATION (1965-69: First Term) Marcos era and Martial law (19651986)

The leaders of the SEATO nations in front of the Congress Building in Manila, hosted by Philippine President Ferdinand Marcos on October 24, 1966. (L-R:) Prime Minister Nguyen Cao Ky (South Vietnam), Prime Minister Harold Holt (Australia), President Park Chung-hee (South Korea), President Ferdinand Marcos (Philippines), Prime Minister Keith Holyoake (New Zealand), Lt. Gen. Nguyen Van Thieu (South Vietnam), Prime Minister Thanom Kittikachorn (Thailand), President Lyndon B. Johnson (United States)

Macapagal ran for re-election in 1965, but was defeated by his former partymate, Senate President Ferdinand Marcos, who had switched to the Nacionalista Party. Early in his presidency, Marcos initiated ambitious public works projects and intensified tax collection which brought the country economic prosperity throughout the 1970s. His administration built more roads (including a substantial portion of the Pan-Philippine Highway) than all his predecessors combined, and more schools than

any previous administration. Marcos was re-elected president in 1969, becoming the first president of the independent Philippines to achieve a second term. The Philippine Legislature was corrupt and impotent. Opponents of Marcos blocked the necessary legislation to implement his ambitious plans. Because of this, optimism faded early in his second term and economic growth slowed. Crime and civil disobedience increased. The Communist Party of the Philippines formed the New People's Army. The Moro National Liberation Front continued to fight for an independent Muslim nation in Mindanao. An explosion during the proclamation rally of the senatorial slate of the Liberal Party on August 21, 1971 prompted Marcos to suspend the writ of habeas corpus, which he restored on January 11, 1972 after public protests.

Martial law
Amidst the rising wave of lawlessness and the threat of a Communist insurgency, Marcos declared martial law on September 23, 1972 by virtue of Proclamation No. 1081. Marcos, ruling by decree, curtailed press freedom and other civil liberties, closed down Congress and media establishments, and ordered the arrest of opposition leaders and militant activists, including his staunchest critics senators Benigno Aquino, Jr., Jovito Salonga and Jose Diokno. The declaration of martial law was initially well received, given the social turmoil the Philippines was experiencing. Crime rates plunged dramatically after a curfew was implemented. Many political opponents were forced to go into exile. A constitutional convention, which had been called for in 1970 to replace the colonial 1935 Constitution, continued the work of framing a new constitution after the declaration of martial law. The new constitution went into effect in early 1973, changing the form of government from presidential to parliamentary and allowing Marcos to stay in power beyond 1973. Marcos claimed that martial law was the prelude to creating a "New Society" based on new social and political values. The economy during the 1970s was robust, with budgetary and trade surpluses. The Gross National Product rose from P55 billion in 1972 to P193 billion in 1980. Tourism rose, contributing to the economy's growth. However, Marcos, his cronies, and his wife, Imelda RomualdezMarcos, willfully engaged in rampant corruption.

Fourth Republic
Appeasing the Roman Catholic Church, Marcos officially lifted martial law on January 17, 1981. However, he retained much of the government's power for arrest and detention. Corruption and nepotism as well as civil unrest contributed to a serious decline in economic growth and development under Marcos, whose health declined due to lupus. The political opposition boycotted the 1981 presidential elections, which pitted Marcos against retired general Alejo Santos. Marcos won by a margin of over

16 million votes, which constitutionally allowed him to have another six-year term. Finance Minister Cesar Virata was appointed as Prime Minister by Marcos. In 1983, opposition leader Benigno Aquino, Jr. was assassinated at the Manila International Airport upon his return to the Philippines after a long period of exile. This coalesced popular dissatisfaction with Marcos and began a succession of events, including pressure from the United States, that culminated in a snap presidential election in February 1986. The opposition united under Aquino's widow, Corazon Aquino. The official election canvasser, the Commission on Elections (Comelec), declared Marcos the winner of the election. However, there was a large discrepancy between the Comelec results and that of Namfrel, an accredited poll watcher. The allegedly fraudulent result was rejected by Corazon Aquino and her supporters. International observers, including a U.S. delegation, denounced the official results. General Fidel Ramos and Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile withdrew their support for Marcos. A peaceful civilian-military uprising, now popularly called the People Power Revolution, forced Marcos into exile and installed Corazon Aquino as president on February 25, 1986. Ferdinand E. Marcos won over the re-electionist, Pres. Macapagal based on his battle cry: This nation can be great again. He took his oath of office on December 30, 1965. Among his achievements were: 1. Stabilization of government finance by means of more effective collection of taxes, imposing new tax laws, and getting loans form foreign banks and governments. 2. Greater production of rice by promoting the cultivation of the miracle rice. 3. Building of more roads and bridges. intensive drive against smuggling, crime syndicates, and the communist New Peoples Army. Second Term for Marcos. In 1969, Marcos won another term as president of the Philippines. His second termed was met by an economic crisis brought about by the rising of oil prizes in the world market. Unemployment rate increased and the Philippine peso suffered from devaluation. The country was also beset with graft and corruption, rising tides of crime, communism, and subversion. Such problems aroused disenchantment especially among the youth. Hence, students of colleges and universities rose in violent demonstrations in the streets of Manila and in the towns and provinces. On the night of January 30, 1970, angry demonstrators stormed Malacaang. In this incident, six student activists were killed and many were wounded. The following months, more riotous student rallies erupted. The objectives of the activists could be summed up into: (1) good government without dirty politics; (2) social justice through land reform; (3) lower prices of prime

commodities; (4) more employment; (5) new constitution to replace the 1935 constitution; and (6) quality education. The clamor of a new constitution among politicians and concerned citizens was attractive for President Marcos who had a sinister plan. Hence, on August 24, 1970, he signed R.A. 6132 popularly known as the 1970 Constitutional Convention Act. This provided for the election of the delegates to the Constitutional Convention (Con-Con). 320 delegates were elected on November 10, 1970, more than half of which were politicians, relative of politicians and protgs of politicians. Lawlessness resurged as the local elections of 1971 approached. On the night of August 21, 1971, two grenades were hurled by unidentified men on the platform where Liberal Party candidates were campaigning. Eight persons were killed and 120 were injured. This event is now remembered as Plaza Miranda Massacre. The Marcos administration blamed the communist New Peoples Army for such murderous act. Bombings of public and private properties and buildings sowed terror among the people. Assassination plots were echoed in radio stations. And more student rallies turned violent. With such terrible situation, President Marcos places the country under Martial Law on September 23, 1972. This was to implement Proclamation No. 1081, which he signed earlier on September 21, 1972. Adoption of the 1973 Constitution. After the start of Martial Law, the delegates to the Con-Con reassembled and resumed for work, except the antiMarcos delegates. By November 29, 1972, the new constitution was ready for ratification. In the plebiscite of January 10-15, 1973, citizens hastily voted and at the end of the election, it was reported that 95% percent of the total votes affirmed the adoption of the new constitution. On January 17, 1973, President Marcos signed the constitution and was implemented immediately amidst criticism and questions on its legality. Salient Features of the 1973 Constitution. 1. It established for the first time a Parliamentary government. It should have installed a ceremonial head and a prime minister but this was not implemented for Marcos ruled as dictator until 1981, when Martial Law was lifted. 2. Legislative powers were vested on a unicameral National Assembly. However, the National Assembly was never convened. Instead Marcos created puppet legislatures. 3. It emphasized the duties and obligations of the citizens. Voting was made compulsory for qualified voters, and suffrage was extended to the illiterates and down to the 18-year olds. 4. Parity right was terminated.

5. Decrees, proclamations, and orders of President Marcos were legalized and his term of office was extended beyond 1973. Further amendments were introduced into the 1973 constitution to justify the extension of term of office of the president and to give him more special powers. Such amendments were tailor-made to suit the desire of Marcos to rule as a strong president in a constitutional authoritarianismcritics called the system a tyranny or dictatorship.

MARTIAL LAW
Martial Law is an extraordinary measure taken by the head of state to defend or to protect the people from extreme danger due to lawless violence, anarchy, rebellion or invasion.

Justifications of Marcos in proclaiming Martial Law

1. To save the republic [from chaos; from Communism]

In his diary, Marcos wrote: I had pointedly told my critics: You will be glad that there was one man who stood against the mob to protect the Republic. I would rather protect and save the Republic than be popular. One day in April of 1972, Marcos cautioned his top business development adviser against resigning from the Board of Investment because his help would be needed if Marcos became dictator. He wrote:
I told him that I expect disorder which may end up with the communists trying to grab power by violence or legal means. The Armed Forces would not allow this. So they would, in turn, take over the government and may call on meto set up a dictatorshipAnd I would need all good men to run government.

Throughout his stormy second term, Marcos had been telling the public, the media, his generals, and his diary that he would declare martial law only if provoked by acts of violent subversion, by overt acts of terror, massive sabotage, and attempted assassination. Frequently in his diary Marcos had predicted such violence was about to happen. The wave of 1972 bombings began late in June, increased in July, and became almost routine occurrences through August and into September. Most attacks came late at night, as if intended to minimize chances of human casualties. Such violence was blamed on the Communists, but student leftists blamed fascist elements. Senator Ramon Mitra, one of the victims of Plaza Miranda, declared the bombings the work of the armed forces to condition the people to martial law.

Describing his talks with Bongbong and Irene Marcos wrote: I told the situation in which we arethe fact that we are now fighting for survival; that whether I retire or not our family is in danger of liquidation from either the communists or our political enemies; that if I retire I would be forced to fight for our lives because the communists are growing stronger and would be much stronger without me as president; rather than fight a defensive or losing battle later, I would rather fight now by taking over the government by a proclamation of Martial Law

2. To reform the society

In the same conversation with his children, Marcos said:
But such a proclamation [of Martial Law] would succeed if the people are with us and the people will be with us if the new government is a reform government and we are all exemplars of the new society; so they, the children, must so conduct themselves that they will not antagonize the people.

Apparently, to reform the society, a new government was to be established. This could only be attained if the 1935 constitution was to be amended. Hence, Marcos immediately called for a Constitutional Convention to do the job. THE REAL INTENTION Marcos said to a visiting U.S. Senator in 1972 that if given the preference, he would opt for a simple extension of his term but such an option would require bipartisan support. If that did not work, he said, he would try to become prime minister. In his diary, he qualified his intentions:
But I would first wipe out the communists before the new President or Prime Minister takes over so he has a chance. I need several years to build my replacement. None of those aspiring now are fit to lead the country. Aquino and Diokno are demagogues and are communist-inclined. They would immediately set up a communist regimeWhat we need is somebody who is trusted by the Armed Forces, is a liberal thinker, will fight communism and will risk not only his life but everything in this fight.

Clearly, his primary aim was to become a dictator. Source: Delusions of A Dictator by William Rempel [1993] 1981 Presidential Elections. On June 16, 1981, the first presidential election after martial law was held with Marcos winning over Alejo Santos and Bartolome Cabangbang. Thus, on June 30, 1981, Marcos was inaugurated amidst colorful ceremonies in Manila. In his speech he said:

Today we proclaim the birth of a new republic, new in structure and character, and ordained to preside over a new time of ferment and change in our national life.

Aquinos Assassination. On August 21, 1983, former Senator Benigno S. (Ninoy) Aquino, Jr., the leading oppositionist of Marcos returned to the Philippines from a three-year exile from the U.S. He was shot at the Manila International Airport as he was to disembark from the plane. His alleged gunman was Rolando Galman.

Fifth Republic (1986present)

Further information: 19861987 Philippine coup attempts and 1989 Philippine coup attempt

Administration of Corazon C. Aquino (19861992)

Corazon Aquino, president from 1986-1992

With the People Power Revolution, Corazon Aquino's assumption into power marked the restoration of democracy in the country. Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation, and provided for a transitional "Freedom Constitution" that restored civil liberties and dismantled the heavily Marcos-ingrained bureaucracy abolishing the Batasang Pambansa and relieving all public officials. The Aquino administration likewise appointed a constitutional commission that submitted a new permanent constitution that was ratified and enacted in February 1987. The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.[3] Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military. [4] Aquino privatized many of the utilities the government owned, such as water and electricity. This practice was viewed by many as Aquino catering to oligarchic as well U.S. interests, losing the government's power of regulation.

Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters. In June 1991, Mount Pinatubo in Central Luzon erupted, after being dormant for 600 years. It was the 2nd largest volcanic eruption of the 20th century. It left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless, and cooled global weather by 1.5C. [5] On September 16, 1991, despite lobbying by President Aquino, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10-year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country. The United States turned over Clark Air Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Subic Bay Naval Base in Zambales in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.

Mount Pinatubo erupted in 1991.

Corazon Aquino immediately formed a revolutionary government to normalize the situation, and provided for a transitional "Freedom Constitution". A new permanent constitution was ratified and enacted in February 1987. The constitution crippled presidential power to declare martial law, proposed the creation of autonomous regions in the Cordilleras and Muslim Mindanao, and restored the presidential form of government and the bicameral Congress.Progress was made in revitalizing democratic institutions and respect for civil liberties, but Aquino's administration was also viewed as weak and fractious, and a return to full political stability and economic development was hampered by several attempted coups staged by disaffected members of the Philippine military. Economic growth was additionally hampered by a series of natural disasters, including the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo that left 700 dead and 200,000 homeless. During the Aquino presidency, Manila witnessed six unsuccessful coup attempts, the most serious occurring in December 1989. In 1991, the Philippine Senate rejected a treaty that would have allowed a 10year extension of the U.S. military bases in the country. The United States turned over Clark Air Base in Pampanga to the government in November, and Subic Bay Naval Base in Zambales in December 1992, ending almost a century of U.S. military presence in the Philippines.

RAMOS ADMINISTRATION (1992-98)

In the 1992 elections, Defense secretary Fidel V. Ramos ([Lakas-NUCD]), endorsed by Aquino, won by just 23.6% of the vote, over Miriam Defensor-Santiago ([PRP]), Eduardo Cojuangco, Jr. ([NPC]), House Speaker Ramon Mitra ([LDP]), former First Lady Imelda Marcos ([KBL]), Senate President Jovito Salonga ([LP]) and Vice President Salvador Laurel ([NP]). Early in his administration, Ramos declared "national reconciliation" his highest priority. He legalized the Communist Party and created the National Unification Commission (NUC) to lay the groundwork for talks with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and military rebels. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law a general conditional amnesty covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents. In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end. A standoff with China occurred in 1995, when the Chinese military built structures on Mischief Reef in the disputed Spratly Islands claimed by the Philippines as Kalayaan Islands.

Fidel Ramos, president from 1992-1998

Ramos was heavily criticized for passing an oil-deregulation law, thus inflating prices of gasoline products. Ramos was also criticized for alleged corruption in his handling of the Philippine Centennial Exposition and the PEA-AMARI land deal, in which Ramos allegedly received kickbacks amounting to millions of pesos. A peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF) under Nur Misuari, a major Muslim separatist group fighting for an independent Bangsamoro homeland in Mindanao, was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year old struggle. However an MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) under Salamat Hashim continued the armed Muslim struggle for an Islamic state. The 1998 elections were won by former movie actor and Vice President Joseph Ejercito Estrada (PMP-LAMMP) with overwhelming mass support, with close to 11 million votes. The other ten candidates included his closest rival and

administration candidate, House Speaker Jose De Venecia (Lakas-NUCD-UMDP) with 4.4 million votes, Senator Raul Roco (Aksyon Demokratiko), former Cebu governor Emilio Osmea (PROMDI) and Manila Mayor Alfredo Lim (LP). In the 1992 elections, Defense Secretary Fidel V. Ramos, endorsed by Aquino, won the presidency with just 23.6% of the vote in a field of seven candidates. Early in his administration, Ramos declared "national reconciliation" his highest priority and worked at building a coalition to overcome the divisiveness of the Aquino years. He legalized the Communist Party and laid the groundwork for talks with communist insurgents, Muslim separatists, and military rebels, attempting to convince them to cease their armed activities against the government. In June 1994, Ramos signed into law a general conditional amnesty covering all rebel groups, and Philippine military and police personnel accused of crimes committed while fighting the insurgents. In October 1995, the government signed an agreement bringing the military insurgency to an end. A peace agreement with the Moro National Liberation Front (MNLF), a major separatist group fighting for an independent homeland in Mindanao, was signed in 1996, ending the 24-year old struggle. However, an MNLF splinter group, the Moro Islamic Liberation Front continued the armed struggle for an Islamic state. Efforts by Ramos supporters to gain passage of an amendment that would allow him to run for a second term were met with large-scale protests, leading Ramos to declare he would not seek re-election. The administration of Pres. Fidel Valdez Ramos was capped with his program called Philippines 2000, which aimed to make the Philippines a newly industrialized country by the year 2000. During his term, Philippines seemed to be industrialized. It was considered one of Asias tiger economies. These are some of FVRs achievements:
1. Settlement of the outstanding internal wars with the 30-year old New Peoples Army communist insurgency, and Nur Misuaris MNLF(Moro National Liberation Front) separatist movement in Mindanao. 2. Granting of amnesty to the RAM (Reform the Armed Forces Movement) rebels, led by Col. Gregorio Gringo Honasan. 3. Holding of the 4th APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Cooperation) Leaders meeting in the Philippines in 1996. 4. Generating investments worth billions of dollars with numerous trips abroad. He then gained the title, The most-traveled president of the Philippines. 5. Passage of the Migrant Workers and Overseas Filipinos Act of 1995, which gave better protection for millions of Filipinos working overseas.

ESTRADA ADMINISTRATION (1998-2001)

Deposed President: Joseph Estrada

Joseph Estrada, a former movie actor who had served as Ramos' vice president, was elected president by a landslide victory in 1998. His election campaign pledged to help the poor and develop the country's agricultural sector. He enjoyed widespread popularity, particularly among the poor. Estrada assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy did, however, recover from a low 0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999. Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However it was not successful in amending the constitution. On March 21, 2000 President Estrada declared an "all-out-war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) after the worsening secessionist movement in Mindanao. The government later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF's headquarters', Camp Abubakar. In October 2000, however, Estrada was accused of having accepted millions of pesos in payoffs from illegal gambling businesses. He was impeached by the House of Representatives, but his impeachment trial in the Senate broke down when the senate voted to block examination of the president's bank records. In response, massive street protests erupted demanding Estrada's resignation. Faced with street protests, cabinet resignations, and a withdrawal of support from the armed forces, Estrada was forced from office on January 20, 2001. Josep Ejercito Estrada, school drop-out and movie actor, won the presidential race of 1998 over formidable opponents like Jose de Venecia, Miriam Defensor Santiago, Raul Roco and Juan Ponce Enrile. With a slogan: ERAP PARA SA MAHIRAP (A Buddy for the Poor), he convincingly captured the votes of many poor people, especially those in the slums.

At his inaugural address, he sounded a stern warning to hoodlums-in-uniform. His battle cry on corruption wasHuwag ninyo akong subukan! (Dont try me!) and was greeted with cheers and applause by an admiring crowd. However, being the 13th president of the Republic of the Philippines seemed to be a jinx. As Estrada was just heating his presidential seat, one of his buddies, Governor Chavit Singson of the province of Ilocos Sur, blew the whistle and tagged Estrada, Lord of all Jueteng Lords. Estrada was accused of receiving kick-back and pay offs from the coconut levy and from the Illegal numbers-game called jueteng. Consequently, he underwent an impeachment trial, which was later disrupted by the outbreak of EDSA Revolution II. In the end, Estrada left Malacaang with a hurt pride and Vice-President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo was installed president of the Philippines. On October 4, 2000, Ilocos Sur Governor Luis "Chavit" Singson, a longtime friend of President Joseph Estrada, went public with accusations that Estrada, his family and friends received millions of pesos from operations of the illegal numbers game, jueteng The expos immediately ignited reactions of rage. The next day, Senate Minority Leader Teofisto Guingona Jr. delivered a fiery privilege speech accusing Estrada of receiving P220 million in jueteng money from Governor Singson from November 1998 to August 2000, as well as taking P70 million on excise tax on cigarettes intended for Ilocos Sur. The privilege speech was referred by Senate President Franklin Drilon, to the Blue Ribbon Committee and the Committee on Justice for joint investigation. Another committee in the House of Representatives decided to investigate the expos, while other house members spearheaded a move to impeach the president. More calls for resignation came from Manila Cardinal Archbishop Jaime Sin, the Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines, former Presidents Corazon Aquino and Fidel Ramos, and Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (who had resigned her cabinet position of Secretary of the Department of Social Welfare and Development). Cardinal Sin stated in a statement "In the light of the scandals that besmirched the image of presidency, in the last two years, we stand by our conviction that he has lost the moral authority to govern." More resignations came from Estrada's cabinet and economic advisers, and other members of congress defected from his ruling party. On November 13, 2000, the House of Representatives led by Speaker Manuel Villar transmitted the Articles of Impeachment, signed by 115 representatives, to the Senate. This caused shakeups in the leadership of both houses of congress. The impeachment trial was formally opened on November 20, with twenty-one senators taking their oaths as judges, and Supreme Court Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. presiding. The trial began on December 7. The day-to-day trial was covered on live Philippine television and received the highest viewing rating at the time. Among the highlights of the trial was the

testimony of Clarissa Ocampo, senior vice president of Equitable PCI Bank, who testified that she was one foot away from Estrada when he signed the name "Jose Velarde" documents involving a P500 million investment agreement with their bank in February 2000.

Joseph Estrada, president from 1998-2001

Estrada assumed office amid the Asian Financial Crisis. The economy did, however, recover from it. From a low -0.6% growth in 1998 to a moderate growth of 3.4% by 1999. Like his predecessor there was a similar attempt to change the 1987 constitution. The process is termed as CONCORD or Constitutional Correction for Development. Unlike Charter change under Ramos and Arroyo the CONCORD proposal, according to its proponents, would only amend the 'restrictive' economic provisions of the constitution that is considered as impeding the entry of more foreign investments in the Philippines. However it was not successful in amending the constitution. On March 21, 2000 President Estrada declared an "all-out-war" against the Moro Islamic Liberation Front (MILF) after the worsening secessionist movement in Midanao. The government later captured 46 MILF camps including the MILF's headquarters', Camp Abubakar. In October 2000, Ilocos Sur governor Luis "Chavit", Singson a close Estrada friend, accused the President of receiving collections from jueteng, an illegal numbers game. On November 13, 2000, the House of Representatives impeached Estrada on grounds of bribery, graft and corruption, betrayal of public trust and culpable violation of the constitution. His impeachment trial in the Senate began on December 7, but broke down on January 17, 2001, after 11 senators allied with Estrada successfully blocked the opening of confidential bank records that would have been used by the prosecution to incriminate the President. In response, millions of people massed up at the EDSA Shrine, where in 1986 the People Power Revolution had ousted Marcos, demanding Estrada's immediate resignation. Estrada's cabinet resigned en masse and the military and police withdrew their support. On January 20, the Supreme Court declared the presidency vacant and

swore in Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as the country's 14th President. Estrada and his family evacuated the Malacaang Palace soon after. Nevertheless, Estrada challenged the legitimacy of the Arroyo before the Supreme Court on grounds that he did not resign, but just went on an indefinite leave. The Supreme Court upheld the legitimacy of Arroyo with finality on March 2, 2001.

Timeline in Edsa 2
On January 17, 2001, the impeachment trial of President Estrada moved to the investigation of an envelope containing crucial evidence that would allegedly prove acts of political corruption by Estrada. Senators allied with Estrada moved to block the evidence. The conflict between the senator-judges, and the prosecution became deeper, but then Senate Majority Floor Leader Francisco Tatad requested to the Impeachment court to make a vote for opening the second envelope. The vote resulted in 10 senators in favor of examining the evidence, and 11 senators in favor of suppressing it. The list of senators who voted for the second envelope are as follows: Voted to examine 1. Rodolfo Biazon 2. Renato Cayetano 3. Franklin Drilon 4. Juan Flavier 5. Teofisto Guingona, Jr. 6. Loren Legarda 7. Ramon Magsaysay, Jr. 8. Sergio Osmea III 9. Aquilino Pimentel, Jr. 10.Raul Roco Voted against examining 1. Robert Jaworski, Sr. 2. Blas Ople 3. Juan Ponce-Enrile 4. Vicente "Tito" Sotto III 5. Anna Dominique "Nikki" Coseteng 6. John Henry Osmea 7. Gregorio "Gringo" Honasan 8. Teresa "Tessie" Aquino-Oreta 9. Ramon Revilla, Sr. 10.Francisco "Kit" Tatad 11.Miriam Defensor-Santiago After the vote, Sen. Aquilino Pimentel, Jr. resigned as Senate President and walked out of the impeachment proceedings together with the 9 opposition Senators and 11 prosecutors in the Estrada impeachment trial. The 11 administration senators who voted YES to block the opening of the second envelope

remained in Senate Session Hall together with the members of the defense. The phrase "JOE'S COHORTS" quickly surfaced as a mnemonic device for remembering their names (JOE'S COHORTS: Jaworski, Oreta, Enrile, Santiago, Coseting, Osmena, Honasan, Ople, Revilla, Tatad, Sotto) However in February 2001, at the initiative of Senate President Aquilino Pimentel Jr., the second envelope was opened before the local and foreign media and it contained the document that stated that Jaime Dichavez and not Estrada owned the "Jose Velarde Account" Day 1: Wednesday January 17, 2001 All 11 prosecutors in the Estrada impeachment trial resigned. Sen. Tessie Aquino-Oreta, one of the three female senators who voted against opening the envelope (a "NO" vote), was seen on nationwide television and most people had the impression that she was dancing joyfully as the opposition walked out. This further fuelled the growing anti-ERAP sentiments of the crowd gathered at EDSA Shrine, and she became the most vilified and accursed of the 11 senators. She was labelled a "prostitute" and a "concubine" of ERAP for her dancing act. Sen. DefensorSantiago was also ridiculed, as the crowd tagged her as a "lunatic" (a popular criticism of her).

Day 2: Thursday January 18, 2001

Thousands of protesters choke the EDSA-Ortigas Ave. intersection calling for the resignation of President Joseph Estrada.

The crowd continues to grow, bolstered by students from private schools and left-wing organizations. Activists from the group Bayan and Akbayan as well as lawyers of the Integrated Bar of the Philippines and other bar associations joined in the thousands of protesters.

Day 3: Friday January 19, 2001

The Philippine National Police and the Armed Forces of the Philippines withdraw their support for Estrada, joining the crowds at the EDSA Shrine. At 2:00pm, Estrada appears on television for the first time since the beginning of the protests and maintains that he will not resign. He says he wants

the impeachment trial to continue, stressing that only a guilty verdict will remove him from office. At 6:15pm, Estrada again appears on television, calling for a snap presidential election to be held concurrently with congressional and local elections on May 14, 2001. He adds that he will not run in this election.

Day 4: Saturday January 20, 2001

At noon, Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo takes her oath of office in the presence of the crowd at EDSA, becoming the 14th president of the Philippines. At 2:00 pm, Estrada releases a letter saying he had "strong and serious doubts about the legality and constitutionality of her proclamation as president", but saying he would give up his office to avoid being an obstacle to healing the nation. Later, Estrada and his family leave Malacaang Palace, smiling and waving to reporters and shaking hands with the remaining members of his Cabinet and other palace employees. He was placed under house arrest and eventually confined to his rest home in Sampaloc, a small village in Tanay, Rizal.

Criticism
World reaction to the administration change was mixed. Though foreign nations, including the United States, immediately expressed recognition of the legitimacy of Arroyo's presidency, foreign commentators described the revolt as "a defeat for due process of law", "mob rule," and a "de facto coup". On January 18, 2008, Joseph Estrada's Pwersa ng Masang Pilipino (PMP) caused full-page advertisement in Metro Manila newspapers, blaming EDSA 2 of having "inflicted a dent on Philippine democracy". It featured clippings questioned the constitutionality of the revolution. The published featured clippings were taken from Time, The New York Times, The Straits Times, The Los Angeles Times, The Washington Post, Asia Times Online, The Economist, and International Herald Tribune. Supreme Court justice Cecilia Muoz Palma opined that EDSA 2 violated the 1987 Constitution.[8] On February 2008 parts of the Catholic Church that played a vital role during EDSA II issued a sort of an apology. The Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines (CBCP) president and Iloilo Archbishop Angel Lagdameo expressed disappointment in Mrs. Arroyo, saying that the event which has become known as EDSA II, installed a president who was reported in February 2008 by the Philippine newspaper The Daily Tribune as "... now being adjudged in surveys as the countrys 'most corrupt' leader" On March 13, 2008, Joseph Estrada named Lucio Tan, Jaime Sin, Fidel Ramos, Luis Singson, and the Ayala and Lopez clans (who were both involved in water businesses) as co-conspirators of EDSA Revolution of 2001.

Administration of Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (20012010)

Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo, president from 2001-2010 Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (the daughter of the late President Diosdado Macapagal) was sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure. Estrada later challenged the legitimacy of Arroyo's government, claiming he did not resign from office, but the Supreme Court twice upheld Arroyo's legitimacy. After Estrada was arrested on corruption charges in April 2001, thousands of his supporters staged an "EDSA III" to overthrow the Arroyo government, but the attempt failed when the protest rallies degraded into violence. Arroyo's accession to power was further legitimated by the mid-term congressional and local elections held in May 2001, when her coalition won an overwhelming victory. Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion. Although she had declared in December 2002 that she would not contest the May 2004 presidential election, citing a need to heal divisiveness, she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to run. She was reelected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory can be maintained. The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's resignation. Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down. Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year. Arroyo currently spearheads a controversial plan for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present unitary and presidential republic with a bicameral legislature into a federal parliamentary government with a unicameral legislature. Vice President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (the daughter of the late President Diosdado Macapagal) was sworn in as Estrada's successor on the day of his departure. Her accession to power was further legitimized by the mid-term congressional and local elections held four months later, when her coalition won an

overwhelming victory. Arroyo's initial term in office was marked by fractious coalition politics as well as a military mutiny in Manila in July 2003 that led her to declare a month-long nationwide state of rebellion. Arroyo had declared in December 2002 that she would not run in the May 2004 presidential election, but she reversed herself in October 2003 and decided to join the race. She was re-elected and sworn in for her own six-year term as president on June 30, 2004. In 2005, a tape of a wiretapped conversation surfaced bearing the voice of Arroyo apparently asking an election official if her margin of victory could be maintained. The tape sparked protests calling for Arroyo's resignation. Arroyo admitted to inappropriately speaking to an election official, but denied allegations of fraud and refused to step down. Attempts to impeach the president failed later that year. Arroyo unsuccessfully attempted a controversial plan for an overhaul of the constitution to transform the present presidential-bicameral republic into a federal parliamentary-unicameral form of government.

Benigno Aquino III Administration (2010-Present)

Benigno Aquino III, President of the Philippines from 2010-Present.

Senator Benigno Aquino III, son of former President Corazon Aquino, won 15 million votes or less than 50% in the Philippine presidential elections, 2010.The presidential transition of Benigno Aquino III began when Aquino won the 2010 Philippine presidential election. On June 9, 2010, at the Batasang Pambansa Complex, in Quezon City, the Congress of the Philippines proclaimed Aquino as the President-elect of the Philippines,[21] following the 2010 election with 15,208,678 votes, while Jejomar Binay, the former mayor of Makati City, was proclaimed as the Vice President-elect of the Philippines with 14,645,574 votes, defeating runner-up for the vice presidency Mar Roxas, the standard-bearer of the Liberal Party for Vice President. The transition was in charge of the new presidential residence, cabinet appointments and cordial meetings between them and the outgoing administration. The presidential residence of Aquino is Bahay Pangarap (English: House of Dreams), located inside of Malacaang Park, at the headquarters of the Presidential

Security Group across the Pasig River from Malacaang Palace.[23][25] Aquino is the first president to make Bahay Pangarap his official residence.Malacaang Park was intended as a recreational retreat by former President Manuel L. Quezon.] The house was built and designed by architect Juan Arellano in the 1930s, [23][27] and underwent a number of renovations. In 2008, the house was demolished and rebuilt in contemporary style by architect Conrad Onglao, [a new swimming pool was built, replacing the Commonwealth-era swimming pool.The house originally had one bedroom, however, the house was renovated for Aquino to have four bedrooms,a guest room, a room for Aquino's household staff, and a room for Aquino's close-in security. The house was originally intended as a rest house, the venue for informal activities and social functions for the First Family by former President Manuel L. Quezon.[Malacaang Park was refurbished through the efforts of First Lady Eva Macapagal, wife of former President Diosdado Macapagal, in the early 1960s. First Lady Macapagal renamed the rest house as Bahay Pangarap. During the presidency of Fidel V. Ramos, the house was restored and became the club house of the Malacaang Golf Club. The house was used by former President Gloria MacapagalArroyo to welcome special guests. Aquino refused to live in Malacaang Palace, the official residence of the President of the Philippines, or in Arlegui Mansion, the residence of former presidents Corazon Aquino and Fidel V. Ramos, stating that the two residences are too big, and also stated that his small family residence at Times Street in Quezon City would be impractical, since it would be a security concern for his neighbors. On May 11, 2010, outgoing President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo signed an administrative order, creating the Presidential Transition Cooperation Team.Arroyo instructed outgoing Executive Secretary Leandro Mendoza to lead the transition team. The transition team was created "to ensure peaceful, orderly and [efficient] transition on the 30th of June".[ On June 9, 2010, the transition team started informal meetings with the Aquino transition team. On June 16, 2010, Aquino organized his transition team in a letter to outgoing Presidential Management Staff Secretary Elena Bautista-Horn. Aquino appointed the members of his transition team; defeated runner-up for the vice presidency Mar Roxas, incoming Executive Secretary Paquito Ochoa, Jr., former Secretary of Education Florencio Abad, former Secretary of Finance Cesar Purisima, and Julia Abad, daughter of Florencio Abad and Aquino's chief of staff. Aquino named long-time friend, Paquito Ochoa, Jr., as Executive Secretary.[31] Aquino appointed Corazon Soliman as Secretary of Social Welfare & Development, a position she once held under the Arroyo administration but later resigned in 2005.
[32]

On June 22, 2010, Leila De Lima, head of the Commission on Human Rights, accepted the offer to join the cabinet, however, she did not confirm or deny if she will become the new Secretary of Justice.] On July 2, 2010, De Lima took over the helm of the Department of Justice. On June 23, 2010, Vice President-elect Jejomar Binay refused to accept any cabinet portfolio "so as not to burden" Aquino. Binay initially wanted to become Secretary of the Interior and Local Government, however, Aquino said that the post

is not being considered for him. Aquino has offered Binay various positions, such as, to head a commission that will investigate the outgoing Arroyo administration, the posts of Secretary of Agrarian Reform, chairman of the Housing and Urban Development Coordinating Council (HUDCC), and the chairman of Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA), but Binay has rejected all cabinet positions.However, on July 15, 2010, Binay has accepted the offer of Aquino to take charge of the housing sector as chairman of HUDCC. On June 24, 2010, Br. Armin Luistro FSC, president of De La Salle University, accepted the post of Secretary of Education after meeting with the school's stakeholders. On June 27, 2010, Aquino reappointed incumbent Secretary of Foreign Affairs Alberto Romulo. On June 29, 2010, Aquino officially named the members of his Cabinet, with Aquino himself as Secretary of the Interior and Local Government.[31] Aquino also announced the formation of a truth commission that will investigate various issues including corruption allegations against outgoing President Gloria MacapagalArroyo. Aquino named former Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. to head the truth commission. The inauguration of President-elect Benigno Aquino III and Vice-President elect Jejomar Binay held at the Quirino Grandstand in Luneta Park, Manila on June 30, 2010.The oath of office will be administered by Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Conchita Carpio-Morales, who officially accepted Aquino's request to swear him into office, reminiscent of the decision of his mother, who in 1986, was sworn into the presidency by Associate Justice Claudio Teehankee.[42] Aquino refused to allow Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Renato Corona to swear him into office, due to Aquino's opposition to the appointment of Corona by outgoing President Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo. Benigno Aquino III began his presidency on June 30, 2010, when he became the fifteenth President of the Philippines. He is the second bachelor president next to Emilio Aguinaldo. He is the son of former Philippines president Corazon C. Aquino. He, like his mother, lives on the Malacanang Palace premises .

Recognition of the TAO

HOW TAO-PILIPINAS WAS BORN
by Arlene Lusterio and Maria Faith Varona

Inspired by people power The influence that led to the creation of TAO-Pilipinas can be traced as far back as 1986, after the EDSA People Power Revolution toppled then President Ferdinand Marcos after 20 years of dictatorship. Inspired by the massive change in Philippine government and society after the revolution, architecture students at the University of the Philippines in Diliman formed the socio-civic student organization

Task Force Arki (TFA). The organization transformed words of social change into action by bringing activism to the poor communities in Tondo, through assisting needy families in planning and rebuilding their homes with the active involvement of the San Pablo Apostol Parish priest. The community interaction changed the students elitist and market-dictated architecture orientation into one of social service and responsibility. This laid the groundwork for the later creation of TAOPilipinas by TFA members Arlene Christy Lusterio and Maria Faith Varona. Encouraged by the Asian experience In 1994, Arlene participated in the Regional Young Professionals Workshop for Social Housing organized by the Asian Coalition for Housing Rights (ACHR), an NGO network based in Bangkok. The conference showcased different initiatives and approaches in social housing from various Asian countries including the Philippines. This inspired Arlene to push for the first national Young Professionals Summer Camp for Social Housing in Cebu City in 1996. She enlisted the help of Faith in the organizing the workshop, starting a unique career journey for both. The summer camp was funded by SELAVIP, a social housing service for Asia, Latin America and Africa, with local support by Pagtambayayong Foundation, Inc. The theme of the workshop was: An Alternative Approach to Social Housing: Bridging the Gap Between Urban Poor Communities and Young Professionals through Exposure, Participatory Planning and Design. The workshop brought together professionals from different sectors in society from ten key cities all over the Philippines. The success of the YP summer camp workshop led to the formation of a loose coalition of young professionals in Quezon City and the Bicol region. The organizers became the secretariat of the YP coalition. But the initiative did not last, as coordination was very difficult and the group lacked funds and institutional support. The group eventually broke up and lost contact. But the organizers saw the need to create a venue for a more socially responsive practice especially in architecture. This vision was finally realized a few years later. Keeping volunteerism alive After the summer camp both women went on separate ways, working in various private companies and NGOs. But they continued volunteer work on weekends mainly for Grameen in Matain, Subic, involving in the process former and new members of TFA, keeping their interests in volunteerism and development work alive and burning. The hunger for independence and opportunity to work with communities gave them the idea of pursuing a career in development work and setting up an NGO. Finding a mentor Fr. Eduardo Jorge Anzorena of SELAVIP played a vital role in the formation of TAOPilipinas. After the summer camp in 1996, he provided constant support to both Arlene and Faith in their discernment of the right path. Whenever Fr. Jorge visited

the Philippines, it became a ritual for the ladies to visit him. He became a mentor and confidante to both lady architects. Creating a name In 2000, Arlene and Faith finally decided to create a technical assistance NGO with full support from Fr. Jorge. The name tao was chosen because it has several meanings: the way after the Japanese Tao; people or man in Filipino; and an apt acronym for technical assistance organization which is what the creators wanted to form as an NGO. Pilipinas indicates the Philippines as the geographic origin of the organization, and its creators hope that decades from now, the TAO way will become a global phenomenon that defies geographic boundaries. The all women character of the group was not intentional, although this was later affirmed after a growing realization of the power of women working and bonding together, creating a niche for themselves in technical assistance, and making a difference. Conceived over doughnuts and under the mango tree In 2000, over coffee and doughnuts, Arlene and Faith together with old college friends/TFA alumni Criselda Kho and Gertrudes Samson firmed up the plans for the formalization of TAO-Pilipinas. But since Criselda was based in Mindanao, she declined to commit officially but offered her support whenever possible. The lack of resources did not stop the three ladies (Arlene, Faith, and Ger) from pushing with the legalization process. Two more like minded professionals, Laura David (a chemist/oceanographer) and Ana Dizon (sociologist), were asked to join the group as board members. This completed the official magic five and in August 20, 2001 TAO-Pilipinas was officially registered with the Securities and Exchange Commission. The mango tree at the back of Quezon Hall in the University of the Philippines Diliman bore witness to the completion of the legal paperwork. Testing the waters, taking the plunge With just a staff of two architects, TAO-Pilipinas first official involvement was with informal settlements affected by the Pasig River Rehabilitation Program in Metro Manila, in partnership with Urban Poor Associates. The first community was in Brgy. Pineda followed closely by Baseco and Parola in the port area of Manila. TAOPilipinas technical interventions in Pineda led to the approval of an on-site community development plan (tagged as a Peoples Plan) by city mayor of Pasig. It was a major victory for the Samahang Magkakapitbahay sa MRR-Pineda (SAMAPI) against the medium-rise housing proposal by the National Housing Authority for the local government of Pasig City. The community development plan (CDP) of Baseco was formulated based on ideas from members of Kabalikat para sa Kaunlaran ng Baseco (KABALIKAT), the peoples organization working on security of tenure issues in the area. It was presented to the mayor of Manila and was received without prejudice in the absence of a plan by the Urban Settlements Office (USO). But the proposed KABALIKAT CDP never reached approval due mainly to several fires that gutted the

area three years in a row. USO developed Basecos post-fire rehabilitation masterplan taking into consideration requests made in KABALIKATs CDP. The CDP served as a guide for USO on what not to develop in Baseco. Gathering Momentum With the little leverage TAO-Pilipinas pulled for informal settlements along Pasig River, other groups along Pasig River and in other areas in Metro Manila also requested for assistance from TAO-Pilipinas. With the blessing of a start-up grant from Fr. Jorge Anzorena through the Jesuit Center for East Asia, TAO-Pilipinas established its first office in a studio unit in 29-A Matimtiman Street, Teachers Village-East, Diliman, Quezon City. The TAO office has moved to three places since, grown to an 11-strong allwomen staff, reached more informal settlements in and outside of Metro Manila, worked with more non-government organizations, collaborated with several local government units and universities, and finally in 2006, received the First International Year of Shelter for the Homeless Encouragement Prize from Japan Housing Association in recognition and support of its efforts in helping the poor.

The Year of Our Discontent

Published: December 21, 2011 10:41, Ralitsa Kovacheva, Sofia

Only in a few decades, after millions of years of evolution, the seven-billion mankind forgot the good old Homo sapiens (the wise man), it was bored with the working Homo faber and decided to bet on the game, in which you win or lose. The Homo ludens (the playing man) bet everything and lost. Thus was born the protesting man - the person of the year, according to TIME magazine. Although the economic crisis has hit the strongest the old steady Western world, the white swallows came from the East. The Arab spring has melted authoritarian regimes down in Tunisia and Egypt, and brought to the streets people in Jordan, Yemen, Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, Algeria, Morocco, Syria and even Iran. Bloody quelling of the riots in Libya led to a NATO intervention, which ended with Colonel Gaddafi's death. Another of the world's last dictators left this world at the end of the year - North Korean leader Kim Jong-il. The year was marked by the death of the most wanted terrorist in the last 10 years - Osama Bin Laden. However, though having lost its emblematic face, the threat of terrorism remained, invisible and impersonal, ready to reincarnate in any face. We saw it in the empty eyes of Norwegian Anders Breivik, who shot 76 young Norwegians, simply because he did not share their values. Intolerance rampaged in the streets in the UK, burned the Athens' Syntagma square, swept the Wall Street and made a tent camp in Madrid's city centre. The

indignados finger pointed banks, as their number one enemy, while political leaders were trying to rescue the financial system from its next (or maybe last?) collapse. The debt crisis proceeded crawling across Europe. It overthrew the governments in Greece, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Ireland, Slovakia, Slovenia; opposed "North" to "South", rich to poor, disciplined to profligates. The euro area was at the brink to remain at least with one country less (Greece), but ultimately the EU ended the year with one country more (Croatia). Although, it is not so sure. Europe prevented a dramatic divide into "two speeds" between the eurozone and the rest, although these are only words at the moment, but the UK seems more than ever to be an island in the European Union and there is a new dividing line - la Manche. The debt crisis did not miss the US too, which, although paying with its highest credit rating, is still the world's largest debtor with no prescription for healing. Against this background, China proceeded conquering new territories, as after the Middle East and Africa it has debarked in the European periphery. And while the world was trembling metaphorically, Japan was shaken by one of the most devastating earthquakes in history. Tens of thousands of people died, hundreds of thousands remained homeless, a few went voluntarily into the melting nuclear reactors in Fukushima to prevent a nuclear disaster. The Japanese did not protest, they stood up and went on. Against the backdrop of the rest of the world, Bulgaria remained a calm and quiet place. Bulgarians were still dozing off around the tables, tired of midnight sprees, and lost in the haze of television news. Yes, there were some protest against the extraction of schist gas, against high fuel prices and against the gypsies. The budget deficit has melted, but the businesses, the income and the number of Bulgarians have also melted. Like the promise about Schengen membership, which has been postponed indefinitely. But there is nothing to worry about, because the elections have passed. Plevneliev replaced Parvanov at Dondukov 2 [as president], but the change that Bulgarians have been waiting for for more than 20 years is still missing. But it already has a name: Terminal 2 (at Sofia airport). And while waiting for that change, we said goodbye to one of the fathers of the great change in Eastern Europe 20 years ago - Vaclav Havel. The world also mourned one of its most inspiring minds - Steve Jobs. He left us the everlasting slogan of protest against the status quo: "Stay Hungry! Stay Foolish!" Stay seeking. 34 years after Steven Spielberg and George Lucas, scientists have discovered Tatooine the home planet of Luke Skywalker from "Star Wars". And they supposed that they have found "The God particle". The evidence for God`s existence. Because, unlike homo sapiens, the protester does not trust the Cartesian cogito ergo sum (I think, therefore I exist). The world did not end on 11.11.2011, but the Mayan calendar has scheduled the grand finale for 21.12. 2012. It is for sure that

after more than 365 days the world will not be the same. And if the hero of 2011 was the protester, in 2012 we expect the return of Homo faber - the creating man.

Marcos Dictatorship 1965 - 1986

Ferdinand Marcos ran for the Nacionalista Party in 1965 and delivered Macapagal a resounding defeat. Marcos initiated an ambitious spending program on public works; building roads, bridges, health centers, schools and urban beautification projects. He maintained his popularity through his first term and in 1969 was the first President of the Philippine Republic to win a second term in office. His popularity declined precipitously in the second term. The criticism of Marcos grew directly from the dishonesty of the 1969 campaign and his failure to curb the bribery and corruption in government. There was also a more general discontent because the population continued to grow faster than the economy causing greater poverty and violence. The Communist Party of the Philippines formed the New People's Army and the Moro National Liberation Front fought for the secession of Muslim Mindanao. Marcos took advantage of these and other incidents such as labour strikes and student protests to create a political atmosphere of crisis and fear that he later used to justify his imposition of martial law. The popularity of Senator Benigno Aquino and the Liberal Party was growing rapidly. Marcos blamed communists for the suspicious Plaza Miranda bombing of a Liberal Party rally on August 21, 1971. A staged assassination attempt on the Secretary of Defense, Juan Ponce Enrile, supplied the pretext for the declaration of martial law on September 21, 1972. Benigno Aquino was amongst the first of the 30,000 some opposition politicians, journalists, critics and activists detained under martial law. With civil rights and the Philippine Congress suspended and his enemies in detention, Marcos brought in a new constitution in 1973 that replaced the Congress with a National Assembly and extended the term of the President to six years with no limit on the number of terms. With pay raises and selective promotions, he made the armed forces under General Fabian Ver his personal political machine. With his wife and friends, he established monopolies and cartels in the agricultural, construction, manufacturing and financial sectors that extracted billions from the Philippine economy. By the time Marcos was finally forced from power in 1986, the Philippines was a poorer country than when he first took office in 1965. After five years in detention, a military court found Benigno Aquino guilty of subversion in November 1977 and sentenced him to death. Aquino, though, was too well-known and prominent to execute. He developed heart disease in prison and in May 1980 he was released for treatment and exile in the United States. In order to gain the implicit endorsement of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church for his regime, Marcos ostensibly lifted martial law on January 17, 1981 although all of the orders and decrees issued under martial law remained in effect. Pope John Paul II visited the Philippines in February 1981. A new election was

scheduled for June 16, 1981. The opposition boycotted the election and Marcos won a huge majority for another six year term as President. After three years in exile, Benigno Aquino decided to return to the Philippines. On his arrival at Manila International Airport from Taiwan on August 21, 1983, a military escort took Aquino from the aircraft and shot him in the back of the head as he came down the stairs to the tarmac.

EDSA People Power Revolution

The Philippines was praised worldwide in 1986, when the socalled bloodless revolution erupted, called EDSA People Powers Revolution. February 25, 1986 marked a significant national event that has been engraved in the hearts and minds of every Filipino. This part of Philippine history gives us a strong sense of pride especially that other nations had attempted to emulate what we have shown the world of the true power of democracy. The true empowerment of democracy was exhibited in EDSA by its successful efforts to oust a tyrant by a demonstration without tolerance for violence and bloodshed. Prayers and rosaries strengthened by faith were the only weapons that the Filipinos used to recover their freedom from President Ferdinand Marcoss iron hands. The Epifanio de los Santos Avenue (EDSA) stretches 54 kilometers, where the peaceful demonstration was held on that fateful day. It was a day that gathered all Filipinos in unity with courage and faith to prevail democracy in the country. It was the power of the people, who assembled in EDSA, that restored the democratic Philippines, ending the oppressive Marcos regime. Hence, it came to be known as the EDSA People Powers Revolution. The revolution was a result of the long oppressed freedom and the life threatening abuses executed by the Marcos government to cite several events like human rights violation since the tyrannical Martial Law Proclamation in 1972. In the years that followed Martial Law started the suppressive and abusive yearsincidents of assassination were rampant, particularly those who opposed the government, individuals and companies alike were subdued. The Filipinos reached the height of their patience when former Senator Benigno "Ninoy" Aquino, Sr. was shot and killed at the airport in August 21, 1983, upon his return to the Philippines from exile in the United States. Aquinos

death marked the day that Filipinos learned to fight. His grieving wife, Corazon Cojuangco-Aquino showed the Filipinos and the world the strength and courage to claim back the democracy that Ferdinand Marcos arrested for his personal caprice. Considering the depressing economy of the country, Ninoys death further intensified the contained resentment of the Filipinos. In the efforts to win back his popularity among the people, Marcos held a snap presidential election in February 7, 1986, where he was confronted with a strong and potent opposition, Corazon Aquino. It was the most corrupt and deceitful election held in the Philippine history. There was an evident trace of electoral fraud as the tallies of votes were declared with discrepancy between the official count by the COMELEC (Commission on Elections) and the count of NAMFREL (National Movement for Free Elections). Such blatant corruption in that election was the final straw of tolerance by the Filipinos of the Marcos regime. The demonstration started to break in the cry for democracy and the demand to oust Marcos from his seat at Malacaang Palace. The revolt commenced when Marcos' Defense Minister Juan Ponce Enrile and the Armed Forces Vice-Chief of Staff command of Fidel V. Ramos, both withdrew their support from the government and called upon the resignation of then President Marcos. They responsibly barricaded Camp Crame and Camp Aguinaldo and had their troops ready to combat against possible armed attack organized by Marcos and his troops. The Catholic Church represented by Archbishop Jaime Cardinal Sin along with the priests and nuns called for the support of all Filipinos who believed in democracy. Radyo Veritas aired the message of Cardinal Sin that summoned thousands of Filipinos to march the street of EDSA. It was an empowering demonstration that aimed to succeed peacefully with the intervention of faith. Nuns kneeled in front of tanks with rosaries in their hands and uttering their prayers.

With the power of prayers, the armed marine troops under the command of Marcos withdrew from the site. Celebrities expressed their support putting up a presentation to showcase the injustices and the anomalies carried out by the Marcos administration. Finally, in the morning of February 25, 1986, Corazon Aquino took the presidential oath of office, administered by the Supreme Court Associate Justice Claudio Teehankee at Club Filipino located in San Juan. Aquino was proclaimed as the 11th President of the Republic of the Philippines. She was the first lady president of the country. People rejoiced over their victory proving the success of the EDSA Peoples Power Revolution, the historic peaceful demonstration. Although in 2001, there was an attempt to revive People Power in the efforts to oust then President Joseph Estrada, it was not as strong as the glorifying demonstration in 1986. The bloodless, People Power Revolution in EDSA renewed the power of the people, strengthened the meaning of democracy and restored the democratic institutions of government. Continue to the 5th Republic (1986) up to the Present Time.

CULTURE: Asia Lets the Year of the Tiger Roar

By IPS Correspondents

Joel Chong
SINGAPORE, Feb 12 2010 (IPS) - The impact of the global recession may still be around, but Chinese communities all over Asia are bent on letting the Year of the Tiger come in with a festive, prosperous roar on Sunday.

Red, red and more red - as the decor in this Bangkok mall shows - welcomes the Chinese New Year. Credit: Joel Chong/IPS The Chinese New Year, or Lunar New Year, is the most celebrated festival in the Chinese calendar for the estimated 7 million overseas Chinese population, found in countries like Singapore, Indonesia, the Philippines, Malaysia and Thailand and the 1.3 billion mainland Chinese. This year, the lunar new year begins on Feb. 14. Traditionally a no-expense-spared holiday, fireworks and extravagant decorations and are staples in any Chinese community, ranging from lion dances, lavish meals and liberal doses of the colour red. Products around the tiger theme paper-cut tigers and lanterns included are common too, as well as traditional exchanges of round-shaped fruits for good luck and prosperity. In China, millions of internal migrants find their way back to their hometowns every year, leaving train stations and airports swamped with jostling passengers ahead of the holidays, also called the Spring Festival. Railway ministry estimates put the figure of travellers at 210 million. Just last week, a stampede outside a train station in southern province of Guangzhou left one migrant worker dead. Others, like Wu Xiaoyan, prefer to forgo their yearly pilgrimage home. Its too much (to travel back for Chinese New Year), and after all I visit my parents other times of the year, so its not too bad, she said in an interview. Wu, who works as a purchasing officer in Shanghai, is originally from the south-west city of Kunming, Yunnan, some 2,000 kilometres south-west of Beijing.

But I know theyll be doing the same thing as me on Chinese New Year eve, so probably that serves as a consolation that Im not there with them, she laughs, referring to watching Chinas annual New Year Gala on state-run China Central Television. CCTVs Chinese New Year Gala is viewed by an estimated 700 million viewers every year and has become a mainstay in Chinas Chinese New Year celebrations since its inception in 1982. Advertising revenues from the programme have reportedly exceeded 650 million yuan (95 million U.S. dollars). Usually tense cross-straits relations also seem to have thawed, albeit temporarily, over the warm festive celebrations, as China and Taiwan for the first time jointly organised the 1,500 year-old Qinhuai Lantern Fair in the mainland Chinese city of Nanjing in Jiangsu that began two days ago. Taiwanese lanterns were displayed alongside those from the Jiangsu province, while traditional Jiangsu Qinhuai lanterns also made their way to the city of Chiayi in Taiwan as part of the Taiwanese official lantern festival. The lantern fair will promote cultural, tourist and economic exchanges, and cooperation between the Chinese mainland and Taiwan, Nanjing mayor Ji Jianye said at the fairs opening ceremony. Further down south in Thailand, Yaowarat Road in Bangkoks Chinatown is all dressed up in red as the Thai Chinese community prepares for the festive season. Every year, the opening ceremony of Chinese New Year celebrations at Yaowarat is presided by Princess Maha Chakri Sirindhorn, daughter of the Thai king. I dont go back to China (any more) for Chinese New Year, said Raluek Niratpattanasai, a street vendor in Bangkok. After all I have my own family here now. My wife is here, my children are here, and youre supposed to be with your family during Chinese New Year, right? he added. Raluek came to Thailand with his parents from Jieyang, Guangdong 50 years ago. In countries like Singapore, where ethnic Chinese make up 75 percent of the countrys population, the Chinese New Year is a national holiday that is celebrated with country-wide parades and fairs that stretch through the traditional 15-day new year period. For Andrew Winarto however, the Chinese New Year holds much more emotional significance. The businessman from Jakarta returns to Indonesia each lunar new year, despite being based in Singapore. When I was a teenager (in Indonesia) we couldnt even wear red during the (Chinese) New Year you know, he said. It was quite miserable. My father would sneak out to buy candles, which was illegal, and wed just celebrate quietly at home with each other, he added, referring to the ban on Chinese New Year or Imlek celebrations in Indonesia under the Suharto dictatorship.

Lunar new year celebrations and public performances were banned in the sixties and dragon and lion dances, which are staple performances by Chinese communities all around the world, were forbidden to be performed in public. Restrictions were only lifted entirely in 2001, due to changes announced by the late Indonesian President Abdurrahman Wahid, and the Chinese new year was declared a holiday the year after. Now you see decorations and lanterns in big shopping malls it wasnt anything like that, said Winarto. But at the end of the day, were still Chinese, no matter where we are or what passport (we hold). And we will celebrate the (Chinese) New Year, no matter where we are, or what it takes. Its in us, he said with a glimmer in his eyes. The EDSA Revolution of 2001, also called by the local media as EDSA II (pronounced as EDSA Dos or EDSA 2) or the Second People Power Revolution, is the common name of the four-day revolution that peacefully overthrew Philippine President Joseph Estrada from January 1720, 2001. Advocates describe EDSA II as "popular" but critics view the uprising as a conspiracy among political and business elites, military top brass and Catholic Cardinal Jaime Sin. Estrada was succeeded by his then vice-president Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo who was sworn into the presidency by then-Chief Justice Hilario Davide, Jr. at around noon on January 20, 2001 amidst the EDSA II crowd, several hours even before Estrada left Malacanang. EDSA is an acronym derived from Epifanio de los Santos Avenue, the major thoroughfare connecting the five cities in Metro Manila, namely Pasay, Makati, Mandaluyong, Quezon City, and Caloocan. The revolt took place in the business district of Ortigas Center. World reaction to the administration change was mixed. Though foreign nations, including the United States, immediately expressed recognition of the legitimacy of Arroyo's presidency, foreign commentators described the revolt as "a defeat for due process of law", "mob rule," and a "de facto coup". The only means of legitimizing the event was the last-minute Supreme Court ruling that "the welfare of the people is the supreme law." But by then, the Armed Forces of the Philippines had already withdrawn support for the president, which some analysts called unconstitutional, and most foreign political analysts agreeing with this assessment. William Overholt, a Hong Kong-based political economist said that "It is either being called mob rule or mob rule as a cover for a well-planned coup," "But either way, it's not democracy. It should also be noted that opinion was divided during EDSA II about whether Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo as the incumbent Vice President should be President if Joseph Estrada was ousted; many groups who participated in EDSA II expressly stated that they did not want Arroyo for president either, and some of them would later participate in EDSA III. The prevailing Constitution of the Philippines calls for the Vice President of the Philippines, Arroyo at the time, to act as interim president only when the sitting President dies, resigns, or becomes incapacitated, none of which occurred during EDSA II.

Appendices

Filipino Presidents - Biography and Accomplishments

The Tagalog words for 'president' are pangulo and presidente. Emilio Aguinaldo (1869 - 1964) The president of the first Philippine republic (1899). He started as a member of the Magdalo Chapter of the Katipunan in Cavite, then was elected president of the revolutionary government at the Tejeros Convention on March 22,1897, and, later, Biak-na-Bato Republic. He proclaimed Philippine independence at Kawit on June 12, 1898. His capture foreshadowed the end of large-scale armed resistance to American rule. Manuel L. Quezon (1878-1944) The first Filipino president of the Commonwealth of the Philippines under American rule. He was president of the Philippines from 1935 to 1944. For advocating Filipinolanguage amendments to the 1935 Constitution, he is known as the "Father of the National Language." Jose P. Laurel (1891 - 1939) President of the Second Republic from 1943 to 1945. He had been secretary of the interior (1923), senator (1925 - 1931), delegate to the Constitutional Convention (1934), and chief justice during the commonwealth. When World War II broke out, he was instructed by Quezon to stay in Manila and deal with the Japanese to soften the blow of enemy occupation. As president, he defended Filipino interests and resisted Japanese efforts to draft Filipinos into the Japanese military service. Upon return of the American forces, Laurel was imprisoned in Japan when Douglas Macarthur occupied that country He was returned to the Philippines to face charges of treason, but these were dropped when President Roxas issued an amnesty proclamation. In the Third Republic, he was elected senator and negotiated the Laurel-Langley Agreement. Sergio Osmea, Sr. (1878 - 1961) The first Filipino national leader under the American regime as speaker of the Philippine assembly and the second president of the Philippines (1944-1946). Manuel Roxas (1892 - 1948) The last president of the Philippine Commonwealth and the first president of the republic (1946 - 1948). Elpidio Quirino (18901956)

President of the Philippines from 1948 to 1953. As vice president during Manuel Roxass term, he was also secretary of foreign affairs. He became president when Roxas died in 1948. He was elected president in his own right in 1949. Ramon Magsaysay (1907 - 1957) President of the Philippines from 1953 to 1957. He had been President Quirinos secretary of defense who was instrumental is suppressing the HUK rebellion. As president, he persuaded Congress to pass the Agricultural Tenancy Act (1954). It was during his term that the Retail Trade Nationalization Act was passed. He secured revisions in the Bell Trade Act and was the first president to revise the US Military Bases agreement to bring it more in line with Philippine interests. Carlos P. Garcia (1896 - 1971) He was among the founders of the Association for Southeast Asia (1963), the precursor of the Association for Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Doodad Macapagal (1910 - 1997) President of the Republic of the Philippines from 1961 to 1965. He asked Congress to pass the Agricultural Land Reform Code, which abolished share tenancy and installed a leasehold system in its place; it finally passed on August 8, 1963. This was a significant step toward resolving the agrarian problem. It was during his presidency that Independence Day was moved from July 4 to June 12, the date when General Aguinaldo proclaimed Philippine independence in Cavite.

Ferdinand Marcos (1917 - 1989) President of the Philippines from 1965 to 1986. Declared martial law on September 21, 1972. After the People Power revolution in February 1986, he was ousted from power and lived in exile in Honolulu, Hawaii. Corazon Cojuangco Aquino (1933 - ) President of the Philippines from 1986 to 1992. With Salvador Laurel as running mate, she led the opposition that overthrew the authoritarian government of Marcos, who went into exile after the successful Peoples Power revolution of 1986. She first established a revolutionary government under the Freedom Constitution, later replaced by the Constitution of 1987, which served as the basis for reestablishing democracy

Fidel V. Ramos (1928 - )

President of the Philippines from 1992 to 1997. As head of the Constabulary under President Marcos, he was instrumental in helping to design and implement martial law. Together with General Ponce Enrile and the RAM, he defected from the government in 1986 and joined the Peoples Power revolution that ousted Marcos from power. His presidency is remembered for better integrating the national economy in the global scheme. Joseph Estrada (1937 - ) President of the Philippines from 1998 to 2001. During his term in office, he was arrested and stood trial at a congressional impeachment hearing on charges of accepting bribes and corruption. While this trial was aborted when the senators voted 11 to 10 not to open incriminating evidence against him, he was ousted from power anyway as a peaceful Peoples Power II revolution arose and called for his resignation Gloria Macapagal-Arroyo (1947 - ) The current president of the Philippines. She served as vice president under President Estrada and became president when he was forced to step down for malfeasance, through the Peoples Power II revolution. PGMA has confronted some of the same obstacles as did her father, President Diosdado Macapagal, when he tried to clean up corruption in government. Her government continues enjoy political legitimacy in the face of opposition.