CHAPTER 3 - PROLOGUE: DOMESTIC POLITICS AND FOREIGN INFLUENCE IN

1951

IRAN BEFORE

This chapt~r cliency dynamics pretative half of authentic historical republican on Iran's

~stablish~s domestic politics

a basis politics in the

for ~xamining by discussing pr~vious

th~

impact of and

the trends

of Iranian themes

era. Two main is that

inter-

are stressed. century movement

The main saw 1n

theme

the first of an its and

the twentieth democratic

th~ gradual Iran. in

~mergence

This movement

had

and intellectual movem~nts with Iranian period, activity,

origins Its

the constitutional social basQ of

of 1906-1925. the modernization democratic

was ~xpanded the 1920s anq

substantially 19305. The

programs reached by

movement

its peak widespread

in the popular relaand the sharp

1941-1953 political

which

was

characterized largelY spectrum

a vocal and a broad with court.

uncensored of political

press,

--

tively

free ~lections, parliament the royal

parties,

an active power of

sufficient This

strength

to challenge out in

period

stands

contrast

to the previous

era 1n which

Iran was ruled by a moderndictatorship

izing despot

and the subsequent state.

era of authoritarian

under a client

The second
i nvo Lvemen+

theme

stressed

in this chapter affairs

is that while extensive

foreign in the

in Iran's and early

internal twentietr

had been

nineteenth after

centuries,

it declined in which

markedly Iran was

1925. In

contrast

to the previous

period

PAGE 60 dividQd for~ign into sphQrQs pow~rs, of influQnc~, its military was burdened was controll~d for~ign by

and its economy Iran after military

with

loans

and concessions, despite gr~at~r helped the Allied

1925 became during period, democratic

much morQ World

indQPendent, Iran's 1946,

occupation this

War II. after

independQnce to nurture

during

particularly mov~ment. in Iran

the incipient of a

Conversely, with the

reestablishment of a client

foreign in

presenc~

creation effect

state

1953 had an

extremely

destructiv~

on Iran's

democratic

movement.

1) THE GREAT POWERS

IN IRAN,

1800-1941

Although an countries

Iran was never became deeply

formally involved c~nturi~s.

colonized, in

a number in

of Europethe nin~actors As

its affairs

t~enth and ~arly in Iran Britain expanded before

tw~nti~th World its

Th~ two main for~ign Britain India and

War II formal

were Great control over

Russia.

extended into the

and as

Russia

Caucasus borders)

and Turkestan

(on

Iran's

northwestern centu-

and northeastern

in the early and of these

mid-nineteQnth

ries, the interest k~en. Iran

and rivalry

countries treaties

in Iran became between 1801 Iran

and Britain

concluded

s~veral

and 1814, aimed

primarily

at blocking

Russian

~xpansionism. region

fought and lost wars with Russia gia in 1804-1813 and 1826-1828.

ov~r th~ disputed This dispute

of Georin 1828 west th~

was ended

with a treaty of the Caspian eastern over border.

establishing Sea, followed Iran of also

the present in

Russo-Iranian

border

1881 by a treaty a war with western Afghan

establishing

fought in

Britain

in 1856-1857 which was

the

region

Herat

Afghanistan, independence.l

followed

by a treaty

rec09nizinr

The economic

penetration

of Iran by foreign

powers

began

in the

PAGE 61 second half of the nineteenth aI-Din a century, Shah as Nasr aI-Din Shah

(1848-1896) to foreign

and Mozaffar agents

(1896-1907) army,

sold concessions imports, was and

to finance

standing

luxury

royal journeys British

to Europe. line

The first major signed

concession

for a in

telegraph

to India,

in 1863

and completed

the following to Julius

year. (a

In 1872

a far-reaching British

concession subject),

was granted covering all

Reuter

naturalized

transportation

and mining

(other than was

precious

stones

and metals)

in Iran. The Reuter sures from Russia, in

concession Reuter's

cancelled

in 1873 due to presa British loan,

inability

to secure

and opposition

Iran from wealthy A concession of the

merchants

adversely

affected for

by the concession. commercial followed

was granted Karun River

in 1888 to Britain in southwestern that it would were 1891.

navigation

Iran, be given granted In 1900 for a

by an

1889 agreement concessions. and to

with Russia Banking Russia in

all future to Reuter

railroad

concessions 1888 and

of Britain

Russia was given control major 10an.2

of all customs

receipts

in exchange

The rapid growth to provoke broad

of foreign popular

involvement in

in Iran's the

economy

began

opposition

late

nineteenth

century. of

An 1890 British led to

concession

for domestic

sales and exports organized is by

tobacco

a massive and

nationwide This

boycott, boycott

influential regarded

clergymen

merchants. nationalist and above

generally Iran.3

as the first major banking receipts

movement

in modern

The Russian for customs

concession mentioned

the loan granted gave Russia

in exchange influence surrenpopular and

great

over the wealthy

classes

in Iran and amounted These actions I elements

to a virtual also provoKed

der of the country's opposition, were an

finances. among to the

particularlY impetus

of the middle movement.

class, In

early

fonstitutional

1901 a

:::c:;::::~:Sal:r:::e:h:On::~~t::m:::r::rt:fo:r;:::~ ~:~S ::~c::~

sion, which was renegotiated In 1933, became the basis for all

PAGE 62 subsequent was the activities by the Anglo-Iranian controversy Oil Company in Iran during (AlOe) and the next

subject

of frequent

half century.4

In foreign over

the nineteenth actors

century

Britain countries over

and Russia competed

were the

main first

in Iran. These issues

vigorously,

strategic with the

and later

commercial European

concessions. powers into

-However, hostile into

polarization World East War I

of the major

camps before Middle

and with the entrance most prominently

of Germany by the

the

(symbolized begun

Berlin-Baghdad developed Anglo-Russian

railway,

in 1902), a rapproachement This was codified spheres control of in

gradually the 1907 in the

between

them.

convention

establishing Russia

influence

Iran. Under this agreement, northern half of Iran,

gained

over roughly

including

the most commercially-attractive Britain is gained control

areas other over the with the

than the oil-rich region

southwest. bordering

southeastern central

on what

now Pakistan, neutral.

and southwestern under in this

sectors

remaining

Russian

predominance

agreement

reflected

its political to its

and economic proximity and its

hegemony

Iran at and

this time, dynamic trade and

due mainly

to the most populous dominance of Iran's was

areas

in the northwest The 1907 of and

finances.

Anglo-Russian bitter Russia.

agreement on the

to remain of

for decades toward

a source Britain

animosity

part

Iranians

After 1907 Iran. In

Russian

and British troops

agents entered

were the

active

throughout Despite during Russian in

1909 4000 Russian

country. powers

its neutrality,

Iran was occupied

by various

foreign

World War I and was the forco, confrontod Turkoy

scene of widespread in tht wost. Go.man

hostilities. agonts

intriguod

Tehran and stirred ing the Russian by Russian

up tribal

rebellions thoie parts

in the southwest. of northern and the

Follow-

Revolution, as

Iran occupied Caucasus, were

troops,

well as!Turkestan

PAGE

63

plung9d

into a state of near-anarchy. troops advanced north

Russian from

forc9s

disintegrated Ir~n to Baku.

and British counter

Baghdad

through

a German-Turkish

drive

through

the Caucasus

toward

Independent and

states were proclaimed British forces troops

in northern remained in

Iran, the Caucasus, Iran until Asia.s 1921,

in Turkestan. anti-Bolshevik

aiding

throughout

Central

After the war, Iran by concluding ganize lar in

Britain a treaty

sought

to reestablish

its influence

in

in 1919 in which This treaty in 1921.

it undertook was extremely Following forces

to reorunpopu-

Iran's army and treasury. Iran, and from was repudiajed the Caucasus in

the British established Iran in in the

evacuation control pursuit province ent ln of

1920, Soviet entered

this area White

and subsequently forces. Soviet 1921,

northern r9mained

Russian

troops propping

of Gilan until Republic treaty

September had

up the independthere. on A 1921

Soviet

which

been established all Czarist of Soviet

Soviet-Iranian paved the toward Reza

repudiated

claims

Iran and policy with

way for

the removal

forces.

Soviet

Iran in the interwar Shah portrayed in

period the

was generally press

restrained, as a

Soviet

"national

reformist."'

With intrigues

the

British

treaty

of

1919

and

British after seeking

and World

Soviet War I,

in Azerbaijan

and Gilan

immediately were

it is apparent

that these positions

two countries they had

to reestabthe war.

lish the dominant However, after

held

in Iran before 1920s of

the rise Shah

to power in 1925),

in the early the influence

of Reza Khan

(who was crowned Western powers

these and other

in Iran declined

significantly.

Th~ first

acts of the government the treaty British

established

in 1921 claims of

by Reza on Iran war Reza and

Khan were to conclude and repudiate Khan quickly

renouncing treaty. As

Soviet

the 1919 removed

minister from the

all foreign

officers

military

PAGE 64 took other steps Arthur to improv~ its loyalty, morale, and

effectiveness.

Millspaugh.

an American

financial

advisor,

was hired to reorganize tually Soviet British undermined Union

and strengthen out by

the economy, Reza Shah. was increased

but was eventhe the

and forced

Trad~ with to weaken

and later with Germany ov~r Iran's

domination

economy. by

The Trans-Iranian

Railroad

was built with with advisors tries. controls Iranians

local capital and equipment

raised drawn

a tax on tea and sugar and a variety of foreign coun-

from

Measures

such as import to broaden

substitution and protect

and foreign the domestic hDrassed m~rchants

exchange economy.

were taken with foreign

ties were frequently for foreign

by R~za Shah was removed. such as an By the whose to a

and the system A Variety attempt

of capitulations

of less dramatic Arabic

measures from

were also taken. Iran's Farsi

to purge

words

language.7 country agents

late 1930s Iran had been transformed government modernizing able and economy country were

from a backward by foreign

dominated central

with a strong

government

and consider-

independence

from foreign

actors.

2) THE POLITICS

OF IRAN,

1900-1941

The Qajar eighteenth

dynasty,

which

had ruled

Iran since the end

of the of

century,

became

seriously

weakened

by the beginning

the twentieth granted by

century.

Growing

foreign

debt and aI-Din

the concessions Shah made the

Nasr aI-Din increasingly

Shah and

Mozaffar

royal court leadership

susceptible made
it

to foreign less effective response to

influence.

Foreign

in the military

as an instrument the 1890 tobacco

of royal domination. concession demonstrated

The nationwide

to both the monarchy of popular movements.

and those who opposed In 1896 Nasr aI-Din aI-Afghani, an

it the nascent

strength

Shah was assassinated

by a follower

of Jamal aI-Din

PAGE 65 itinerent and who cleric promoted and activist Islam as a who had inspired basis the tobacco against boycott Western Nasr of

for struggles East and Shah,

imperialism al-Din's granting

throughout

the Middle aI-Din

southern

Asia.

successor, concessions.

Mozaffar

continued

the policy

Most notable which

was the 1900 Russian protest

concession

for customs

reVenues,

led to widespread agitations

and rioting. These of a

In 1906 a series led to the parliament

of public

was staged and the

in Tehran.

granting

of a constitution

establishment

(the Majles)

in July of that year.

THE SOCIAL

STRUCTURE

OF IRAN UNDER

THE QAJARS

The undergo century, cultural existed dominant few

traditional a series

structure

of

Iranian

society

had

begun

to

of profound largely

changes with

by the end of the nineteenth political, period economic, and

associated penetration. in Iran, in

Western Qajar

In the early addition khans

four main classes a traditional (including of a

to the

royal court: landowners middle bazaar

class of

tribal

and large

top clerics);

a broad,

heterogenous bureaucrats,

class

petty and

landowners, rank-end-file ln the

middle-level clergy; and a the

traders,

lower class urban of poor

of artisans

and wage earners and a large, tribal of

bazaar

lumpenproletariat; peasants and

impoverished groups. regional, tively These

rural mass class

itinerant in a

divisions

were embedded

mosaic

tribal,

ethnic, any

and religious large-scale

divisions class or

which

effec-

prevented

kind of

nationalist

consciousness

from emerging.s

Following efforts were

the

first

war with establish

Russia a standing

in

1804-1813, army to

modest the of

begun to tribal

replace

ineffective

contingents.

This

involv~d

the conscription

PAGE 66 som~ 6000 troops, facture arms the establishment the of small industriQs to manuthe

and uniforms, of a sQcular for

hiring

of European

advisors,

establishment

secondary

school,

the funding increases

of limitin taxes fostered of a

ed opportunities and tariffs a degree nationalist bureaucrats ended in

education the

in Europe, effort.

and

to finance

entire

These measures

of contact

with Western among This from

ideas and the small brief

the beginning strata of

consciousness

educated

and professionals. 1851 under pressure

period and

of moderni2ation Russia by and from

Britain

domestic tariffs.

elements

which

were adversely

affected

the taxes and

Western teenth

economic

penetration

in the a

second much

half of and

the ninebroader to the and among and

century

gradually

produced clearly

stronger

nationalist 1872 Reuter

consciousness, concession,

visible

in the reactions tobacco emerged

the 1890 British consciousness class.

concession, primarily

the 1900 Russian three segments merchants and

loan. This

of the middle bazaar

First,

traderst to

artisans,

from the

reacted

vehemently

the higher textiles) a series

taxes and of

competition

from

foreign who

goods

(particularly by

foreign

merchants,

were

protected of the clergy for reasons to their bazaar.

capitulations. hostile desire their diverse emerge toward to

Second. foreign

elements

became

increasingly from their

penetration. traditions in

ranging need

protect

Islamic of

to reinforce a small, began to

main base strata

support

the

Finally, which

of Western-oriented became

intellectuals incensed

in this period

increasingly political

at the surrenindependWestern ideologand the

der by the Qajar ence. The

rulers

of Iran's of these

and economlc toward the main of 1906

orientation and democratic

intellectuals to provide movement

nationalist

ideas was

ical foundation republican

for the constitutional of the early 19205.9

movement

PAGE 67 THE CONSTITUTIONAL REVOLUTION AND ITS AFTERMATH, 1906-1925

The protests boycott. which Russia lution. 1905 to Toreign

constitutional which

movement on a

was

direct

outgrowth the crisis

of

the

had begun

large was

scale with an economic

tobacco in 1905

Its immediate

antecedent

resul~ed caused

Trom a bad harvest by the Russo-Japanese merchants some of

and the disruption

of trade wi~h Revoof

War and the 1905 Russian the done court in the

Tehran rec~ify

petitioned the damage

summer

to them by

the various of were

concessions customs

and to dismiss concession. strike After

the Belgian

administrator demands

the Russian ignored

the merchants' December 1905

a general

erupted

in

reiterating "House of and in by a ar.med

these demands Justice." elements

and calling

for the establishment were organized OT violent legation receiving the Cossack by

of a

Major

demonstrations after

merchan~s

of the clergy

a series

confrontations was occupied threats Brigade, of

the summer crowd

of 1906, and at

the British After of

estimated and the

14,000. defection

uprisings aI-Din

Mozaffar

Shah relented,

permitting

the establishment

of a parliament

and the drafting

oT a constitution.

The constitutional Ali Shah (who succeeded The first

movement

was

strongly in early a new

opposed

by Muhammad

his father Majles

1907), and by Britain Anglo-Russian loan, in

and Russia. condemned

blocked

the 1907 convention

establishing

spheres

of influence

Iran, and sought The shah and

to impose a number his supporters

of reforms

on ~he royal court. by mainly organizing from the

responded which drew

anti-constitu~ional

demonstrations

urban lumpenproletariat. Cossacks Majles. tortured A or bombarded number the

In June 1908 the shah's parliament building, leaders

Russian-officered closing were the first

of constitutional and a

subsequently in Tabriz

murdered, by

pro-constitutional invasion,

revolt

was crushed

the 1909 Russian

following

a protracted

PAGE

68

si~g~.

Th~ Majles

was restored

in 1909 wh~n a of Gilan)

force

of constitutribesRussian and the led

tionalists men invad~d and British a series

from Rasht T~hran

(the capital

and Baktjari furth~r

and ousted

the shah.

However,

pressures, of

including

the deployment the advisor

of more troops dismissal Morgan of

ultimatUms Am~rican 1911

demanding financial

pro-constitutional to a coup

Shuster, which

in November

by the pro-shah nationalist

cabinet

closed

th~ Majles

and ended the early

p~riod.10

Betw~~n dominated influence and

1911 and 1914, by Baktiari in the

Iran was nominally leaders.

governed Russian

by a cabinet and British Russian these tribal outlying

tribal

However, of

cabinet

and the presence control the

over 12,000 hands of

British

troops the

l~ft actual collapse of

in the

powers. uprisings areas. agents

With and

central in

government sev~ral

separatist

revolts

emerged

These

increased

with th~ outbreak the in tribes Tehran and and

of World among as

War I, as German remnants of the and

intrigued

among

constitutional sympathizers

movement later aided

Soviet in

agents

separatist

movements

the northwest. by elections and War

Ahmad Shah was crowned for the third British. Majles,

in July 1914, followed which were manipulated

shortly by

the Russians during World

Anarchy

reigned after

in much of the country

I, particularly governments was rgported were

the collapse

of the Czarist and Azerbaijan

forces.

Rebel

established

in Gi1an

and famine

in many areas.

With the collapse its influence 1919.

of Czarist World

Russia,

Britain

sought

to extend of and

in Iran after was

War I by advancing opposed Elections al-Dol~h raising

the treaty in Iran

This treaty

almost

universally

provoked Majles to

strong anti-British rigged by Prime

sentiments. Minister

for the fourth in an attempt public

were

VOSUq

achieve

ratification

of the

treaty,

further

outcrys.

By late which

1920, opposition favored

to the treaty

and

to the Vosuq revolt

government

it and had failed

to end the Gilan

PAGE 69 was strong.

ll

Several

groups

apparently

cont~mplated opposed Russian

coups at this

time, particularly of British the failures officers aI-Din advisors

in the military, and blamed

which

the introduction lead~rship for

its White 1921

in Gilan.

In February

a coalition under

of Cossack Sayyed Zia Reza

under Reza Khan and liberal power, forced installing out Sayyed

nationalists

seized

Sayyed

Zia as prime minister. named

Khan quickly ter in

Zia, was himself Shah

prim~ minisaccession to

1923, and crowned was opposed who

himself by a

in 1925. His of Majles the

the throne Mohammed Iranian

handful

deputies chief

led by of

Mossadeq,12 nationalism.

was later to become

symbol

THE REGIME

OF REZA SHAH PAHlEVI,

1925-1941

Reza Shah state.

came to power

because

of the weakness

of

the Qajar to the to

The Qajars

had mortgaged by

much of their

sovereignty

Russians finance

and British

contracting lifestyles. tariff

loans and This

concessions

their extravagant tax and

had emptied and making

the treaslarge-scale crucial to

ury, requiring reforms and

increases

modernization

impossible. of

ParticularlY to finance foreign

their fall

was the inability might which

the Qajars the

a strong, and

loyal army which growing anarchy

have prevented

occupation

followed

the constitutional

period

and which For~ign the

would certainly concessions middle

have made the weakness whose evident

1921 coup more

of the Qajars

difficult.

and the

also alienated and

class elements power became period. on

emerging during Reza

consciousness the tobacco Shah's rise

growing and the was

political

boycott

constitutional based

Although

to power it

primarily

his control support

over the

military,

occurred

initidlly

with the active class.

and later with

the acquiescence

of this middle

PAGE

70

During

the early years monarch Kemal

of his rule, Reza Shah was a nationaliswho bore a greater resemblance to his

tic, modernizing Turkish

contemporary

Ataturk

than to his Qajar foreign

predecessors. in Iran

The actions

taken by Reza Shah to reduce above. Reza

influence

have been described program backward, world for

Shah also undertook transformed dependent and

a large-scale Iran from a

of modernization. largely feudal

This effort country heavily goods,

on the outside experstate

markets,

manufactured

administrative by a strong

tise to a semi-industrialized and considerably

country

dominated

less dependent

on the outside

world.

Reza Shah's and the civil tical support as Iran's quickly

first modernization service, during which served

efforts

focused

on the military bases of poli-

as his primary of power and

his consolidation ruler. After

in his years

uncontested

the 1921 coup units

Reza Khan acted

to unite

the diverse corps.

military

under a reorganized, conscription was

all-Iranian established

officer in 1925, duty

Nationwide

compulsory literacy

with mandatory for all recruits. ln 1922, when conduct

training service

and subsewas thorhiring, 1923

quent reserve oughly

The civil

reorganized

regulations

governing

promotion, and 1943

and professional the number

were established. government

Between

of civilian

employees

increased

from 25,000

to 100,000,

and the army grew to nearly

400,000.13

The growth closely in Iran. secondary

of the officer

corps

and civil of a secular

service

groups

was

tied to the establishment The number schools of students

~ducat;onal

system and

enrolled

in secular

primary

increased

by an astonishing of Tehran was

1300 percent established

between in 1934, had for had

1925 and 1929. and by

The University

1941 36 teacher's

colleges in

and 32 vocational state

schools

been established. overseas returned service study were

Beginning awarded

1928 100

scholarships 1500 students

annually,

and over

from overseas

by 1938. Schools education

for the military

and civil

and a large adult

program

were also established.

PAGE 71 In addition to fostering and officer helped a Western-oriented, non-aristocratic of a secular

civil service educational the clergy

corps, undermine

the establishment Islamic values

system in

and the role of augmented

Iranian reforms

society.

This trend

was further

by the secular were carried

of the civil

code and judicial

system which

out between

1923 and 1936.14

Economic ry emphasis tructure

development was placed at the

was also extensive on the expense in the expansion of

in this period. of industry and

Primainfras-

agriculture.

Large-scale Industrial and the around 5

industrialization employment share of percent

occurred

mid- and-1ate-1930s. from 1934

increased industry

by 250

percent

to 1933, 0 to

in Iran's

GNP grew from The main and

nearly

between

1926 and 1947. matches, cement, raw

industries and

established

were textiles, plants.

tobacco

food processing exclusively, and

These used domestic an initial stage

materials

almost

constituted

of import

substitution.

The state played Reza Shah.

an extensive bank was

role

in

industrialization in 1927. By

under

A national

established budget

the late

1930s 20 percent alization, State-operated lished. By

of the national defense

was allocated 1n

to industri1939-1941. were estab-

exceeding foreign

expenditures

and domestic Shah's

trade monopolies regime roughly 50

the end of Reza production

percent

of

industrial were in

and employment industries.

(excluding

the oil industry) in transportation sponsorship. Gulf The

state-owned

Great advances state

and communications Trans-Iranian main northern

were also which was

made under connected constructed industries,

Railroad, cities, many

the Persian under

and the Not operIt is of this inde-

Reza

Shah. those

surprisingly, ated by

oT these were of the

particularly

the state, that much

inefficient

and unprofitable.

evident

industrialization the railroad) of achieving

and development undertaken greater in

infrastructure period served

(particularly the st~te goals

economic

PAGE 72 p~ndence rational and a stronger military apparatus rather than the

criteria

of ~conomic

planning.IS

THE SOCIAL

AND POLITICAL

STRUCTURE

OF IRAN UNDER

REZA

SHAH

Reza Shah's the social

modernization

efforts

had profound had

consequences only

for

structure

of Iran,

which

evolved

modestly new class

since the early to emerge gentsia, bureaucrats reforms.

nineteenth

century.

The most

important class and Shah's

under Reza Shah was an educated composed who mainly had of the

middle

or intellimiddle-level educational middle

professionals from out of Reza

benefitted mainly grew

This class above,

the traditional having

class described or petty

many of its members It had very

come from bazaar political

landowning providing and much which

families.

heterogenous employees

loyalties,

both the middle-level of the leadership the of

of the state political in 1941.

apparatus movements Closely

the various of R~za Shah

emerged

after

fall

related

to the educated with

middle

class lower

(and in fact overlaplevels along of with the officer the

civil

ping considerably corps, which

it) were the greatly

had been

expanded

service and the rest of the of the position Shah's educated of the middle class

military

by Reza Shah.

The emergence in the by Reza

corresponded was

with a decline weakened

clergy,

which

seriously

secularizing

reforms.16

Because

of the dominant Reza Shah, and

role played Iranian

by the state bourgeoisie state

in industrialcomparperiod. to the bour-

ization under atively small

the

remained in this

subsurvient

to the in

Furthermore, oil industry g~oisie could

since foreign until

investment

Iran was confined of the Iranian

th~ mid-1950s,

very little described

at that time be

a~ dependent

on foreign

PAGE 73 capital. The main industries open to the private certain such food as sector under Reza

Shah were matches, tries, and

some textiles, industries

processing transportation

indusand

service Most

construction. period circle

of the industrialists either the bazaar

who did emerge Reza Shah's

in this close

came from

or from

of top military

officers

and state officials.17

The great expansion traditional petty

of the economy located

under

Reza Shah enlarged bazaar, which

the had

bourgeoisie

1n the

ties with both the industrial class. It also created

bourgeoisie

and the educated working class,

middle which

a large

industrial

grew from about with another

1500 at the turn of the century in the oil industry. peasants

to 50,000

in 1941, class

40,000

This modern

working

was drawn mainly letariat. Since

from the poorer labor unions

and the urban before working

lumpenproperiod

were outlawed the

the main class

of industrial largely

expansion under

in the 19305. Reza Shah.

remained were

unorganized

However,

several

strikes

staged under communist industrial Tudeh party working

leadership

between

1929 and.

1931, and the communist

class

gave strong

support

to the

in the 1940s and 1950s.16

Reza Shah's cracy.

regime was a mixed benefitted

blessing

for the landed

aristo-

Landowners

from the sale of crown 1920s and early

lands and from firmly

a series of laws passed established the granting enabled

in the

19305 which

the institution of universal

of private male

landownership. under the

Furthermore, fourth Majles

suffrage that body,

landowners

to dominate

not only under

Reza Shah era

(when it was as well. Iran

completely

subordinated).

but 1n

the subsequent

However.

as much

as 15 percent

of the arable

land in was

(including

almost by

the entire

province

of Mazandaran)

acquired

privately

Reza Shah, much of Very little

it through

confiscation to the

from wealthy modernization

landowners. of

attention

was devoted

agriculture tribal

in Reza Shah's aristocracy

development

program. by

Much of the landowning

was severely

weakened

PAGE 74
the pacification and forced settlement of the tribes.19

Needless

to say, Reza Shah's

actions

brought

very little peasantry Other

change

to the lives of the poor on the brink of survival who migrated to the

peasants. throughout areas,

The Iranian

remained

this period. Iranian

than those played no

urban

peasants

significant

role in Iranian

politics.~o

Despite

his efforts

to reduce

foreign

influence

and modernize

Iran, Reza Shah was a tyrant and used the crown to amass

and a dictator a great

who ruled arbitrarily After initially

fortune.

supporting his mind

the movement in 1924 on Political

to establish

a republic,

Reza Khan changed ready to making and the down by were

the grounds parties

that Iran

was not yet

rule itself.

were outlawed were routinely

in 1927, after manipulated, handed

a brief appearance. Majles served

Elections

essentiallY

to legitimize

le~islation

Reza Shah. outlawed in

Press censorship

was severe, were

and labor

unions

1931.
and

The tribes forced officers, were

ruthlessly into

suppressed Those

by the intel-

army, disarmed, lectuals, became

to settle

villages.

military

or clerics

who opposed

Reza Shah or

too powerful

imprisoned,

tortured,

or murdered.~l

Reza Shah's

dictatorial movement

methods which

served

to temporarily during

neutral-

ize the democratic tutional period.

had triumphed

the constihowever, of

This movement

remained

very much alive,

and was paradoxically Reza Shah, and working which

strengthened expanded

by the modernization its social base in

efforts

greatly

the middle with seriof his

classes.

Iran's

democratic

movement

reemerged the most

great vigor upon the demise ous and protracted

of Reza Shah to present to the autocratic

challenge

ambitions

successor.

PAGE 75 3) WORLD WAR II AND THE POSTWAR PERIOD, 1941-1951

Reza Shah's when Britain diate motive

dictatorial

regime Union

came to jointly

an abrupt invaded the

end

in 1941

and the Soviet for

Iran. The immeTrans-Iranian sent to the

the invasion which

was to

secure

Railway, Soviet

through

some 30 percent

of the supplies

Union from The

the West between growth involvement had given pro-German

1942 and trade

1944 were eventually with Germany and and in

shipped. increasing

rapid

in Iran's

German

in Iran's Germany

heavy

industries position

transportation Iran by

system

a prominent and

1941. Strong

sentiments

extensive

German

fifth column

activities

in Iran were Corridor as

seen as a threat a supply

to Allied

plans to use the Persian eastern that front. British

route Tor the v;~al to the invasion were and the

and Soviet German

demands agents

prior and

Raza Shah

eliminate

sympathizers to Mauritius leaving

ignored.

After the invasion, to South Africa

Reza Shah was exiled where he died

subsequently throne

in 1944,

to his 21 year old son Mohammed

Reza.22

IRANIAN

POLITICS

DURING

WORLD

WAR II AND ITS AFTERMATH

The fall of Reza Shah political amnesty were activity in

initiated

a twelve

year period

of fervent

Iran. Censorship prisoners

was lifted,

and a general parties 1944. The forces in had

for

political

was declared.

Political by early

reintroduced,

with as many as 42 appearing and British of

occupation helped Iranian generally

of Iran by both Soviet a large unlike

and American

to promote politics,

measure earlier

ideological

diversity which

foreign

involvement
23

contributed

to national

disintegration.

PAGE

76

The broad were active were mobilized eras.

spectrum

of social and

groups

and political to which

parties these

which groups

in this period contrasted

the degree

sharply

with the previous during

and subsequent

Of the parties

which

emerged

the war, the communist and most of

Tudeh party quickly popular.

established in late communists

itself as the most active September

It was Tormed Iranian

1941 by the survivors

a group of 53 recently cratic,

who had been jailed itself until mid-1944

in 1937 and as a demoIt

amnestied. anti-fascist, in

It portrayed and leftist

but non-Marxist

organization.

participated opposed regime,

elections,

supported

the constitution, vestiges

strongly

the Axis powers and found

and the

remaining at

of Reza Shah's Union

itself frequently Iranian communists.

odds with the Soviet

and with veteran

The Tudeh party sive elements to peasants

sought

to attract ranging

a broad

spectrum

of progresnationalists The latter

in this period, and the

from bourgeois working class. while

new industrial base

quickly ship was received

emerged

as its primary

OT support, middle

its leaderIt also

drawn mainly strong support

from the

educated

class.

from students autonomy

and from regional from the central The Tudeh

and ethnic government party was staging It

populations in Tehran,

seeking

greater

such as the Kurds and Azerbaijanis. and remained and highly visible in

very popular

this period, of

large demonstrations elected 8 of

publishing

a variety in

newspapers.

the 126

representatives

the Tourteenth

Majles party) Times of

elections

of late 1943 and early 13 percent

1944 (more than any other A New York

and received reporter

of the vote nationwide. that it could have elections

later estimated

received

40 percent

the vote for the fifteenth

Majles

in 1946, had they not

been rigged by the government.24

Many of the other parties after

established

in the years support time of

immediately and quickly the four-

the fall of Reza Shah had little from the political scene.

popular By the

disappeared

PAGE 77
teenth Majles to the Tudeh. party, elections They were mainly five main parties the conservative, by wealthy which had emerged, royalist in addition Union

National

supported

landowners; was headed

the conservative, by Sayyed Zia (who

pro-British returned cy,

Fatherland

party,

from exile

in 1943) and represented clergy, and elements mainly of

the tribal of

aristocrathe

the conservative Justice the

the bazaar;

centrist lectuals;

party,

composed

anti-communist which

intelbacked

progressive,

nationalist in

Iran party,

Mossadeq's by moderate the radical

reentry and

into politics

this period

and was supported elements; and

left-wing

intellectuals which split

and bazaar

Comrades'

party, of

from the Tudeh

in late intellec-

1942 and consisted tuals. popular spectrum Together

mainly

radical party,

but anti-Stalinist which

with the Tudeh parties

had by far the largest defined the political

base, these of the time.

essentially

Elections 1941 until Allied had

for

the thirteenth 1943) had

Majles largely

(which

sat

from November before the

November and

been completed of

invasion,

consequently on its

the emergence However,

these

parties an

little effect role in March

composition. for the

they played Mejles

important

the elections 1946).

fourteenth

(March of its Majles which

1944 through deputies quickly espoused point of fractions. percent

Although to these of

only a

small number the fourteenth or caucuses

actually split

belonged a

parties, fractions

into

number

platforms cleavage The

similar among

to those

held by the parties. between the pro-

The main

them was National giving

and anti-shah than 25 anti-shah

royalist seats,

Union

caucus

held less

of the

the Majles

a decidedly

character.

Conflict

between

the young

shah and the fourteenth the elections the Majles

Majles

b~gan

with his attempts prevent anti-shah it from forces

to influence convening. gained

and to subsequently was convened, important ths

Once

control

over the most

committees

PAGE

78

and began to estdblish durdl tation reforms between which

a cabinet

and

institute position. opposition

a series The mdjor

of proceconfronwhen it its

solidified

their

the shah and his Majles control

occurred

attempted budget threat power. thwarted workers tribal

to assert

over the military reforms.

by restricting

and forcing

it to enact major

This posed a serious base of was

to the shah, for whom the military The effort by a series in Isfahan, leaders feared bv the Majles

was an essential ln

to rein

the military strikes Tudeh

of protracted apparently Soviet

and violent led by the

bV textile local

party.

intervention ~ith

on behalf

of the strikand the shah.

ing workers Calls

and joined the

forces armed

the military and

to strengthen emerged

forces ending

a strong

anti-Tudeh in the

reaction military

ln the Majles,

the drive

to rein

and weakening

the anti-shah

coalition.z5

Since early for new

1943 the government in the

had been

quietly

negotiating with British invited

oil concessions oil

north and southeast had

and American Standard

companies. Jersey

The government

initially

of New

to submit a bid, apparently to counter Britain the

in an attempt and the Soviet northern conces-

to increase Union. This

American prompted

influence

the Soviets marking

to demand

sions for themselves, antagonism between

the beginning

of a period British, and

of growing and Amerin

the Soviets and between

and the Iranian, Soviet supporters

ican governments, Iran.26

opponents

The Tudeh which openly

party quickly identified

backed

the Soviet

demands,

an action its increaselements in

it as pro-Soviet

and signaled

lng radicalization. the Majles joined with broke

The progressive

and nationalist with

their anti-shah

alliance

the Tudeh

party and oil

conservative a move Union and further which

elements

in outlawing Mossadeq.

all further Hostilitv of the

concessions, the Soviet party

was led by

between Tudeh which

Iran and after

the radicalization

increased

April

1945, when a government

PAGE 79 had attempted more hostile. to placate headed the Soviets was replaced by one which Sadr. was

by the arch-conservative

Mohsen

Attacks papers

by the Sadr government 1945 provoked Gorgan

against uprisings

Tudeh

offices

and news-

in August and

in the Tudeh in Tabriz.

strongholds the capital prevented to for

of Mazandaran of Azerbaijan.

in the north and which

Soviet

troops

occupied

those areas

the local garrisons the uprisings. the autonomy which quickly

and outside

reinforcements

from responding by demands

The Tabriz of Azerbaijan absorbed

uprising led

was accompanied

by Pishevari's branches. the

Democratic Further

party.

the local Tudeh of

uprisings of in

culminated Azerbaijan western

in the

establishment

Autonomous People's

Republic Republic

in December

1945 and the Kurdish 1946.

Azerbaijan

in January

The Soviet ing these

Union was

instrumental movements. It

in establishing continued to

and protectpress for oil

separatist

concessions forces.

and refused

to consider of

withdrawing

its

occupation pressure by

However. states Qavam,

a combination and Britain who became

strong

diplomatic diplomatic in March

the United by Ahmad

and brilliant minister

maneuvering

prime

1946.

led to of the oil was

the withdrawal autonomous concession.

of Soviet

troops

and the subsequent 1946.

collapse

republics which

1n December

The proposed the Majles

Soviet

had been

left for

to ratify,

overwhelmingly

rejected

in October

1947.27

The aggressive major War. source of

Soviet

actions

in Iran during in the early to the which in

this period years

were a

East-West

tension

of the Cold Soviet in be

and undoubtedly in Iran

contributed and elsewhere actions

rigid

view of

intentions

subsequently can

prevailed in part

Washington.28 explained

Soviet

this period of

by the

declining Sea supplY

importance

the Persian in Octobe~

Corridor 1944 and buffer

after the Black by the desire of

route was secured Union

the Soviet

to establish

friendly

PAGE 80 states Allies on its borders. However, 1940 Nazi documents between captured by the

revealed

a November Union which

agreement

the Axis powers aspiof

and the Soviet rations

acknowledged

Soviet

territorial

in the area to its south, was apparently known While

including suspected

Iran. The existence by some Iranians

such an agreement time, and was

at the

certainly

to U.S.

policymakers

in the early to which period it is a

days of the Cold War.29 Soviet officials

one may question intentions of Stalin of Soviet

the extent

still held

such

in the postwar in March 1953),

(particularly clear

after

the death

that the

containment of U.S.

expansionism Iran in the

remained

cardinal 19505.

principle

policy

toward

1940s and

THE POSTWAR

STRUGGLE

FOR POWER IN IRAN

With the Azerbaijan

departure and Kurdish role in under

of

Soviet

troops

and

the collapse forces again which

of the assumed they had

republics, Iranian

external

the secondary come to occupy

domestic However, 1941,

politics in the

Reza Shah. after

open political of foreign

environment actors

which

prevailed

the withdrawal

left Iran turbulent

and in a state of flux.

The collapse

immediate

consequences Party's

of the broad

Soviet

withdrawal

were

a in

of the Tudeh of

base of support party, which

and a surge briefly

the popularity control on the

Qavan's

Democratic

gained

of the fifteenth Tudeh party and during of

Majles. its

An extensive began

government in October

crackdown 1946 and In 500 and

affiliates of

continued the

the reoccupation these provinces 10,000

Azerbaijan

and Kurdistan. forces Soviet some

invasion

by government fled to the

rebels were hundreds

killed,

over

Union,

of top

leaders

were executed

or imprisoned.

This was a

PAGE 81
serious blow to the Tudeh, During whose main base of support the party had be~n in

Azerbaijan.

the next two years and ideological itself more Union,

underwent purging

a period its top

of reorganization leadership, principles Majles

purification, closely

identifying

with Marxist-Leninist the fifteenth

and with the Soviet

and boycotting

elections.3o

Since these collapse of

elections

were

held

in the

six months party

after obtained

the a

the autonomous

republics,

Qavam's

strong majority anti-Shah movement

in the fifteenth in the previous

Majles. Majles

However,

much

like the Front

coalition which

and the National Qavam's ranged the

later emerged very diverse

under Mossadeq, elements. to tribal These

Democratic

party contained landlords class, groups

from wealthy urban middle among these to in

and industrialists industrial over

leaders,

and the soon

working a

class. of

Friction issues,

emerged

variety

leading of Qavam

defections

from the party and ultimately in late 1947.

to the ouster

a vote of no confidence

Defections roughly

from

the Democratic size in the Qavam),

party Majles:

left

four fractions Democrats Union

of (who

comparable to support

the loyal National

continued

the royalist and

Caucus,

the pro-British ents. In

National the

Caucus, Tudeh

a diverse which

group had

of independthe

addition, Majles began

party,

boycotted process

fifteenth ganizing,

elections to reemerge

and was still as an

in the

of reorforce in the the

important

political

1945. In the elections royalist/pro-British Democrat/independent government opposed

within

the Majles

for Qavam's

successor

candidate candidate efforts

Hakimi

defeated

M05sadeq

by one vote. to

The Hakimi the of

(led by and

Mossadeq)

renegotiate harassment which

1933 British the Tudeh have

oil concession

continued a number

Qavam's

party.

It also made

of proposals

would

made the and

shah

more powerful, of an

such

as increased house

military

spending

the establishment

upper

of Pdrliament

PAGE 82

(the Senate),

half of whose

members

were appointed

by the shah.

After unified

seven

years

as such

head of state as that

and headed

in by

the absence Qavam or

of a the felt

opposition

Tudeh/Soviet

collaboration

of 1944-1946,

the shah apparently the dominant

in 1948 that he could attempt held by military chapter suppress the court under had been 4, growing This groups

to reestablish The

position of the (see to

Reza Shah. steadily, not only

size and quality

due in part to increased its

U.S. aid ability

below).

mass-based

such as the various but also

autonomy

movem~nts, to

the Tudeh party, the shah.

and the tribes,

increased among

its loyalty major

The shah also began of the time,

to intrigue those

the

poli-

tical figures undermining

aiding

who were

loyal to him and (such as

those who opposed

him or remained

independent

Qavam, who was forced

into exile when his government

collapsed).

In attempting to strengthen

to reestablish Iran's

the monarchy, United with

the shah also and

sought its

ties with the

States

weaken

ties with Britain. tion in the Majles,

This led to conflict which brought The

the pro-British government

fracafter

down the Hakimi

only six months in collaboration began secret

in office.

royalists Democrats.

then formed This

a government which

with Qavam's

government,

negotiations four

to revise because

the British

oil concession, by the Kashand

collapsed pro-British anI.

after

months aided

of obstructionism cleric

fraction.

by the populist to agree on a

Ayatollah

The Majles opposed

was unable

new government, efforts

strongly one. The attempt

as unconstitutional ended,

the shah's

to appoint an the

impasse was

however,

in February

1949 when

was made on the shah's martial law,

life. Seizing

this opportunity,

shah declared ter, convened of parliament on

installed assembly above, and

his candidate which created

as prime ministhe upper a house

a constituent mentioned

instituted a

wide-ranging Tudeh party

crackdown

his opposition,

including

ban on all

activities.31

PAGE 83

THE EMERGENCE

OF THE NATIONAL

FRONT

The

shah's

crackdown

and his

subsequent

attempt

to rig

the

sixteenth

Majles a

elections

(held between

July 1949

~nd February grounds promiby the be to

1950) provoked in Tehran.

large demonstration elected their

in the

royal palace of twenty

The demonstrators to negotiate The

a committee with a

nent activists Mohammed court

demands

the shah, headed promise Majles from would

Mossadeq.

committee for

obtained

that

free elections It then retired

the

sixteenth

permitted. form

to Mossadeq's to

home, where pressing

it agreed for

a national

organization

continue

various

reforms.

This organization

became

known as the National

Front.

The

National Majles

Front (which and

elected sat from several the

eight

representatives 1950 until of the

to

the

sixteenth including committee

February other

May 1951), original

Mossadeq of twenty.

members

Although

sixteenth

Majles

was overwhelmcalled for

ingly pro-shah,

the National budget,

Front deputies denounced

immediatelY

cuts in the military and voiced other

the constitutient the power

assembly, of the shah

demands

aimed

at reducing

and improving pro-shah calling

the position

of the middle proposals

classes. to

In June 1950 the committee In

government for revisions

submitted

a Majles with

in the 1933 oil agreement of the proposals, to be the

the AlOe.

order to aid passage nominated Ali Razmara

the shah at

the same time Razmara was a

new prime minister. of the treaty critical

top general

who favored

renegotiation

but had other-

wise been independent was quickly He then elected,

and frequently despite measures

of the shah. Razmara National Front. new for

opposition in the

from the

sponsored

Majles

embodying

the taxes

proposals,

along with a number

of reforms commission,

such as higher proposals

the rich, dn dnti-corruption and local assemblies, land reform bill.

for provincial measures, and a

a relaxation

of anti-Tudeh

PAGE 84 Razmara Fedayan-i ciated clearly involved was assassinated Islam, a Muslim at in March 1951 by a member of the assowas

extremist the time.

group which Razmara's

was closely assassination

with Kashani

tied to his support Kashani and several

for the oil agreements, other National Front

and apparently leaders. By the

time of Razmara's was nearly movement of this

assassination,

opposition

to the oil agreements to lead a

universal

and the National

Front had begun Recognizing the shah's Hossein

for nationalization movement, Razmara the

of the AIOC. rejected

the strength nominee to

Majles

replace

and elected

the moderate

Ala as

the new

prime minister.

Ala brought permitted Majles. approved

a top National

Front

leader

into his

cabinet

and

a bill calling This bill, by

for nationalization was sponsored whose by

to be adopted Mossadeq, were was

by the later by

which

the Senate

(half of

members

appointed

the shah) and signed of the

into law by the shah, movement. calling

indicating March a

the strength series of

nationalization strikes

In late

Tudeh-sponsored working cities.

for nationalization and the

and protesting major industrial prime Mossa-

conditions

swept the oilfields was forced

On April 29 the shah This initiated

to appoint

Mossadeq in which

minister.

a period

of confrontation pitted against

deq and the National and eventually

Front were

Britain,

the shah,

the United

States.32

PAGE 85

FOOTNOTES TO CHAPTER 3

1) Rouhollah K. R~ma~ani, The Foreign Policv of Iran: A Developing Nation in World ATfalrs, 1500-1941 (Charlottesville: University of Virginia Press, 19(6), chs. 2, 3. 2) I~id., ch. 4; Ann K. S. lambton, "The Impact of the West on Persla," International Affairs, Vol. 33, Ho. 1, January 1957, pp. 12-25; Peter Avery, Modern Iran (London: Ernest Benn, 1965), ch. 6. T~e most compr~h~nsive treatment of the foreign economic penetr?~l~n?f Iran.ln this period is Firuz Kazemzadeh, Russia and Brl~aln In Persla, 1864-1914 (N~w Haven: Yale University Press, 1968). See also Charles Issawi (ed.), The Economic History of Iran, 1800-1914 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1971), ch. 3 and elsewhere.
3) Richard

W. Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, Updated throuqh 1978 (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1979), pp. 13-14. On the tobacco boycott see Nikki R. Keddie, Reliqion and Rebellion in Iran: The Tobacco Protest of 1891-92 (london: Frank Cass, 19(6).
4)

Ramazan;, Foreiqn Policy of Iran, pp. 70-73; Fereidun Fesharaki, Development of the Iranian Oil Industry (New York: Praeger, 1976), ch. 1; L. P. Elwell-Sutton, Persian Oil: A Study in Power Politics (london: lawrence and Wishart, 1955), chs. 2 7.
5)

Ramazani, Foreiqn PoliGV of Iran, chs. 5-7; George lQnczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, 1918-1948 (Ithaca: CornQll University PrQss, 1949), ch. 2. 6) Ibid., p. 139. s~~ also pp. 86-91 and ch. 5 for a discussion of Soviet policy toward Iran in this period. good

7) Donald N. Wilber, Riza Shah PahlQvi ~ The Resurrection and Reconstruction of Iran (Hicksville, NY: Exposition Press, 1975), chs. 9-11; Ral1lazani, Foreiqn Policy of Iran, chs. 8-12; Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, ch. 12; L. P. Elwell-Sutton, Modarn Iran (London: George Routledge, 1941), PP.
73-76.
8)

Ervand Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions (Princeton~ Princeton University Press, 1982), pp. 9-37. For a detailed analysis of the traditional social structure of Iran see Ahmad Ashraf, Iran: Imperialism, Class, and Modernization from Above (Ph. D. dissertation, New School for York, 1971), ch.

5.

Soclal ResQarch, N~w

10) Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions! pp. 6?-?2;,~ver~, Modern Iran, chs. 9-11; Nikki R. Keddie, "rOPUlar PartlClpa~lon In the Fersian Revolution of 1905-1911," in Keddie, Iran: Religion, Politics, and SOGietv (London: Frank Cass, 1980), pp. 66-78; Ervand Abrahamian, ~ihQ Crowd in Irani~~_~~~i~ic5: 1905-1953." Pa~t and Present 41. December 1968, pp.

11) Avery, Modern Iran, ch. 13. 12) For details on the coup, see ibid'L ch. 14;,Wilber',Riza Shah Pahlevi, ch. 3; l P Elwell-Sutton, "Reza Shah ~he Grea~: Founder of the Pahlevi D;na~ty," in George LQnczowski (ed.), Iran Under

~-----------------

PAGE 86 the Pahlevis 17-21. (Stanford: Hoover Institution Press, 1978), pp.

13) Amin Banani, The Modernization of Iran, 1921-1941 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1961), pp. 52-61; Ashraf, Iran: Imperialism, Class, and Modernization from Above, p. 300. 14) Ibid., chs. 5-6; Roger M. Savory, "Social Development in Iran During the Pahlevi Era," in Lenczowski, Iran Under the Pahlevis, pp. 90-99; Julian Bharier, Economic Development in Iran, 1900-1970 (London: Oxford University Press, 1971), p. 3&. 15)James Alban Bill, The Politics of Iran: Groups, Classes, and Modernization (Columbus, Ohio: Merrill, 1972), ch. 2; Bharier, Economic Development in Iran, pP. 66, 172-181; Banani, Modernization of Iran, ch. 7; Raj Narain Gupta, Iran: An Economic Study (New Delhi: Indian Institute of Economic Affairs, 1947), ch. 4; Homa Katouzian, Th~ Political Economy of Modern Iran (New York: New York University Press, 1981), pp. 115-116, 132-135. 16) Shahrough Akhavi, Religion and Politics in Contemporary Iran (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1980), ch. 2; Ashraf, Iran: Imperialism, Class, and Modernization from Above, pp. 304-320. 17) Ibid., pp. 252-283; Ashraf, "Historical Obstacles to the Development of a Bourgeoisie in Iran," in M. A. Cook (ed.), Studies in the Economic History of the Middle East (London: Oxford University Press, 1970), pp. 328-331; Bharier, Economic Development in Iran, p. 180. 18) Ashraf, Iran: Imperialism, Class, and Modernization Above, pp. 332~-~374~6~.--~~~~~~~~~~--~~~~~~~~~~~~= 19) Ibid., 119-129. pp. 153-159; Banani, Modernization of Iran, from pp.

20) Farhad Kazemi Peasantry of Modern

and Ervand Abrahamian, "The Nonrevolutionary Iran," Iranian Studies 11, 1978, pp. 259-304.

21) Wilber, Riza Shah Pahlevi, ch. 6, p. 122; Elwell-Sutton, Modern Iran, pp. 76-81; Cottam, Nationalism in Iran, p. 21. 22) Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, pp. 151-174; T. Vail Motter, United States Army in World War II, The Middle East Theater, The Persian Corridor and Aid to Russia (Washington: Office of the Chief of Military History, Department of the Army, 1952), pP. 481-483. 23) Elwell-Sutton, Persian Two Revolutions, p. 187. Oil, p. 106; Abrahamian, Iran Between

24) Cited in ibid., p. 300. On the Tudeh party see also Abrahamian, "The Strengths and Weaknesses of the Labor Movement in Iran, 1941-1953," in Michael E. Bonine and Nikki Keddie, Continuity and Change in Modern Iran (Albany: State University of New York Press, 1981), pp. 181-202; Sephehr Zabih, The Communist Movement in Iran (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1966); U.S. Department of State, Office of Intelligence Research, The Tudeh and Associated Parties in Iran, OIR No. 3523.5, April 1, 1946. 25) Abrahamian, Iran Between Two Revolutions, pp. 185-210. See also L. P. Elwell Sutton, "Political Parties in Iran, 1941-1948," Middle East Journal, Vol. 3, No.1, January 1949, pp. 45-62. 26) Nasrollah Saifpour Fatemi, Oil Diplomacy: (NeW York: Whittier, 1954), pp. 229-260. Powderkeq in Iran

PAGE 87 27) For details on Soviet and Tudeh party actions in this period see Lenczowski, Russia and the West in Iran, chs. 8, 11; Zabih, The Communist MovGment in Iran, ch. 3; Archie Roosevelt, Jr., "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad," Middle East Journal, Vol. 1, No.3, July 1947, pp. 247-269; Robert Rossow, Jr., "The Battle of Azerbaijan, 1946" Middle East Journal, Vol. 10, No.1, Winter 1956. pp. 17-32. 28) For an excellent study detailing the role of Iran in the early Cold War period see Bruce Robellet Kuniholm, The Origins of the ~C~o~l~d~~W~a~r __~i~n~t~h~e=-~N~e~a~r~~E~a~s~t~ (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 19(0) . 29) Avery. Modern Iran, pP. 332-333. The text of this agreement ;5 contained in J. C. Hurewitz, Dllomacy in the Near and Middle East: A Documentary Record: 1914-1956, Volume II (New York: octa gon Books. 1972), pp. 228-230. 30) Zabih, Abrahamian. The Communist Movem~nt in Iran, pp. Iran Between Two Revolutions. pp. 305-318. 123-141;

31) Ibid. , pp , 240-250. 32) Abrahamian, Iran Between Modern Iran, ch. 25. Two Revolutions, pp. 261-280; Avery,