ClassificationofSolids

Key material for most electronic devices such as diodes, transistors,FETs,LEDs,detectorsetc Solid

MetalsSemiconductorsInsulator (Conductors) 103103 cm >107 cm 106 cm A semiconductor, therefore, is a material that has a conductivity level somewhere between the extremes of an insulatorandaconductor Formetals, increaseswithtemperature(+vetemp.coeff.) For semiconductors, decreases with temperature ( ve temp.coeff.)

S.Kal,IITKharagpur

AtomicStructureSiliconandGermanium

AtomicStructure: Germanium Silicon

Covalent bonding of the Siliconatom

S.Kal,IITKharagpur

AtomicStructureandEnergyLevels
Energy Levels : The more distant the electron from the nucleus, the higher the energy state, and any electron that has left its parent atom has a higher energy state than any electronintheatomicstructure. EnergyBands: IfweconsideralargenumberofSiorGe atoms which gradually come closer to one another and finally form a solid by arranging themselves in a regular three dimensional array ( called crystal ), the energy levels no longer remains discrete. They become energy bands. Each band really consists of a very large number ofdiscreteenergylevelswhichareverycloselyspaced.So thesebandsmaybethoughtofascontinuous.
S.Kal,IITKharagpur

Energybandsinconductor,semiconductorandinsulator
EnergyBands: Theseenergybands(calledallowedbands) are separated by forbidden energy gaps. i.e. no electron can haveanyenergyvaluewithinforbiddenbands.Inasolidcrystal, energy bands, called valency band, originated from the shells occupiedbyvalenceelectronsinsingleatoms(3s,3pforSiand 4s,4pforGe),mayormaynotbeseparatedfromanotherhigher energyband,calledconductionband,whichextendsuptozero electronenergycorrespondingtothatoutsidethesolid.

S.Kal,IITKharagpur

ElectronsandHolesinaSemiconductor
At low temperatures ( close to 0 K ), the valence band is completely filled up with electrons and the conduction band is perfectly empty. If temp is raised , the average thermal energy increases.AtT=300K(roomtemp),kT=0.026eV.[k=8.62x 105 eV/K ] This is average energy. Some electrons will have energies more than 0.026 eV, while some will have much less. Those,whichwillhaveenergiesmorethanEg,willentertheC.B., creating an equal number of vacancies or empty states in V.B. These vacancies in V.B. may be treated as positively charged particles, called holes, having the same quantity of positive chargeasanelectron. The electron in the C.B. and the holes in the V.B. are free, because they may be excited to higher energies by a small electric field or thermal energy. The electrons move from higherelectronenergiestolowerenergycombinewithholesor fillupvacancies,subsequentlycreatingnewvacanciesorholes. These free charge carriers ( electronin C.B. and holes in V.B.) carryelectricalcurrent.
S.Kal,IITKharagpur

Metals,InsulatorsandSemiconductors
Formetals,theC.B.andtheV.Boverlapeachother(Eg=0).So the large no of valency band electrons ( 1022 per cm3) are available for conduction. Metals are, therefore, very conducting.Increasingtemp.,electronsfacemoreobstacleto theirmovementbecauseofincreasedatomicvibrations. For insulators, Eg >>> kT ( ~ 4 8 eV), very few electronhole pairs (EHPs) may be created by thermal process. Thus, insulators or dielectrics are extremely poor conductors of electricity. For semiconductors in pure, crystalline form, Eg lies in the range 0.1 3.0 eV. Thus, appreciable number of EHPs are created by thermal process. Increasing temperature causes creationofmoreEHPs,henceresistivityfalls. S.Kal,IITKharagpur
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IntrinsicSemiconductor
The number of electrons in C.B. or holes in V.B. per unit volume in a pure semiconductor crystal is called intrinsic carrierconcentration. Material Germanium Silicon GaAs BandGap(eV) Intrinsicconc.,300K 0.67 ~1013percm3 1.1 ~1010percm3 1.4 ~107percm3

Please note that the energy associated with each electron is measuredinelectronvolts(eV).Thisisappropriate,asweknow W=QV Qisthechargeassociatedwithanelectron(1.6x1019 Coulomb). SincetheenergyisalsomeasuredinJoules, W=QV=(1.6x1019C)(1V)or,1eV=1.6X1019J
S.Kal,IITKharagpur

ExtrinsicSemiconductors:(nandptype)
Asemiconductormaterialthathasbeensubjectedtothedoping processiscalledanextrinsicmaterial. Impurities at a very low level ( 0.01 1000 p.p.m.) can alter the band structure sufficiently to totally change the electrical propertiesofthematerial There are two class of extrinsic semiconductor materials of importancetosemiconductordevicefabrication:ntypeandp type nTypeExtrinsicSemiconductor Doping of Si and Ge by pentavalent impurity atoms like P, As, Sb, etc. create excess unbound electrons in C.B. The penta valent impurity atoms introduce energy levels near the edge of C.B.insidethebandgap.
S.Kal,IITKharagpur

nTypeExtrinsicSemiconductor
C.B.(nearlyempty)EC Donorlevels(ED) Eg V.B.(nearlyfilled)EV Minoritycarriers Majoritycarriers
+++++++++++

Thusatroomtemp.,almostalltheimpurityatomsdonatetheir loosely bound excess valence electrons to the C.B. As a result these atoms become positively ionized but remain immobile,whilethedonatedelectronsintheC.B.arefree.
S.Kal,IITKharagpur

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AntimonyandBoronDopedExtrinsicSemiconductor

Antimonyimpurityinntype material

Boronimpurityinptype material
S.Kal,IITKharagpur

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pTypeExtrinsicSemiconductor
DopingofSiandGebytrivalentimpurityatomslikeB,Al,Ga,etc. createexcessunboundholesinV.B.Thetrivalentimpurityatoms introduceenergylevelsneartheedgeofV.B.insidethebandgap.

Thus at room temp., shortage of electrons at the outer orbit of dopant atoms will be filled from the V.B. host atoms and as a result,vacancies(holes)arecreatedinV.B.Thedopantatoms become negatively ionised and remain immobile, while the excessholesinV.B.arefree.

S.Kal,IITKharagpur

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DopedSemiconductor
Thus, in an extrinsic semiconductor, there will be a large no. of majoritycarriers(electronsinC.B.forntypeandholesinV.B.for ptype) approximately equal to the no. of impurity atoms, and a veryfewminoritycarriers(holesinV.B.forntypeandelectrons in C.B. for ptype) produced by thermal excitation (intrinsic process) For lightly and moderately doped semiconductors ( up to ~ 10 p.p.m) n.p=ni2 where,n=electrondensityinC.B.,p=holedensityinV.B. ni=pi=intrinsicconcentration=1010percm3forSi ForntypeSi,if tnen, and

ND=donordensity=1016percm3 n ND=1016percm3 3 p=ni2/n=1020/1016=104percm S.Kal,IITKharagpur

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ConductioninSemiconductors Ifanelectricfield,Eisappliedinasemiconductor,theelectrons

moveoppositetothefield,whiletheholesmovealongthefield direction.

Thusthetotalcurrentdensityduetoelectronsandholesis J=Jn+Jp=qnvn+qpvp Now, vn= nE and vp= pE

where nand pareelectronandholemobilities(cm2/Vsec) J=q(n n+p p)E= E where is the electrical conductivity of the semiconductor. Therefore,theresistivity, isgivenby =1/ =1/[q(n n+p p)]
S.Kal,IITKharagpur ForSi, n=1200cm2/Vsec, p=500cm2/Vsec

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