Diagrams and Graphs of Statistical Data We have discussed the techniques of classification and tabulation that help us in organizing

the collected data in a meaningful fashion. However, this way of presentation of statistical data does not always prove to be interesting to a layman. Too many figures are often confusing and fail to convey the message effectively. One of the most effective and interesting alternative way in which a statistical data may be presented is through diagrams and graphs. There are several ways in which statistical data may be displayed pictorially such as different types of graphs and diagrams. The commonly used diagrams and graphs to be discussed in subsequent paragraphs are given as under: Types of Diagrams 1. Simple Bar Chart 2. Multiple Bar Chart or Cluster Chart 3. Staked Bar Chart or Sub-Divided Bar Chart or Component Bar Chart Simple Component Bar Chart Percentage Component Bar Chart Sub-Divided Rectangular Bar Chart Pie Chart Types of Diagrams/Charts: 1. 2. 3. 4. Histogram Frequency Curve and Polygon Lorenz Curve Histogram

Simple Bar Chart A simple bar chart is used to represents data involving only one variable classified on spatial, quantitative or temporal basis. In simple bar chart, we make bars of equal width but variable length, i.e. the magnitude of a quantity is represented by the height or length of the bars. Following steps are undertaken in drawing a simple bar diagram:

Draw two perpendicular lines one horizontally and the other vertically at an appropriate place of the paper. Take the basis of classification along horizontal line (X-axis) and the observed variable along vertical line (Y-axis) or vice versa. Marks signs of equal breath for each class and leave equal or not less than half breath in between two classes. Finally marks the values of the given variable to prepare required bars.

Example: Draw simple bar diagram to represent the profits of a bank for 5 years.

Years Profit (million $) Simple bar chart showing the profit of a bank for 5 years.

Multiple Bar Chart By multiple bars diagram two or more sets of inter-related data are represented (multiple bar diagram facilities comparison between more than one phenomena). The technique of simple bar chart is used to draw this diagram but the difference is that we use different shades, colors, or dots to distinguish between different phenomena. We use to draw multiple bar charts if the total of different phenomena is meaningless. Example: Draw a multiple bar chart to represent the import and export of Canada (values in $) for the years 1991 to 1995. Years

Imports

Exports

Simple bar chart showing the import and export of Canada from 1991 1995.

Component Bar Chart Sub-divided or component bar chart is used to represent data in which the total magnitude is divided into different or components. In this diagram, first we make simple bars for each class taking total magnitude in that class and then divide these simple bars into parts in the ratio of various components. This type of diagram shows the variation in different components within each class as well as between different classes. Sub-divided bar diagram is also known as component bar chart or staked chart. Example: The table below shows the quantity in hundred kgs of Wheat, Barley and Oats produced on a certain form during the years 1991 to 1994.

Years

Wheat

Barley

Oats

Construct a component bar chart to illustrate this data. Solution: To make the component bar chart, first of all we have to take year wise total production. Years

Wheat

Barley

Oats

Total

The required diagram is given below:

Percentage Component Bar Chart Sub-divided bar chart may be drawn on percentage basis. To draw sub-divided bar chart on percentage basis, we express each component as the percentage of its respective total. In drawing percentage bar chart, bars of length equal to 100 for each class are drawn at first step and sub-divided in the proportion of the percentage of their component in the second step. The diagram so obtained is called percentage component bar chart or percentage staked bar chart. This type of chart is useful to make comparison in components holding the difference of total constant. Example: The table below shows the quantity in hundred kgs of Wheat, Barley and Oats produced on a certain form during the years 1991 to 1994. Years Wheat Barley Oats

Construct a percentage component bar chart to illustrate this data.

Solution: Necessary computations for the construction of percentage bar chart given below: Item cum Wheat Barley Oats Total

cum

cum

cum

indicates Percentage of each item cum indicates the cumulative percentage.

Pie Chart Pie chart can used to compare the relation between the whole and its components. Pie chart is a circular diagram and the area of the sector of a circle is used in pie chart. Circles are drawn with radii proportional to the square root of the quantities because the area of a circle is .

To construct a pie chart (sector diagram), we draw a circle with radius (square root of the total). The total angle of the circle is . The angles of each component are calculated by the formula. Angle of Sector These angles are made in the circle by mean of a protractor to show different components. The arrangement of the sectors is usually anti-clock wise. Example: The following table gives the details of monthly budget of a family. Represent these figures by a suitable diagram.

Item of Expenditure Food Clothing House Rent Fuel and Lighting Miscellaneous Total Solution: The necessary computations are given below:

Family Budget

Angle of Sector

Family Budget Items Expenditure $ Angle of Sectors Cumulative Angle

Food Clothing House Rent Fuel and Lighting Miscellaneous Total

Scatter Plot

Scatter plots show the relationship between two variables by displaying data points on a two-dimensional graph. The variable that might be considered an explanatory variable is plotted on the x axis, and the response variable is plotted on the y axis. Scatter plots are especially useful when there is a large number of data points. They provide the following information about the relationship between two variables:

Strength Shape - linear, curved, etc. Direction - positive or negative Presence of outliers

A correlation between the variables results in the clustering of data points along a line. The following is an example of a scatter plot suggestive of a positive linear relationship. Example Scatterplot

Scatterplot Smoothing Scatter plots may be "smoothed" by fitting a line to the data. This line attempts to show the non-random component of the association between the variables. Smoothing may be accomplished using:

A straight line A quadratic or polynomial line Smoothing splines - allow greater flexibility in nonlinear associations.

The curve is fitted in a way that provides the best fit, often defined as the fit that results in the minimum sum of the squared errors (least squares criterion). The use of smoothing to separate the non-random from the random variations allows one to make predictions of the response based on the value of the explanatory variable. Cause and Effect When a scatter plot shows an association between two variables, there is not necessarily a cause and effect relationship. Both variables could be related to some third variable that

explains their variation or there could be some other cause. Alternatively, an apparent association simply could be the result of chance. Use of the Scatterplot The scatter plot provides a graphical display of the relationship between two variables. It is useful in the early stages of analysis when exploring data before actually calculating a correlation coefficient or fitting a regression curve. For example, a scatter plot can help one to determine whether a linear regression model is appropriate.

Semi-Log GraphIn science and engineering, a semi-log graph or semi-log plot is a

way of visualizing data that are changing with an exponential relationship. One axis is plotted on a logarithmic scale. This kind of plot is useful when one of the variables being plotted covers a large range of values and the other has only a restricted range the advantage being that it can bring out features in the data that would not easily be seen if both variables had been plotted linearly.[1] All functions of the form equal to form straight lines, since taking logs of both sides is

This can easily be seen as a line in slope-intercept form with as slope, as the yintercept. To facilitate use with logarithmic tables, one usually takes logs to base 10 or e:

The term log-lin is used to describe a semi-log plot with a logarithmic scale on the y-axis, and a linear scale on the x-axis. Likewise, a lin-log graph uses a logarithmic scale on the x-axis, and a linear scale on the y-axis.