The Fortuitous Birth of the Vulgate Bible Or Was Latin Saved By Accident?

In 382 AD, Pope Damasus asked a scholar and theologian, Hieronymus (Jerome) to carry out a revision of the Latin versions of the four gospels. Jerome completed the assignment (and the Book of Psalms) and later translated the Septuagint (and certain other books) from the original Hebrew into Latin. In the years (and centuries) after his death, Jeromes translations (the Vulgate) became the official version of the Bible used by the Church. For scores of generations of Europeans, it was probably the only Latin text they ever saw or heard. The Vulgate (either in whole or in part) became the most widely distributed written material in Europe, and the complete Vulgate Bible was first major book printed by Gutenberg. The Council of Trent pronounced the Vulgate to be the only version of the Bible that authorised to be printed. But how did this work come about? Was it an accident of history or was it inevitable? Why did Damasus want a translation? Why did Jerome take on this task? To discern the motives of those concerned in events that happened even yesterday can be contentious and fraught with difficulty, and events that occurred more than 1,500 years ago are no different. Although we have a mass of letters and other material from Jerome, even if motives and intentions are stated they may not always be correct. It is not uncommon for authors to tidy up their past, whether for reasons that appeared worthy or without meaning to do so. In order to decide, we need to understand the lives and times of the participants, and imagine what they might have been thinking. To set the scene, we have to go back to about 350CE. Constantine, the first Christian (albeit death bed) Roman Emperor, had died in 337CE and there had been turmoil in the west until Constantius became the sole emperor in 353CE.

He was succeeded by Julian, the last non Christian Emperor, in 361CE. Though he only lived another two years, it must have been a shock to the Church. Julian did not persecute the Church directly, but he removed many of its privileges and issued several edicts that caused consternation. One reintroduced freedom of religion. Another, the Tolerance Edict permitted the return of all Christians exiled for their religious views. One can imagine the consternation this would cause to a church still rent by the Arian schism. Arianism (the belief that God the Father was superior to the Son) was a constant source of dissension in the eastern church. Although declared a heresy at Nicaea in 325CE, the Emperor Constantius was a follower. Jovian, who lasted even less time than Julian, restored Christinanity to its leading position, but his successor Valentinian, while Christian, was not really interested. The Emperor Valens also an Arian but had little chance to promote or persecute as he was preoccupied with revolts and at wars until his death at the critical (for western Europe) Battle of Adrianople in 378 CE. Arianism was dealt a death blow by Theodosius, who restored the power of the official church interpretation of the Nicaean Trinitarian doctrine. Of the two individuals involved in the creation of the Vulgate Bible, I shall begin with Pope Damasus, the older man. Born in about 305 CE, he was elected Bishop of Rome in 366 CE. At the time bishops were elected by popular vote and another cleric, Ursicinus, was elected by another group. This led to rioting and widespread bloodshed, until at last the Emperor Valentinian intervened to support Damasus. A range of prominent churchmen also supported Damasus, including Jerome, and a synod confirmed Damasus as the Bishop.1 Damasus lived until 384 CE, and those 18 years were turbulent for the Church as a whole, but particularly for the Church in the western Roman Empire. His disputed accession was not really settled by the banishment of Ursinicus, who continued to be a destabilising influence. In addition, there was a constant threat of schism. While Arianism was still mainly a problem in the east, Damasus had to deal with Appolinarism (which claimed Jesus had a divine mind in a human body)
1

Patrologia Latina XIII 83-107

and the Pneumatomachoi (who denied the deity of the Holy Spirit this could be seen as an offshoot of Arianism). Damasus held two synods to counter these heresies, but as is clear from his letter to Paulinus in 375CE, the rumblings continued. After the Council of Nica .... (c)ertain men ventured with profane mouths to say that the Holy Spirit is made through the Son. We therefore anathematize those who do not with all freedom preach that the Holy Spirit is of one and the same substance and power with the Father and the Son ... we anathematize them that follow the error of Sabellius and say that the Father and the Son are the same. We anathematize Arius and Eunomius ...... We anathematize the Macedonians 2.... We anathematize Photinus ....We anathematize them that maintain that there are two sons .... . We anathematize also all who maintain that the Word of God moved in human flesh instead of a reasonable soul .... We anathematize also them ...3 And so on. It is clear that the Bishop of Rome had his work cut out for him in keeping his flock on the straight and narrow. Damasus was rewarded for his efforts when on 27th February 380 CE, the Emperor Theodosius issued the edict de fide Catholica: It is our desire that all the various nations which are subject to our Clemency and Moderation, should continue to profess that religion which was delivered to the Romans by the divine Apostle Peter as it has been preserved by faithful tradition, and which is now professed by the Pontiff Damasus and by Peter, Bishop of Alexandria ....4 Damasus (and the position of Bishop of Rome) had been appointed as the arbiter of the true faith in the west. He died four years later, but not before he had started the process that led to Latin becoming the official language of the Church.

2 3

This is an alternate name for the Pneumatomachoi Fighters against the Spirit Letter from Damasus, Bishop of Rome to Paulinus NPNF2-03 Theoderet, Jerome, Gennadius et amp, Rufinus Historical Writings. Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers Series II, Vol 3 ed Schaff P http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf203
4

Codex Theodosianus, xvi.1.2

Jerome was born in Stridon, somewhere in Dalmatia/Pannonia, in abut 380CE. He moved to Rome for further education and had an enjoyable time before he saw the error of his ways. He went to Trier in Gaul where, he decided to become a monk before heading east, to Antioch. There he had his famous dream of being accused of being a Ciceronian rather than a Christian5. He gave up studying classical literature and concentrated on the Bible and religious works. A keen adherent of asceticism, he lived for some time in the desert, though he apparently kept his books, scribes and attendants (presumably for his religious work only). His knowledge of Hebrew apparently started about this time. I betook myself to a brother who before his conversion had been a Jew and asked his to teach me Hebrew. .... I began ... to study to pronounce words both harsh and guttural. What labour I spent on this task, what difficulties I went through, how often I despaired ... can be attested to by myself, the subject of this misery, and by those who then lived with me.6 (Jerome was apparently difficult to get along with even then). He then headed back west, via Constantinople. From 382 to 385 he was in Rome. It was there that he was asked by Damasus to undertake the translation (or revision) of the gospels. Having completed this, he turned to the Psalter, which contained many of the Psalms from the Septuagint. Leaving hastily when his enemies took advantage of the death of Damasus, his patron, he returned to the east, ending up at Bethlehem, where he stayed until his death in 420CE. During this period he started the massive task of translating the Septuagint from the original Hebrew into Latin. He had started a translation of the Septuagint from Greek but abandoned it as he felt it had been incorrectly translated and/or corrupted. He devoted much of his remaining life to this work, and to translating other Hebrew writings. Importantly, he set out what was canon and what should be set aside. In his Prologue to the Book of Kings, he states:
5 6

Jerome to Eustochium Letter XXII: http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206.v.XXII.html Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers Series II, Vol 6 Jerome Letters and Selected Works ed Schaff P and Wallace H Cosimo Classics New York 2007

This prologue to the Scriptures may be appropriate as a helmeted introduction to all the books which we turn from Hebrew into Latin, so we may be able to know whatever is outside of these is set aside among the apocrypha. Therefore, Wisdom, which is commonly ascribed to Solomon, and the book of Jesus son of Sirach, and Judith and Tobias, and The Shepherd are not in the canon.7 Prior to this he had listed the books of the Old Testament which he considered to be authoritative. In effect, with his translation of the New Testament and his decisions as to which books should be included inthe Old Testament, Jerome had defined the Christian Bible. And it was all in Latin. So we see that when Jerome arrived in Rome in 382CE he was just what Damasus was looking for. Two years before, Damasus had been given ultimate authority to determine what was orthodox. He was tough and after winning his See had not only sought to justify his election but had fought anything that smacked of heresy. A major problem was the availability of hundreds of Latin versions of the gospels and other religious books. A flood of Latin translations were arriving from Africa, where loss of Greek led to a proliferation of translations marked by rudeness and simplicity.8 Local versions were also available. As Bishop of Rome, Damasus heresy was not allowed to start, let alone flourish. The bulk of the population in Western Europe spoke Latin, and with the availability of literally hundreds of translations of the holy books in that language, who could tell what the laity were reading or hearing? The likelihood of heresy would be reduced with an authorised translation. At the same time, the position of Bishop of Rome would be enhanced with such a book: it would cement Rome as first among equals. At this point Jerome arrived: a scholar with extremely good Latin and Greek, a smattering of Hebrew and more importantly, the same orthodox views as Damasus. Not only that, but a man with whom Damasus had previous correspondence regarding questions of orthodoxy and interpretation and who had impressed him with his knowledge. Jerome was the perfect translator for
7

A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, second series, vol. 6, St. Jerome; Letters and Select Works (Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893) 8 Introduction: Grammar of the Vulgate Plater and White Oxford 1926

a Bishop who wanted an authoritative version that would bring not only theological accuracy but public admiration. There is no indication that he thought of posterity, but it must have been in his mind. After hundreds of years, the world was turning upside down. Since he was a young man, Demasus had been through a lot. He had seen Christianity enforced by Constantine and demeaned by Julian. The Alemanni had reached Italy and Valens had been killed at Adrianople. He was an intelligent man: he knew the future was uncertain and he wanted to ensure that his Bishopric and his orthodoxy were preserved to the best of his capacity. The translation job was not easy. Jerome said that apud Latinos tot sint exemplaria quot codices (in Italy there were nearly as many examples (translated versions) as there were manuscripts). But he persisted and completed the Gospels (as well as the Psalter, translated from the Septuagint) before Damasuss death. Jerome initially was just carrying out Damasus request, but it would appear from his subsequent actions and his letters that the translations were also dear to his own heart. While regretting the loss of Greek, he makes clear his objective is to bring the word of God to the people of the whole world, as shown in the preface to his commentary on St Pauls Letter to the Galatians, written about 387CE. But the whole world speaks the language of our Christian peasants and fishermen, the whole world re-echoes their words. And so their simple words must be set forth with simplicity of style; for the word simple applies to their words, not their meaning10 But a desire to spread the word was probably not all that drove Jerome. From his writings we get a picture of a man driven by his convictions and occasionally pride. He was extremely sensitive as to the estimation in which he was held by his contemporaries, and especially by the Bishops.11 It is
9 10

Praefatio in Iosue: The Latin Library http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/bible/prologi.shtml Prefaces to the Commentaries Galatians, Ephesians, Philemon, and Titus in NPNF, vol. 6 (New York,

1893), pp. 496-98

11

Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/wace/biodict.html

noticeable that while he speaks (above) of bringing the word to the people, he also mentions that: A version made for the use of the Church, even though it may possess a literary charm, ought to disguise and avoid it as far as possible; in order that it may not speak to the idle schools and few disciples of the philosophers, but may address itself rather to the entire human race.12 (emphasis added) This ties in with his lack of independent theological thought. His first letter to Damasus, written at least 5 years before they met, contains the lines: As I follow no leader save Christ, so I communicate with none but your blessedness, that is with the chair of Peter. He seeks orthodoxy and follows orthodox Bishops. It is evident that in these cases he is swayed not so much by the force of truth as by the authority of certain powerful Bishops and the wish to maintain his orthodox reputation.13 His antipathy to heresy was a result. In Against the Pelagians he wrote: Sinners and the wicked shall be burned up together, ..... And they who forsake God shall be consumed. This properly refers to heretics, who leave the straight path of the faith, and shall be consumed if they will not return to the Lord whom they have forsaken.14 So the man whom Damasus set translating was a proud, talented translator with a desire to maintain his orthodox reputation, a willingness to obey authority and a fervent desire to stamp out heresy. If his ascetic lifestyle is added, we get the sort of qualities that might drive a man to produce the correct Bible. It was not just the combination of a strong bishop and a willing worker. Events also played a part. Damasus lived just long enough to allow Jerome to complete the first (and easiest) part of task. Jerome was then forced to leave Rome and head east, ending up where he would have access to the greatest number of Hebrew texts: Jerusalem. While he had travelled alone, soon his

12
13

Jerome: Letter to Pammacius (XLIX) http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001049.htm NPNF2-06. Jerome: The Principal Works of St. Jerome: Prologemona P29 14 Ibid Treatises: Against the Pelagians Bk I.28 P728

female supporters, Paula and Eustochium, joined him from Rome. They provided the financial security he needed to carry out his self-appointed work. Jerome had also picked a part of the Empire that was safe and secure. After the death of Theodosius in 395CE, the Roman Empire was split forever into the West and the East. Battles with the Huns raged in the Balkans and to the horror of the civilised world, Alaric and his Goths sacked Rome in 410CE. The Sassanids had the good manners to refrain from going to war until the year after Jeromes death. As a result, the Vulgate (though it was to be centuries before it was given that name) was completed in relative peace. Despite the waves of invaders over the next hundred years, the Church survived though the state administration that had bound the vast territory collapsed. Although few churches would have possessed a full Bible, what they did have was more likely to be part of the Vulgate. What grew to be the Divine Office, performed every day by every church, included a large number of psalms, and these would use the psalter translated by Jerome. Eventually, as stability returned to Europe, the Carolingian Empire was born. Charlemagne, seeking to leave a lasting heritage, was convinced that education was essential. In 787AD he issued what is now known as The Charter of Modern Thought which contained the following instruction: .... et non solum servilis conditionis infantes, sed etiam ingenuorum filios adgregent sibique socient. Et ut scolae legentium puerorum fiant. Psalmos, notas, cantus, compotum, grammaticam per singular monasteria vel episcopia et libres catholicos bene emendate; quiasaepe, dum bene aliqui Deum rogare cupiunt, sed per inemendatos libros male rogant. Et pueros vestros non sinite eos vel legendo vol scribendo corrumpere; et si opus est euangelium, psalterium et missale scribere, perfectae aetatis homines scribant cum omni diligentia".15 ... and they should join and associate with not only the offspring of serfs, but also the sons of freemen. And schools should be set up to teach boys to read. Correct well the Psalms, the notes, the songs, the calendar, the grammar in each monastery or bishopric, and the Catholic books because often people wish to call upon God in a good manner, but through the use of incorrect books do
15

Admonitio Generalis: Capitularia Regum Francorum Edit. Borevius A Hannover 1883 http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k952388/f2.texte.swf

so badly. And do not allow your boys to corrupt them in reading or writing. If there is a need to write (copy?) the Gospel, Psalter and Missal, men of mature age should write them with all diligence. In other words, make sure you use good copies of the approved books: the Vulgate. Fix any errors that have crept in. When Alcuin of York was invited to Aachen to become, in practical terms, Minister for Education, he brought a pure copy of the Vulgate with him. As a result, a Standard Latin spread through much of Europe, forming the basis for both Ecclesiastical and Scholastic Latin. The Renaissance was born into an environment where its potential supporters spoke a common language. Would this have occurred without the Vulgate? The various Latin translations might have formed some sort of coherent whole, but it seems unlikely. Even if they did manage to coalesce, would such a body of work have been accepted over more than a small area without the imprimatur of the Bishop of Rome? The imprimatur granted only because of the Emperors approval of Damasus and his orthodoxy, which had also attracted Jerome. Without the combination of a ambitious Bishop who wanted the Gospels translated, a driven and skilled translator with access to funds who took it upon himself to translate almost the entire Bible, a series of events that placed both men in the right places at the right times, and a political and religious climate that encouraged them, there is a good chance that when Charlemagne looked for a bedrock for his education system, Latin would not have seemed an obvious choice. The local proto-French dialect may have seemed more suitable. Latin may have survived in some form in the Church, but without a unified form, it would probably have been overwhelmed region by region by vernaculars. Rome would have been, to paraphrase Jeromes translation .... gentem robustam, gentem antiquam, gentem cujus ignorabis linguam, nec intelliges quid loquatur.16 (... a powerful people, an ancient people, a people whose language you will not know, nor will you understand what is said.)

16

Jeremiah 5.15 Vulgate Bible

Bibliography Admonitio Generalis: Capitularia Regum Francorum Edit. Borevius A Hannover 1883 http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k952388/f2.texte.swf Blainey G: A Short History of Christianity Penguin 2011 Catholic Encyclopedia (1917) On-line edition http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/00001a.htm Codex Theodosanius XVI 1, 2 Magno-Nortier Paris 2002 Dictionary of Christian Biography and Literature to the End of the Sixth Century A.D., with an Account of the Principal Sects and Heresies. http://www.ccel.org/ccel/wace/biodict.html The History of the Popes: From the Foundation of the See to the Present Time Vol 1 Bower A London 1750 Jerome: Letter to Pammacius (XLIX) http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/3001049.htm Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers Series II, Vol 3 Theoderet, Jerome, Gennadius et amp, Rufinus Historical Writings. ed Schaff P and Wallace H Cosimo Classics New York 2007 Nicene and Post Nicene Fathers Series II, Vol 6 The Principal Works of St Jerome. ed Schaff P and Wallace H Cosimo Classics New York 2007
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Previt-Orton: The Shorter Cambridge Medieval History Vol 1 Cambridge University Press 1962 A Select Library of the Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers of the Christian Church, second series, vol. 6, St. Jerome; Letters and Select Works (Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1893 Wickham C: The Inheritance of Rome A History of Europe from 400 to 1000 Penguin 2009